If You Ain't Dutch, You Ain't Much: The Fluent Americanization of Dutch Immigrants in Western Michigan in the Second Half of the 19th-Century

ABSTRACT


The
Dutch
were
only
a
small
group
amongst
the
great
migration
from
Europe
to
the
New
 World.
 Yet
 they
 left
 a
 lasting
 imprint
 on
 some
 areas
 in
 the
 United
 States.
 While
 anti‐ immigrant
 sentiments
 surfaced
 before
 the
 Civil
 War
 the
 Dutch
 did
 not
 have
troubles
 with
 their
native‐born
neighbors
and
Americanized
gradually
and
without
significant
conflict.
In
 this
master
thesis
I
try
to
construct
a
story
of
life
in
the
Dutch
‘colony’
of
Holland,
Michigan
 and
the
Dutch
neighborhoods
in
nearby
‘American
town’,
Grand
Rapids.
What
elements
of
 American
soil
and
society
created
the
circumstances
for
such
an
unproblematic
immigration
 experience?
How
did
the
character
of
the
Dutch
immigrants
help
them
succeed
and
set
up
a
 mature
Dutch
American
society
in
Western
Michigan?

 
 Keywords:
Immigration,
Assimilation,
Americanization,
Dutch‐American,
Michigan,
Frontier,
 Frederick
Jackson
Turner,
Antebellum.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 


I
 would
 like
 to
 express
 my
 gratitude
 for
 the
 warm
 welcome
 and
 aid
 at
 the
 Van
 Raalte
 Institute/Joint
Archives
of
Holland
provided
to
me
by
Jacob
Nyenhuis,
Elton
Bruins,
Robert
 Swierenga,
 Donald
 Bruggink,
 Geoffrey
 Reynolds,
 Johannah
 Smith
 and
 Lori
 Trethewey.
 I
 would
 also
 like
 to
 thank
 Hans
 Krabbendam
 for
 his
 help
 at
 the
 Roosevelt
 Study
 Center
 in
 Middelburg
and
Hendrina
VanSpronsen
at
the
Heritage
Hall
at
Calvin
College,
Grand
Rapids,
 Michigan.


CONTENTS
 
 Introduction
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4
 
 CH
1
|
Immigration
and
the
early
days
on
the
West
Michigan
frontier
 
 
 8

 The
Frontier
Thesis
 
 
 9
 Religious
plurality
in
the
United
States
 
 
 15
 Michigan’s
attitude
towards
immigration
 
 
 17
 The
Dutch
frontier
life
in
America
 
 
 20
 Conclusion
 
 
 24
 
 CH
2
|
Coping
with
life
in
isolation
and
life
amongst
the
native‐born
 
 
 26
 The
Dutch
and
Old
Wing
Mission
 
 
 27
 Life
in
the
Dutch
colony
according
to
the
pioneers
and
Americans
 
 
 31
 The
Dutch
in
Grand
Rapids
 
 
 38
 American
thoughts
about
the
Dutch
 
 
 41
 Contradictory
views
of
the
perfect
Dutch
character
 
 
 44
 Conclusion
 
 
 48
 
 CH
3
|
The
nature
of
the
Dutch‐American
seeds

 
 
 
 
 51
 The
Dutch
Pilgrims
of
the
West
 
 
 52
 The
Dutch
Reformed
Church
in
America

 
 
 56
 Conclusion
 
 
 62
 
 CH
4
|
Important
issues
in
antebellum
American
politics
and
fraternal
societies

 64
 The
rise
of
nativism
and
the
response
to
the
Know
Nothings
by
the
Dutch
 
 64
 Civil
War
as
an
assimilating
factor
 
 
 68
 The
Civil
War
and
its
influence
on
the
Dutch
‘colonies’
 
 
 71
 The
Masonic
Controversy
 
 
 77
 Conclusion
 
 
 79
 
 Conclusion
 
 
 
 81
 
 Bibliography

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 84
 
 
 


INTRODUCTION


In
 the
 first
 part
 of
 the
 19th_{‐century
 the
 Netherlands
 was
 hit
 by
 a
 period
 of
 economic} downturn,
crop
failures
and
religious
oppression.
A
group
of
Dutch
Seceders
decided
to
act
 when
 they
 had
 the
 opportunity
 to
 establish
 their
 own
 community
 elsewhere
 in
 the
 New
 World.
 They
 were
 part
 of
 a
 much
 greater
 wave
 of
 immigration
 from
 other
 nations
 of
 Western
 Europe
 to
 the
 ever‐growing
 United
 States
 of
 America.
 They
 undertook
 the
 long
 Trans‐Atlantic
journey
to
find
a
place
on
the
frontier
of
the
American
West.
In
the
United
 States
 they
 could
 establish
 a
 safe
 haven
 as
 they
 struggled
 to
 retain
 their
 place
 in
 Dutch
 society
and
make
a
reasonable
living.
Although
not
the
first
Dutch
immigrants
in
the
United
 States,
a
group
of
families
under
the
leadership
of
reverend
Albertus
van
Raalte
were
the
 first
Dutch
to
pursue
the
journey
to
Western
Michigan
in
1846.
People
from
various
parts
of
 the
 Netherlands
 soon
 followed
 and
 migrated
 to
 the
 area
 well
 into
 the
 20th_{‐century.
 They} established
isolated
Dutch
colonies
and
Dutch
neighborhoods
in
American
towns.


Immigration
 to
 a
 new
 country
 meant
 the
 immigrants
 had
 to
 adjust
 to
 their
 new
 environment
 and
 face
 challenges
 that
 had
 to
 be
 overcome.
 Looking
 at
 the
 history
 of
 the
 Dutch
in
Western
Michigan
I
have
become
interested
in
the
way
the
area
and
its
inhabitants
 influenced
 the
 Dutch
 in
 their
 assimilation
 into
 American
 society.
 How
 were
 the
 Dutch
 received
by
the
native‐born
in
the
area?
Did
the
Dutch
arrive
under
unique
circumstances
 that
gave
them
an
advantage
in
gradual
assimilation?
What
specific
qualities
of
the
Dutch
 were
unique
that
influenced
their
Americanization?
Although
extensive
histories
have
been
 written
about
Dutch
19th_{‐century
immigration
to
the
United
States,
few
scholars
have
ever} wondered
what
factors
made
the
Dutch
succeed
in
their
Americanization.



Transplanting
 Dutch
 seeds
 to
 an
 unknown
 soil
 was
 adventurous,
 as
 the
 settlers
 didn’t
 know
 what
 circumstances
 they
 would
 encounter
 in
 Western
 Michigan.
 Coming
 from
 a
 continent
 that
 had
 been
 settled
 and
 civilized
 for
 centuries
 and
 moving
 to
 America,
 where
 land
in
the
West
was
abundant
and
people
were
scarce
presented
the
Dutch
with
unique
 conditions.
 The
 Dutch
 immigrants
 were
 part
 of
 the
 American
 nation
 building;
 Dingmans
 Versteeg
 even
 argues
 that
 they
 can
 be
 compared
 to
 the
 New
 England
 Pilgrims
 in
 the
 17th
 century.
 His
 book
 Pelgrim‐Vaders
 van
 het
 Westen
 is
 the
 first
 published
 history
 about
 the
 Dutch
immigration
in
1886.
Jacob
van
Hinte’s
1928
publication
Netherlanders
in
America
is
 more
 comprehensive
 with
 over
 a
 thousand
 pages
 of
 Dutch‐American
 history
 in
 which
 he
 also
describes
the
Old
Dutch
migration
and
all
settlements
with
a
Dutch
origin
in
the
United
 States.
Van
Hinte
thinks
the
Dutch
are
a
fine
breed
of
people
and
he
is
not
the
only
author
 who
 is
 jubilant
 about
 the
 Dutch
 character.
 Two
 decades
 later
 Albert
 Hyma
 gives
 another


description
of
the
Dutch
who
settled
in
Western
Michigan.
While
reading
his
book:
Albertus
 C.
Van
Raalte
and
His
Dutch
Settlements
in
the
United
States,
the
reader
gets
a
sense
that
 the
minister
and
his
followers
were
a
perfect
group
of
people,
who
led
a
humble
religious
 life.
According
to
the
letters
incorporated
in
the
book,
the
people
they
meet
on
their
journey
 to
the
east
coast
of
Lake
Michigan
welcome
them
with
open
arms.
Hyma’s
‘book
of
praise’
 paints
a
perfect
picture
of
the
pilgrim
father
(Van
Raalte),
his
community,
and
his
followers.
 Written
 for
 the
 centennial
 anniversary
 of
 the
 establishment
 of
 the
 Holland
 Colony,
 Hyma
 writes
a
one‐sided
story
about
the
Dutch
in
Western
Michigan.
Reading
this
book
made
me
 wonder
 if
 the
 relationship
 between
 the
 Dutch
 and
 the
 native‐born
 wasn’t
 more
 complex.
 The
 encounters
 between
 the
 Dutch
 and
 other
 (ethnic)
 groups
 are
 important
 to
 analyze
 because
the
relationship
between
people
of
different
cultural
origins
was
a
significant
factor
 in
the
assimilation
of
new
groups
in
American
society.




In
 search
 of
 a
 balanced
 story
 of
 the
 Dutch
 immigration
 and
 their
 Americanization
 I
 travelled
to
Holland,
Michigan,
to
search
for
conflict,
clash
of
cultures,
and
contempt.
Many
 hours
 in
 the
 archives
 of
 the
 Van
 Raalte
 Institute
 in
 Holland
 and
 Calvin
 College
 in
 Grand
 Rapids
 only
 provided
 me
 with
 a
 few
 primary
 sources
 that
 showcased
 ethnocentrism
 by
 either
 the
 native‐born
 Americans
 or
 the
 Dutch
 immigrants.
 This
 led
 me
 to
 conclude
 that
 Hyma’s
opinion
of
the
Dutch
was
closer
to
the
truth
than
I
expected.
Although
faced
with
 many
 hardships
 due
 to
 the
 physical
 environment,
 the
 immigration
 to
 America
 and
 the
 settlement
 of
 the
 Holland
 Colony
 proved
 to
 be
 relatively
 unproblematic.
 This
 unexpected
 outcome
led
me
to
a
different
but
related
question:
Why
was
the
assimilation
of
the
Dutch
 in
 Western
 Michigan
 in
 the
 antebellum
 years
 relatively
 unproblematic?
 Multiple
 factors
 were
responsible
for
the
gradual
assimilation
of
the
Dutch
in
American
society,
which
I
will
 discuss
in
the
following
three
chapters.



In
the
first
chapter
I
will
describe
life
under
frontier
conditions
in
the
early
years
of
the
 Dutch
 settlements
 in
 Western
 Michigan.
 Using
 primary
 sources
 I
 will
 depict
 what
 kind
 of
 relationship
 the
 Dutch
 had
 with
 their
 early
 American
 neighbors
 (native‐Americans
 and
 native‐born
Americans).
These
primary
sources
show
the
Dutch
stance
on
Americanization
 and
the
native‐born
perception
of
the
Dutch.
I
will
use
the
diary
of
an
unsettled
American
 who
lived
among
the
Dutch,
Hoyt
G.
Post,
who
gives
a
rather
negative
account
of
the
Dutch,
 to
describe
life
in
the
settlement.
Although
these
are
the
views
of
one
man,
his
depictions
 diverge
 from
 the
 description
 of
 the
 nature
 of
 the
 Dutch
 given
 by
 Albert
 Hyma
 and
 other
 historians
from
within
the
community.
I
will
also
use
sources
such
as
letters
that
the
Dutch
 of
Western
Michigan
sent
home,
newspaper
articles,
and
memoirs
from
notable
people
in


the
 history
 of
 Dutch
 settlement
 in
 America.
 These
 sources
 can
 paint
 a
 picture
 of
 the
 relationship
between
the
Dutch
and
the
native‐born
in
the
area
and
will
shed
light
on
the
 nature
of
frontier
settlement
and
the
need
for
cooperation.
 According
to
Frederick
Jackson
Turner
everyone
who
settled
on
the
frontier
lost
some
of
 his
or
her
Old
World
habits
adjusting
to
life
in
the
wilderness:
‘In
the
crucible
of
the
frontier
 the
immigrants
were
Americanized,
liberated,
and
fused
into
a
mixed
race,
English
in
neither
 nationality
nor
characteristics.’1
The
Dutch
didn’t
need
to
adjust
to
the
ways
of
the
native‐ born
to
become
American,
according
to
Turner:
‘A
new
society
made
up
of
all
inhabitants
of
 the
 area
 emerged
 from
 the
 contact
 with
 the
 backwoods.’2_{The
 people
 at
 the
 frontier} incorporate
the
values
and
ways
of
life
demanded
by
the
environment
in
which
they
settled,
 incorporating
ways
of
others,
without
losing
touch
with
their
origin,
or
in
Turner’s
words:


There
 is
 no
 tabula
 rasa.
 The
 stubborn
 American
 environment
 is
 there
 with
 its
 imperious
summons
to
accept
its
conditions;
the
inherited
ways
of
doing
things
 are
also
there;
and
yet,
in
spite
of
environment,
in
spite
of
custom,
each
frontier
 did
indeed
furnish
a
new
field
of
opportunity,
a
gate
of
escape
from
the
bondage
 of
past;
and
freshness,
and
confidence,
and
scorn
of
older
society...3

Using
 Frederick
 Jackson
 Turner’s
 Frontier
 Thesis
 as
 a
 starting
 point,
 I
 will
 discuss
 how
 the
 environment
 of
 the
 frontier
 created
 unique
 circumstances
 that
 aided
 the
 Dutch
 in
 their
 gradual
assimilation
in
chapter
two.
Although
his
theories
have
come
under
scrutiny
in
the
 middle
 of
 the
 20th_{‐century,
 they
 are
 still
 useful
 to
 describe
 settlement
 conditions
 in
 the} United
 States.
 The
 Frontier
 Thesis
 is
 useful
 to
 emphasize
 the
 influence
 of
 the
 soil
 on
 the
 Americanization
 of
 immigrants
 because
 those
 who
 settled
 on
 the
 frontier
 had
 different
 challenges
to
overcome
than
those
who
settled
in
mature
settlements
in
the
United
States.
 Although
 moving
 into
 a
 state
 that
 was
 already
 settled,
 the
 Dutch
 struggled
 with
 frontier
 conditions
locally
in
their
area
around
Lake
Macatawa.
I
will
examine
the
physical
and
social
 environment
in
which
the
Dutch
settled.



In
 chapter
 three
 I
 will
 discuss
 how
 the
 presence
 of
 an
 older
 generation
 of
 Dutch
 immigrants,
 who
 moved
 to
 the
 United
 States
 in
 the
 two
 centuries
 prior
 to
 Van
 Raalte’s


arrival,
was
a
major
factor
in
the
establishment
of
the
Holland
Colony
and
a
Dutch
cultural
 network
across
the
United
States.
I
will
also
explain
how
religious
similarities
and
the
historic
 bond
between
the
native‐born
and
the
Dutch
are
essential
for
their
smooth
assimilation
in
 Western
 Michigan.
 In
 chapter
 four
 it
 is
 all
 about
 the
 timing
 of
 the
 Dutch
 immigrants:
 The
 Dutch
Seceders
moved
to
Western
Michigan
in
times
when
the
native‐born
population
was
 increasingly
anti‐immigrant.
These
were
the
heydays
of
Nativism,
when
the
American
Party
 was
protecting
the
interests
of
the
hard‐working
American
who
was
afraid
that
his
country
 would
change
with
the
influx
of
vast
numbers
of
immigrants.
Irish
Catholics,
but
also
people
 who
wanted
to
retain
their
own
language
and
culture
such
as
Germans
were
looked
at
with
 contempt.
 The
 Nativists
 demanded
 action
 against
 these
 threats
 to
 American
 liberty
 and
 society.4_{With
 the
 increase
 of
 immigration
 and
 the
 negative
 response
 of
 part
 of
 the} population
 in
 antebellum
 America,
 there
 were
 enough
 ingredients
 that
 could
 make
 the
 assimilation
 into
 American
 society
 a
 difficult
 process.
 The
 response
 of
 the
 Dutch
 to
 the
 politics
of
the
American
Party
constantly
ignited
questions
of
Americanization.
The
Civil
War
 made
 the
 Dutch
 question
 loyalty
 to
 their
 new
 homeland
 and
 brought
 Dutch
 soldiers
 in
 contact
with
other
ethnic
groups
far
from
home.
Finally
the
Masonic
controversy
in
Holland
 caused
 the
 Dutch
 to
 discuss
 yet
 again
 the
 rate
 of
 Americanization.
 Yet
 the
 presence
 of
 multiple
Dutch
churches
gave
Dutch
settlers
with
different
opinions
a
group
to
belong
to
and
 united
them
culturally.

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 


CHAPTER
1
|
Immigration
and
the
early
days
on
the
West
Michigan
frontier


The
immigrants
not
only
had
to
adjust
to
different
types
of
soil,
to
differences
 in
 climate
 and
 day‐to‐day
 weather,
 and
 to
 learn
 how
 to
 deal
 with
 unfamiliar
 plants
and
animals;
they
were
also
to
some
degree
dependent
on
the
people
 among
whom,
next
to
whom,
they
came
to
live.5

Jacob
 van
 Hinte,
 originally
 a
 social
 geographer,
 devotes
 a
 whole
 chapter
 on
 the
 soil
 and
 climate
of
the
regions
where
the
Dutch
settled.
In
the
quote
above,
he
acknowledges
the
 effect
 of
 the
 people
 the
 Dutch
 came
 to
 live
 amongst
 and
 next
 to.
 His
 social
 geographic
 background
 inspires
 Van
 Hinte
 to
 talk
 about
 transplanting
 a
 culture
 or,
 metaphorically,
 transplanting
seeds.
The
metaphor
is
interesting
because
seeds
require
certain
ingredients
 to
grow.
The
character
of
the
seed
determines
what
its
needs
are
so
it
can
sprout,
grow,
and
 eventually
blossom.
The
soil
where
seeds
are
planted
is
essential
for
the
nature
and
quality
 of
the
crop.
Coming
from
Old
World
soil
and
transplanting
itself
to
New
World
soil
can
have
 profound
effects
on
the
way
the
crop
grows:
it
might
take
longer
to
flourish,
it
may
produce
 different
flowers,
or
the
crop
can
perish
because
circumstances
are
not
right.
Other
crops
 that
surround
newly
transplanted
seeds
can
also
have
a
correlating
effect
on
its
growth.

 The
ethnic
crops
in
Michigan
were
not
fully‐grown
when
the
Dutch
arrived;
they
had
shot
 root
 but
 needed
 more
 fertilizing
 to
 come
 to
 full
 fruition.
 The
 Dutch
 and
 American
 seeds
 engaged
 in
 a
 symbiotic
 relationship,
 eventually
 adjusting
 before
 crossbreeding
 into
 an
 American
 breed.
 In
 this
 first
 chapter
 I
 will
 discuss
 the
 soil
 in
 the
 area
 where
 the
 Dutch
 settled
in
the
United
States.
To
find
out
why
the
Dutch
immigration
to
Western
Michigan
 was
relatively
unproblematic
it
is
important
to
describe
the
state
of
America
Dutch
settlers
 moved
to
in
the
mid‐nineteenth
century.
In
order
to
plant
Dutch
seeds
in
a
foreign
land
it
is
 significant
to
judge
the
quality
of
the
soil,
as
it
determines
how
the
transplanted
seeds
grow
 and
how
they
are
cultivated.
What
aspects
of
the
natural
and
social
environment
affected
 the
Dutch
seeds
in
Western
Michigan?
I
will
start
by
describing
the
environment
in
which
 the
 Dutch
 settled,
 explain
 why
 it
 is
 still
 the
 frontier,
 and
 what
 this
 meant
 for
 the
 Dutch
 arrivals.
 I
 will
 continue
 to
 explain
 how
 the
 frontier
 affected
 the
 Americanization
 of
 the
 Dutch.
 The
 influence
 of
 the
 soil
 cannot
 be
 described
 without
 using
 Frederick
 Jackson
 Turner’s
Frontier
Thesis.
He
was
the
first
historian
to
acknowledge
the
importance
of
the
soil


5_{Jacob
van
Hinte,
Netherlanders
in
America:
A
Study
of
Emigration
and
Settlement
in
the
19}th_and
20th_Centuries in
the
United
States
of
America,
ed.
Robert
P.
Swierenga,
trans.
Adriaan
de
Wit
(Grand
Rapids:
Baker
Book
House,


for
the
creation
of
the
American
character
and
the
importance
of
the
environment
for
the
 assimilation
 process
 of
 immigrants
 into
 American
 society.
 Although
 criticized
 because
 his
 essay
was
seen
as
monocausal,
it
is
still
an
essential
piece
in
American
historical
writing.

 


The
Frontier
Thesis


After
 Frederick
 Jackson
 Turner
 presented
 his
 Frontier
 Thesis
 in
 1893
 at
 the
 American
 Historical
 Association
 in
 Chicago,
 modern
 historians
 often
 discredited
 his
 work
 as
 overly
 romantic
and
inaccurate
and
lacking
evidence.
I
will
still
use
the
Frontier
Thesis
to
explain
 the
importance
of
the
frontier
stage
of
Michigan
for
the
settlement
of
the
Dutch.
Although
I
 will
highlight
the
flaws
of
the
Frontier
Thesis,
I
will
not
concern
myself
with
the
elements
of
 the
 theory
 that
 have
 come
 under
 scrutiny
 and
 approach
 it
 in
 a
 meta‐way.
 Turner’s
 description
of
frontier
characteristics
is
not
debated
and
these
are
the
features
that
were
 important
for
the
Dutch
Americanization
process.
Although
often
seen
as
romantic,
Turner’s
 description
of
the
frontier
is
perfect
to
explain
the
unique
nature
of
the
soil
in
the
United
 States.
I
believe
his
romantic
description
suits
the
romantic
ideas
people
in
the
Old
World
 had
about
life
in
the
United
States,
although
they
would
soon
realize
what
hardships
they
 had
 to
 go
 through.
 Migration
 to
 a
 new
 uncultivated
 continent
 presented
 immigrants
 with
 unique
opportunities
and
the
availability
of
land
in
the
American
West
was
unprecedented.

 The
 frontier
 was
 not
 only
 significant
 in
 American
 history
 it
 was
 also
 significant
 for
 the
 Americanization
of
the
Dutch.


The
criticism
concerning
the
Frontier
Thesis
usually
revolves
around
Turner’s
statements
 that
democracy
originated
in
the
American
West
and
that
these
democratic
practices
were
 later
 adopted
 in
 the
 older
 parts
 of
 the
 American
 continent.
 One
 of
 Turner’s
 critics,
 Earl
 Pomeroy,
claims
that
Westerners
were
better
imitators
than
innovators.
They
didn’t
want
to
 lose
 Eastern
 ways
 and
 established
 communities
 with
 democratic
 practices,
 as
 they
 knew
 them
in
the
older
states.
He
also
denies
the
individualistic
nature
of
the
frontiersmen
as
the
 frontier
called
for
collective
exploitation.6_{The
fact
that
American
democracy
was
unique
is} not
debated
but
critics
point
to
the
older
states
in
the
East
and
groups
such
as
the
Levellers
 in
England
as
the
origin
of
American
democracy.
Wherever
its
origins
lie,
it
can’t
be
denied
 that
American
democracy
was
a
new
phenomenon
for
the
Dutch
because
in
the
Netherlands
 the
 power
 still
 lay
 with
 the
 aristocracy
 and
 the
 king.
 Democracy
 in
 the
 American
 West
 is
 considered
 unique
 because
 newly
 established
 communities
 demanded
 more
 political


6_{Mody
C.
Boatright,
‘The
myth
of
frontier
individualism’
in
Turner
and
the
Sociology
of
the
frontier
by
Richard} Hofstadter
and
Seymour
M.
Lipset.
(New
York:
Basic
Books,
1968),
82‐85.


participation
from
residents.7_{For
the
Dutch
this
meant
they
had
a
say
in
affairs
they
didn’t} have
in
the
Netherlands:
because
of
religious
oppression
the
Seceders
did
not
have
a
voice
 in
Dutch
political
affairs.8

In
 the
 Holland
 colony
 political
 engagement
 is
 evident
 by
 the
 decision
 making
 process
 early
 after
 settlement.
 Prior
 to
 immigration
 the
 colonists
 reached
 a
 ‘fundamental
 agreement’
 that
 guaranteed
 them
 equal
 rights
 and
 the
 opportunity
 to
 take
 part
 in
 the
 governance
of
the
colony.9
While
the
surrounding
counties
had
been
settled
a
decade
earlier
 and
set
up
government,
the
area
in
which
the
Dutch
settled
was
still
uncultivated
with
no
 government
supervision.
In
the
Holland
colony
the
people
gathered
once
a
week
to
make
 decisions
 on
 various
 items
 on
 the
 agenda.
 The
 power
 of
 the
 majority
 was
 decisive
 but
 at
 these
 local
 democratic
 meetings
 settlers
 tried
 to
 reach
 unanimous
 decisions.10_They determined
where
public
buildings
should
be
built,
who
would
go
to
nearby
towns
to
buy
 goods,
how
business
ventures
were
established
and
with
which
towns
the
colony
should
be
 connected.
 Community
 contributions
 were
 asked
 in
 the
 form
 of
 money,
 labor,
 or
 goods,
 whatever
people
could
contribute
to
the
community
efforts.11_{Hans
Krabbendam
claims
in}

Freedom
 on
 the
 Horizon
 that
 these
 Volksvergaderingen
 and
 the
 collective
 effort
 to
 gather


funds
trained
the
Dutch
for
participatory
democracy.12

A
controversial
argument
by
Turner
is
that
the
frontier
was
considered
a
safety
valve
for
 the
Eastern
population
who,
when
not
successful
in
the
coastal
area,
could
always
move
to
 the
frontier
to
start
a
new
venture
and
establish
themselves
on
free
or
cheap
land.
One
of
 Turner’s
 leading
 critics,
 Carl
 Degler,
 says
 the
 West
 is
 not
 a
 safety
 valve,
 since
 it
 was
 too
 expensive
to
move
West
for
the
poorest
class;
therefore
the
eastern
cities
were
filled
with
 paupers.13_{It
was
a
safety
valve
for
all
but
the
poorest
immigrants
since
they
could
seek
the} opportunity
 to
 find
 better
 economic
 and
 political
 circumstances.
 Degler
 writes
 about
 the
 frontier:
‘It
left
its
mark
in
the
optimism,
the
belief
in
progress,
the
promise
of
the
future
 and
 the
 second
 chance
 ‐
 all
 of
 which
 have
 been
 deeply
 embedded
 in
 the
 American


character.’14_{The
possibility
for
Europeans
to
leave
the
hardship
in
Europe
behind,
settling} on
 the
 frontier
 with
 the
 abundant
 ‘free’
 land
 without
 the
 burdens
 of
 taxation,
 social
 hierarchy
and
religious
oppression
was
a
unique
opportunity
not
available
in
the
Old
World.
 The
 primary
 motive
 of
 settlement
 in
 the
 United
 States
 by
 Van
 Raalte
 was
 to
 establish
 a
 colony
 and
 encourage
 people
 from
 the
 Netherlands
 who
 didn’t
 have
 a
 future
 in
 the
 fatherland
to
immigrate
to
America:
thus
Holland
and
its
nearby
colonies
can
be
considered
 a
 safety
 valve
 for
 the
 Dutch.
 The
 American
 frontier
 granted
 the
 Dutch
 settler
 the
 opportunity
to
settle
and
shape
his
own
society.
Despite
the
criticism
it
received,
Turner’s
 Frontier
 Thesis
 still
 offers
 an
 important
 element
 we
 can
 use
 to
 discuss
 why
 the
 Dutch
 assimilation
 was
 a
 long
 but
 relatively
 smooth
 process.
 When
 Turner
 speaks
 of
 the
 people
 throwing
off
the
garments
of
civilization
on
the
frontier,
I
believe
this
is
partially
true,
but
 highly
 exaggerated
 by
 Turner.
 Carl
 Degler
 agrees,
 as
 he
 states
 that
 Turner’s
 focus
 on
 environment
 ignores
 cultural
 elements.15_{I
 believe
 the
 Yankees’
 cultural
 background
 is} essential
for
their
relationship
with
the
Dutch.
The
presence
of
Yankee
culture
is
part
of
the
 social
environment
of
the
frontier.
I
will
discuss
the
similarities
between
Dutch
and
native‐ born
culture
in
chapter
three.


Neo‐Turnerian
Ray
Allen
Billington
says:
The
men
who
moved
west
came
from
crowded
 compact
 societies
 where
 land
 was
 scarce.
 They
 moved
 into
 an
 area
 where
 land
 was
 abundant.
The
old
ways
of
life
couldn’t
be
applied
in
these
unpopulated
areas
so
change
and
 innovation
were
needed.16_{Although
the
Dutch
wanted
to
establish
an
isolated
community} they
 were
 forced
 to
 send
 their
 sons
 and
 daughters
 to
 work
 for
 Americans
 to
 generate
 income
 because
 they
 couldn’t
 sustain
 themselves
 in
 the
 forest.
 Billington
 explains
 that
 environment
has
an
important
role
in
shaping
our
behavior.
He
divides
environment
into
a
 physical
and
a
social
environment.
I
will
look
at
both
but
I
am
mostly
interested
in
the
social
 environment:
 how
 the
 Dutch
 interacted
 with
 other
 ethnic
 groups
 in
 the
 area.
 He
 believes
 culture
(meaning
the
shared
knowledge,
beliefs,
customs,
and
habits)
was
acquired
by
living
 together
 for
 generations.17_{The
 different
 environment
 of
 the
 frontier
 disturbed
 the
 social} cohesion
 of
 Old
 World
 settlers.
 Their
 culture
 changes
 under
 the
 influence
 of
 the
 environment
and
the
people
around
them.
This
change
occurs
rapidly
after
arrival
as
they
 adjust
to
their
new
surroundings
and
organize
themselves.



The
Dutch
were
well
aware
of
the
impact
of
the
physical
environment
and
settled
in
the
 area
 with
 the
 greatest
 chance
 of
 success.
 The
 difference
 of
 opinion
 about
 the
 area
 of
 settlement
 between
 Van
 Raalte
 and
 Scholte
 proves
 that.
 As
 I
 will
 describe
 later
 in
 this
 chapter,
Scholte
chose
the
Plains
since
the
Dutch
were
more
acquainted
with
this
type
of
 soil.
He
thought
the
forested
area
of
Michigan
was
not
suitable
for
the
Dutchman.
Yet
more
 funds
were
needed
to
settle
on
the
plains
since
there
weren’t
any
commodities
to
sell.18_The choice
to
settle
on
virgin
lands
gave
the
Dutch
a
chance
to
determine
how
fast
they
wanted
 to
Americanize;
they
were
probably
able
to
preserve
their
culture
longer
than
they
would
be
 able
to
on
the
eastern
shore,
an
area
that
had
been
cultivated
since
the
arrival
of
the
first
 colonists.
Dutch
religious
leaders
were
afraid
the
Dutch
would
scatter
amongst
other
ethnic
 groups
and
lose
their
cultural
and
more
importantly,
their
religious
heritage.
 According
to
Jacob
van
Hinte
in
Netherlanders
in
America
the
importance
of
the
soil
for
 the
 erection
 of
 a
 successful
 settlement
 is
 evident
 in
 the
 failure
 of
 the
 many
 failed
 Dutch
 efforts
 to
 establish
 colonies
 farther
 West.
 ‘Americanized’
 Dutch
 set
 up
 successful
 enterprises.
They
learned
frontier
traits
in
the
Midwest
and
were
acquainted
with
American
 business
practices.
Immigrants
who
came
directly
from
the
Netherlands
failed
because
they
 paid
too
much
for
land,
settled
on
land
unsuitable
for
the
prospected
purpose,
or
the
people
 who
 settled
 there
 were
 not
 of
 the
 right
 class.
 Often
 they
 didn’t
 consider
 the
 high
 transportation
 costs
 to
 move
 their
 goods
 east
 because
 the
 railroad
 companies
 charged
 exorbitant
 prices.19_{The
 Dutch
 of
 Western
 Michigan
 had
 the
 alternative
 of
 using
 the} waterways
and
moving
their
goods
to
sell
in
nearby
towns
or
Lake
Michigan
to
trade
with
 Chicago.




I
 believe
 both
 the
 natural
 and,
 more
 importantly,
 the
 social
 environment
 the
 Dutch
 settled
in
had
a
profound
effect
on
their
immigration
experience.
The
important
feature
of
 the
 frontier
 was
 that
 both
 foreign‐born
 and
 native‐born
 were
 migrants.
 They
 started
 new
 life
 under
 the
 same
 conditions.
 These
 equal
 opportunities
 for
 the
 Dutch
 who
 settled
 in
 Western
Michigan
had
a
different
effect
on
their
immigration
experience
than
if
they
would
 have
settled
in
a
mature
American
civilization,
this
way
the
Frontier
Thesis
is
still
useful.
I
 believe
 the
 environment
 and
 timing
 of
 Dutch
 settlement
 presented
 Dutch
 settlers
 with
 unique
conditions
to
set
up
a
successful
settlement
and
gave
them
a
chance
to
assimilate
at
 their
desired
pace.
By
settling
an
area
under
frontier
conditions
the
Dutch
Seceders
engaged
 in
 an
 Americanizing
 experience.
 They
 experienced
 the
 same
 hardship
 as
 the
 Yankees
 of


18_{Anne
Kremer
Keppel,
The
Immigration
and
Early
History
of
the
People
of
Zeeland,
Ottawa
County,
Michigan
in}

1847
(Zeeland:
Zeeland
Record
Press,
1925),
28.


Western
Michigan
a
decade
earlier.
The
achievement
of
creating
a
society
formally
unknown
 to
 the
 Dutch,
 where
 all
 men
 are
 equal
 and
 the
 common
 man
 is
 celebrated
 equals
 that
 of
 their
American
neighbors.
Turner
failed
to
mention
the
significance
of
cultural
heritage
and
 religion
in
the
lives
of
the
forest
pioneers.
I
believe
these
are
essential
factors
in
the
process
 of
Americanization
of
immigrants
in
the
West
and
I
will
discuss
them
in
chapter
three.



When
Holland
was
organized
as
a
township,
the
first
political
positions
were
filled
by
the
 native‐born
 during
 the
 early
 years
 of
 the
 colony.
 A
 Dutch
 colony
 governed
 by
 Americans
 shows
cooperation
by
the
Dutch
with
the
native‐born.
The
Dutch
subjected
themselves
to
 the
American
government
and
adopted
democratic
ideals.
They
shook
off
the
class
society
 of
 Europe
 in
 which
 they
 had
 no
 chance
 of
 progressing
 in
 life
 because
 of
 the
 burden
 of
 taxation
 and
 their
 position
 in
 society.
 Although
 the
 Americans
 were
 officially
 in
 charge,
 Dutch
church
leaders
had
a
large
influence
on
how
the
colonies
were
run.
Participation
in
 government
was
new
and
the
Dutch
had
the
feeling
they
were
in
control
of
their
destiny.
A
 Dutch
teacher
from
Ohio
writes
to
Van
Raalte
and
Brummelkamp
prior
to
their
journey
that
 every
person
in
government
is
chosen
by
people
who
have
been
in
the
country
for
five
years
 and
have
some
sort
of
property.
There
are
no
aristocrats
and
in
a
way
there
is
freedom
and
 equality.20 Unlike
poorer
immigrants
from
other
nations,
the
Dutch
didn’t
settle
in
an
area
with
a
 mature
 civilization
 in
 which
 there
 was
 a
 balanced
 society,
 established
 institutions
 and
 infrastructure.
They
settled
in
a
world
completely
unknown
to
them.
The
area
of
settlement
 and
its
inhabitants
have
a
significant
effect
on
Americanization
because
they
determine
how
 the
 Dutch
 had
 to
 adjust
 to
 new
 circumstances.
 Frederick
 Jackson
 Turner
 was
 the
 first
 historian
 to
 acknowledge
 the
 importance
 of
 the
 soil
 for
 the
 creation
 of
 the
 American
 character
 and
 the
 importance
 of
 the
 environment
 for
 the
 assimilation
 of
 immigrants
 into
 American
 society.
 Turner
 explains
 how
 he
 believes
 scholars
 have
 neglected
 the
 American
 environment,
 as
 they
 merely
 look
 at
 the
 European
 nature
 of
 the
 people
 to
 explain
 the
 principle
origins
of
American
culture
and
identity.21_{Created
by
a
historian
from
the
West
his} thesis
 is
 a
 response
 to
 the
 ‘germ
 theorists’
 from
 the
 East
 who
 thought
 the
 roots
 of
 democracy
 lay
 in
 prehistoric
 Germany
 and
 were
 transplanted
 by
 way
 of
 England
 to
 New
 England.
 These
 Eastern
 historians
 thought
 the
 foundation
 of
 the
 American
 character
 was


purely
Anglo‐Saxon
and
came
from
America’s
Puritan
and
Chesapeake
origins.
The
fact
that
 the
 European
 immigrants
 learned
 their
 trades
 and
 cultural
 values
 in
 the
 Old
 World
 didn’t
 mean
 they
 could
 be
 applied
 to
 the
 new
 nation
 of
 settlement
 and
 establish
 a
 successful
 community.
Turner
claims
European
farmers
turned
into
American
democrats
because
they
 had
to
live
under
Western
frontier
conditions.22_{His
main
idea
is
that
the
effects
of
life
at
the} frontier
 contributed
 more
 to
 the
 American
 character
 than
 the
 European
 heritage
 of
 the
 American
people.23
Only
on
the
frontier
do
people
become
Americans:
‘In
the
crucible
of
the
 frontier
the
immigrants
were
Americanized,
liberated,
and
fused
into
mixed
race.’24

Immigration
to
the
frontier
had
a
significant
effect
on
the
nature
of
the
settlement
of
the
 Dutch
 and
 altered
 their
 religious
 and
 cultural
 practices.
 The
 people
 who
 settled
 on
 the
 frontier
were
both
native‐born
Americans
from
the
East
and
immigrants
who
came
directly
 from
Europe.
Turner
claims
that
the
pioneers
in
the
forest
were
less
rigorous
in
their
Puritan
 ideals,
 more
 approachable,
 more
 adaptable,
 more
 men
 of
 action.
 The
 area
 where
 they
 settled
to
start
a
new
life
was
still
a
wilderness;
only
Indian
traders
and
trappers
roamed
the
 area
before
them.
Both
immigrants
and
Yankees
needed
to
cooperate
in
order
to
succeed
in
 their
ventures.
This
is
also
evident
when
we
look
at
the
early
experiences
of
the
Dutch
in
 Western
Michigan,
which
I
will
describe
in
the
next
chapter.
What
bonded
the
immigrants
 and
 the
 Americans
 who
 came
 from
 the
 East
 were
 the
 ideals
 of
 the
 frontier:
 equality
 and
 exaltation
of
the
common
man.25_{The
fact
that
the
native‐born
Americans
changed
at
the} frontier
with
less
rigorous
Yankee
ideals
and
the
immigrants
who
also
had
to
adjust
to
their
 new
 surroundings
 meant
 they
 started
 on
 a
 more
 equal
 footing.
 Both
 native‐born
 and
 foreign‐born
 were
 in
 the
 same
 situation
 and
 their
 ethnic
 background
 was
 less
 important
 than
in
cultivated
areas.


Frederick
Jackson
Turner
claims
the
West
isn’t
a
physical
location;
it
is
merely
a
stage
in
 developmental
 history.26_{The
 West
 was
 once
 located
 on
 the
 East
 Coast
 and
 it
 eventually} reached
the
Pacific
Ocean.
The
West
moved
farther
west
during
the
western
expansion
in
 order
 to
 complete
 the
 ‘Manifest
 Destiny’
 of
 the
 United
 States.
 Turner
 gives
 some
 characteristics
of
the
frontier
stage
of
settlement.
At
the
first
stage
of
frontier
settlement
 there
are
pioneers
who
live
off
the
wilderness
and
grow
a
small
number
of
crops
for
their


own
use.
The
pioneer
is
a
visitor
who
builds
a
log
cabin
and
moves
on
to
more
virgin
land
 farther
West
when
the
area
gets
too
crowded
with
other
settlers.27_{In
1846
when
Albertus} van
Raalte
arrived
in
Michigan
it
was
evident
that
the
Dutch
settled
in
an
area
where
the
soil
 still
had
frontier
characteristics,
although
the
surrounding
towns
had
already
developed.
The
 first
Dutch
who
inhabited
the
area
can
be
seen
as
pioneers.
Although
the
same
qualities
of
 the
frontier
attracted
them
(cheap
land,
equality,
opportunities
for
the
common
man),
they
 had
a
different
incentive
in
settling
on
the
frontier
than
most
Yankees.
Van
Raalte
and
his
 followers
 felt
 that
 their
 position
 in
 society
 and
 religious
 circumstances
 forced
 them
 to
 undertake
the
journey
to
the
United
States.
There
they
would
build
a
community
in
which
 they
could
prosper,
in
which
they
could
earn
their
daily
bread
and
live
a
pietistic
religious
life
 in
peace
without
outside
interference.
The
community
would
be
a
safe
haven
for
all
Dutch
 who
had
the
same
desire.28_{They
turned
the
wild
forest
into
an
ordered
civilization
in
order} to
create
a
community
where
their
fellow
Dutchmen
would
have
a
place
to
start
a
new
life
 according
to
their
religious
principles.
The
Dutch
were
involved
in
every
stage
of
frontier
life
 as
they
were
pioneers
but
also
stayed
to
witness
larger
groups
of
people
settle
the
area.
The
 log
cabin
represents
only
a
temporary
stage
in
the
development
of
the
frontier;
the
pioneer
 tries
to
build
a
civilization
he
is
familiar
with
as
soon
as
possible.
According
to
Van
Hinte
this
 is
a
city
based
on
life
in
New
England
for
the
native‐born,
for
the
Native‐American
a
village
 away
 from
 civilization,
 and
 for
 the
 Dutch
 a
 community
 that
 is
 similar
 to
 the
 one
 in
 their
 homeland.
 Van
 Raalte
 was
 specifically
 looking
 for
 a
 region
 where
 he
 could
 establish
 the
 Dutch
 colony
 without
 much
 interference
 from
 outside
 influences.29_{He
 found
 life
 on
 the} frontier
 suitable
 for
 this
 purpose
 as
 settlers
 could
 live
 in
 isolation
 and
 establish
 rules
 and
 laws
that
matched
their
religious
doctrines.


Religious
plurality
in
the
United
States


The
 impact
 of
 migration
 on
 people
 is
 always
 great,
 as
 they
 have
 to
 adapt
 to
 new
 circumstances
and
in
time
assimilate
into
the
new
society.
Like
Frederick
Jackson
Turner,
I
 look
at
the
importance
of
the
soil
instead
of
merely
the
nature
of
the
seeds
as
the
so‐called
 ‘germ
 theorists’
 do.30_{Migration
 to
 the
 United
 States
 in
 the
 antebellum
 presented
 the} immigrants
 with
 unique
 circumstances
 in
 which
 they
 had
 to
 settle
 themselves.
 Frederick
 Jackson
 Turner
 fails
 to
 pay
 attention
 to
 religious
 circumstances
 on
 the
 frontier.
 The


27_{Turner,
The
Significance
of
the
frontier
in
American
History,
19.} 28_{Brummelkamp
and
Van
Raalte,
Landverhuizing,
3.}

29_{Van
Hinte,
Netherlanders
in
America,
193.}

constitutional
 right
 of
 religious
 freedom
 is
 an
 essential
 element
 of
 the
 soil
 for
 the
 Dutch
 immigrants.
The
United
States
had
a
social
environment
with
no
established
church
and
a
 secular
 government;
 these
 were
 good
 circumstances
 for
 religious
 immigrants
 who
 fled
 persecution
at
home.
As
long
as
they
didn’t
bother
others,
people
were
able
to
found
their
 own
religious
sects
and
they
could
worship
in
the
manner
they
preferred.
Crèvecoeur
also
 acknowledges
this
in
Letters
from
an
American
Farmer:
‘When
any
considerable
number
of
a
 particular
[religious]
sect
happen
to
dwell
contiguous
to
each
other,
they
immediately
erect
 a
temple
and
there
worship
the
Divinity
agreeable
to
their
own
ideas.’31 As
mentioned
in
the
introduction
one
of
the
main
motives
for
the
Dutch
immigration
to
 the
United
States
was
religious
oppression.
The
opportunity
to
worship
in
peace
without
the
 threat
of
government
interference
and
the
scorn
of
others
who
worshipped
the
established
 church
lured
Van
Raalte
and
company
to
the
United
States.
In
1846
Van
Raalte
and
Anthony
 Brummelkamp
published
a
pamphlet
in
which
they
explain
why
they
promote
immigration
 to
the
United
States.
Although
they
write
that
they
love
their
fatherland,
they
claim
there
 are
 enough
 grounds
 to
 seek
 a
 new
 home
 elsewhere
 because
 of
 economic
 and
 religious
 circumstances.
They
hope
their
‘Christian
friends’
can
find
a
place
in
America
where
they
can
 worship
 God
 in
 silence
 and
 work
 hard
 to
 earn
 their
 daily
 bread.32_{They
 wish
 their
 people} could
live
a
religious
life
without
persecution
when
they
worship
in
their
homes
or
preach
 for
 groups
 of
 twenty
 people
 or
 more.33_{They
 compare
 the
 Netherlands
 with
 Sodom,
 a} biblical
city
destroyed
by
God
because
it
was
filled
with
sin.
They
don’t
deny
the
good
in
the
 fatherland
but
the
sad
condition
of
church
and
state
and
the
dark
future
of
the
nation
force
 them
to
leave.34_{The
numerous
references
to
the
bible
make
it
seem
that
they
see
it
as
their} calling
from
God
to
lead
the
immigration
and
provide
a
safe
route
for
people
who
desire
to
 seek
better
living
conditions.
 Crèvecoeur
writes
that
in
his
days
people
would
intermingle
and
intermarry
leaving
their
 children
 with
 a
 less
 than
 perfect
 religious
 education:
 ‘All
 sects
 are
 mixed,
 as
 well
 as
 all
 nations;
 thus
 religious
 indifference
 in
 imperceptibly
 disseminated
 from
 one
 end
 of
 the
 continent
to
the
other.35_{Crèvecoeur
was
pessimistic
about
the
religious
persistence
of
the} various
 sects:
 eventually
 diversity
 would
 disappear.
 The
 19th‐century
 wave
 of
 Dutch


immigration
shows
a
different
image
.
As
they
settled
in
the
isolated
area
of
Lake
Macatawa
 they
were
able
to
establish
a
colony
where
a
religious
life
in
line
with
the
Synod
of
Dordt
 was
dominant;
more
pure
and
conservative
than
the
Hervormde
Kerk
they
seceded
from
in
 the
 Netherlands.
 The
 wave
 of
 Dutch
 immigration
 in
 the
 19th_{century
 was
 led
 by
 religious} leaders
who
set
up
a
strong
religious
network.
The
church
was
the
first
public
building
to
 arise
 in
 all
 the
 colonies
 and
 was
 the
 center
 of
 the
 community.
 The
 difference
 with
 other
 ethnic
 groups
 who
 set
 up
 their
 own
 churches
 and
 congregations
 was
 that
 the
 Dutch
 connected
their
church
to
an
existing
network
of
Reformed
Churches
in
America
(RCA).
The
 Old
 Dutch
 migrated
 to
 colonial
 America
 and
 established
 the
 Reformed
 Church
 in
 America
 when
New
York
was
under
Dutch
rule
and
was
called
New
Amsterdam.36_{The
Old
Dutch
still} lived
a
religious
life
according
to
the
synods
of
Dordt
that
the
Dutch
Seceders
valued
as
well,
 although
the
RCA
had
Americanized
over
the
centuries.37_{The
differences
between
the
Old} Dutch
 of
 the
 RCA
 and
 the
 new
 Dutch
 immigrants
 led
 to
 two
 secessions
 during
 the
 nineteenth
century.
These
secessions
were
important
moments
in
the
assimilation
struggle
 of
the
Dutch
which
I
will
discuss
in
the
final
chapter.


Michigan’s
attitude
towards
immigration


The
 Dutch
 wave
 of
 immigration
 was
 part
 of
 a
 much
 larger
 movement
 of
 people
 from
 Western
Europe
to
the
United
States.
‘The
Great
Trek’
originated
after
the
Napoleonic
Wars
 that
left
Europe
in
ruins;
while
the
aristocracy
gradually
rose
to
power
again,
many
people
 saw
the
United
States
as
the
land
of
opportunity.
The
United
States
looked
to
expand
to
the
 West
 and
 many
 travelogues
 by
 settlers
 who
 moved
 westwards
 were
 published
 in
 Europe
 shaping
an
American
Dream.38_{In
the
Netherlands,
starting
in
1815,
there
was
an
immense} move
 of
 foreign
 immigrants
 towards
 the
 port
 cities
 of
 Rotterdam
 and
 Amsterdam.
 The
 encounters
 with
 mostly
 German
 immigrants
 inspired
 some
 Dutch
 to
 seek
 opportunities
 in
 the
New
World.
The
migration
to
the
United
States
reached
its
climax
in
the
year
1854
when
 more
 than
 400.000
 immigrants
 arrived
 on
 the
 continent.39_{93%
 of
 these
 immigrants
 were} British,
Irish
or
German;
the
Dutch
were
only
a
small
group
among
them.40

Frederick
Jackson
Turner
himself
explains
how
the
increased
use
of
steamboat
and
the
 opening
 of
 the
 Erie
 Canal
 created
 a
 highway
 for
 new
 migration
 as
 it
 made
 Great
 Lake
 navigation
possible.
This
changed
the
composition
of
the
Midwest
between
1830
and
1850
 as
Yankees
from
the
state
of
New
York
and
New
England
moved
West.41_{The
Dutch
followed} and
the
dominance
of
the
Puritan
stock
was
established
in
Michigan
and
surrounding
states.
 In
Michigan,
like
any
other
frontier
state,
immigrants
were
welcomed
so
they
could
buy
land
 in
order
to
provide
the
state
with
revenue;
a
population
increase
also
laid
the
foundation
for
 future
revenue
through
taxation.
A
greater
population
also
meant
that
a
railroad
connection
 could
be
viable,
which
was
seen
as
essential
for
economic
growth.42_{Although
there
were
no} federal
 immigration
 restrictions
 until
 1882
 when
 the
 Immigration
 Act
 gave
 officials
 the
 power
to
deny
immigrants
who
where
not
able
to
sustain
themselves
in
the
United
States,
 the
 State
 of
 New
 York
 did
 have
 a
 Board
 of
 Commissioners
 of
 Emigration.
 These
 officials
 could
deny
immigrants
who
were
expected
to
become
a
permanent
‘public
charge’.
Yet
the
 most
 important
 task
 of
 the
 New
 York
 Commissioners
 of
 Emigration
 was
 to
 protect
 the
 immigrants
from
deception
and
maltreatment
after
arrival.
Most
coastal
states
had
policies
 in
order
to
regulate
the
stream
of
immigration
that
surged
at
the
end
of
1840s,
but
none
as
 extensive
as
New
York
and
Massachusetts.43_{Especially
in
states
where
the
Anglo‐Protestant} traditions
were
strong,
immigration
restrictions
were
toughest.
This
was
a
response
to
the
 flow
 of
 Irish
 Catholics
 after
 their
 country
 was
 hit
 by
 the
 potato
 famine.44_{Although
 the} restrictions
on
immigration
were
not
severe
in
the
antebellum,
state
policies
eventually
led
 to
 the
 strict
 immigration
 laws
 at
 the
 turn
 of
 20th_{century.
 The
 purpose
 of
 these
 state} immigration
 restrictions
 was
 to
 be
 able
 to
 prevent
 the
 poorest
 class
 from
 entering
 the
 United
States.
Ever
since
the
number
of
immigrants
grew
Americans
were
afraid
of
the
poor.
 Yet
 the
 Dutch
 immigrants
 were
 no
 paupers
 so
 they
 didn’t
 have
 any
 issues
 crossing
 the
 Atlantic
 and
 disembarking
 in
 New
 York
 City
 or
 other
 coastal
 cities.
 They
 usually
 had
 the
 funds
to
travel
further
west
or
were
aided
by
the
immigration
societies
set
up
by
the
Old
 Dutch
and
the
colonies
in
Michigan.
I
will
discuss
these
immigration
societies
in
more
detail
 in
the
third
chapter.


Following
the
arrival
and
settlement
of
the
Dutch,
the
people
of
the
surrounding
towns
 were
 excited
 by
 the
 prospects
 the
 new
 inhabitants
 of
 the
 area
 offered.
 The
 editor
 of
 the


Grand
Rapids
Enquirer,
Thomas
B.
Church
said
that
the
colonies
deserved
‘all
that
we
can
 constitutionally
do
for
their
encouragement
and
assistance.’45_{To
get
a
sense
of
the
position} of
the
state
of
Michigan
towards
immigrants
it
is
valuable
to
look
at
the
inaugural
address
of
 the
14th_{Governor
of
Michigan,
Henry
H.
Crapo:
‘A
very
small
portion
of
the
State
has
as
yet} been
reclaimed
and
settled,
and
I
apprehend
it
is
safe
to
calculate
that
nearly
five‐sixths
of
 her
entire
territory
remains
to
day
a
wilderness.
We
want
Settlers.’46_{To
attract
immigrants} he
 wanted
 to
 communicate
 with
 the
 people
 of
 the
 overpopulated
 countries
 of
 Europe
 to
 inform
them
about
the
opportunities
that
awaited
them
in
Michigan.
Immigration
should
be
 encouraged
 by
 legislation.
 Most
 immigrants
 moved
 farther
 west
 because,
 according
 to
 Crapo,
the
state
was
often
misrepresented.
Therefore
he
wanted
to
attract
more
immigrants
 to
work
in
the
copper,
coal,
iron
and
gypsum
mines,
strong
men
who
could
clear
the
dense
 forest
 of
 Michigan,
 and
 people
 who
 would
 take
 on
 the
 opportunity
 to
 explore
 the
 Great
 Lakes
to
exploit
the
valuable
fishing
grounds.47_{In
the
preceding
decades
Michigan
missed} out
on
the
great
wave
of
immigration
that
overwhelmed
the
United
States.



In
1846
when
Van
Raalte
first
arrived
on
the
scene
of
the
future
Holland
settlement
at
 Lake
 Macatawa,
 he
 stood
 in
 a
 part
 of
 America
 that
 was
 unsettled
 except
 for
 the
 Native
 Americans
who
lived
at
the
Old
Wing
Mission
and
a
few
American
farmers.
Michigan
was
 already
incorporated
into
the
United
States
but
it
was
still
relatively
unsettled,
as
the
first
 towns
 in
 the
 area
 were
 only
 established
 a
 decade
 earlier.
 Although
 Michigan
 grew
 from
 5,000
 white
 inhabitants
 in
 1810
 to
 212,000
 in
 1840
 most
 lived
 in
 the
 southeastern
 and
 southern
parts
of
Michigan.48_{In
the
area
where
the
Dutch
settled
not
many
people
lived:} Ottawa
 County
 didn’t
 have
 a
 census
 until
 1840
 but
 neighboring
 Kent
 County
 counted
 499
 inhabitants
 while
 Allegan
 County
 only
 had
 273
 residents.49_{Most
 immigrants
 turned
 to} Wisconsin
to
settle
on
a
soil
that
consisted
of
plains
and
forest.
The
eastern
shores
of
Lake
 Michigan
 were
 not
 favored
 because
 they
 were
 difficult
 to
 reach
 by
 water
 in
 contrast
 to
 Wisconsin.50_{A
 western
 state
 that
 still
 had
 land
 that
 was
 uncultivated
 and
 wild
 needed}

immigrants
in
order
to
mature
and
become
economically
viable.
State
legislators
recruited
 immigrants
 actively
 in
 order
 to
 achieve
 these
 goals.
 The
 Dutch
 immigrants
 who
 settled
 in
 Michigan
 were
 welcomed
 with
 open
 arms
 because
 of
 their
 industrious
 work
 ethic
 and
 religious
 piety.
 Although
 the
 Dutch
 lived
 isolated
 and
 rarely
 mingled
 with
 the
 native‐born
 they
were
often
seen
as
respected
members
of
the
community.

 
 The
Dutch
frontier
life
in
America
 
 The
Catholic
lives
next
to
the
German
Lutheran.
The
next
house
is
of
the
Dutch
 farmer
who
lives
by
the
rules
of
the
Synod
of
Dort.
You
will
find
his
house
and
 farm
to
be
the
neatest
in
all
the
country;
and
you
will
judge
by
the
waggon
and
 fat
horses
that
he
thinks
more
of
the
affairs
of
this
world
than
of
those
of
the
 next.
He
is
sober
and
laborious;
therefore,
he
is
all
he
ought
to
be
to
the
affairs
 of
this
life.51 
 This
quote
by
Crèvecoeur
describes
frontier
life
in
America.
Disembarking
in
a
new
world,
a
 people
 brought
 up
 with
 Old
 World,
 Calvinistic
 principles,
 come
 in
 contact
 with
 a
 foreign
 people
who
speak
a
different
tongue,
in
a
land
where
class
distinctions
are
virtually
absent
 and
where
all
men
are
created
equal.
They
move
into
pristine
forest
without
even
knowing
 how
to
fell
a
tree,
on
soil
with
unknown
flora
and
fauna.
They
face
neighbors
of
different
 ethnic
origins,
‘savagery’
in
the
vicinity,
and
numerous
dangers
the
Dutch
weren’t
used
too.
 In
 this
 section
 I
 will
 discuss
 what
 impact
 the
 arrival
 in
 a
 new
 environment
 had
 on
 the
 Americanization
of
the
Dutch
in
Western
Michigan.



Books
 and
 published
 letters
 about
 the
 unknown
 continent
 of
 America
 sparked
 the
 imagination
 of
 people
 in
 Europe
 and
 were
 eagerly
 read
 in
 the
 nineteenth
 century.52_The quote
in
the
beginning
of
this
chapter
is
an
example
of
observations
about
American
life
at
 the
 frontier
 by
 a
 European
 traveler.
 The
 publications
 by
 European
 authors
 about
 America
 and
 the
 nature
 of
 its
 people
 are
 interesting
 to
 discuss
 because
 they
 provide
 a
 view
 of
 America
that
the
Dutch
encountered
upon
their
arrival
from
a
similar
foreign
perspective.
 Although
these
stories
are
sometimes
romanticized
or
exaggerated,
they
are
still
valuable
as
 they
 created
 expectations
 of
 life
 in
 America.
 What
 did
 this
 America
 look
 like,
 with
 its


51_{J.
Hector
St.
John
de
Crèvecoeur,
Letters
from
an
American
Farmer
and
Sketches
of
Eighteenth‐Century}

America,
edited
by
Albert
E.
Stone
(New
York:
Penguin
Books,
1981),
75.


52_{Albert
Stone,
introduction
to
Letters
from
an
American
Farmer
and
Sketches
of
Eighteenth‐Century
America,
by} J.
Hector
St.
John
de
Crèvecoeur
(New
York:
Penguin
Books,
1981),
8.


religious
freedom,
progressive
civics,
unique
opportunities,
and
diverse
population?
One
of
 the
European
men
who
visited
colonial
America
and
the
early
Republic
was
John
Hector
St.
 John
de
Crèvecoeur.
In
his
book
Letters
from
an
American
Farmer,
first
published
in
1782,
he
 describes
life
on
the
American
frontier
when
it
was
still
a
colony
of
England.
Similar
traits
of
 the
 American
 character
 and
 life
 on
 the
 frontier
 emerge
 from
 his
 letters
 as
 the
 Dutch
 encountered
 in
 Western
 Michigan.
 Some
 of
 his
 paragraphs
 made
 it
 into
 Turner’s
 Frontier
 Thesis.
 He
 takes
 the
 reader
 on
 a
 trip
 to
 the
 great
 woods
 near
 the
 least
 inhabited
 region
 where
people
were
left
by
themselves
without
a
government
to
control
them
on
large
tracts
 of
virgin
land.53_{First
the
Indian
traders
and
fur
trappers
come
and
build
primitive
log
cabins} and
live
off
whatever
the
woods
supply
them
with.
They
are
the
predecessors
of
the
large
 groups
of
migrants
who
usually
arrive
a
decade
later
in
larger
numbers
and
convert
the
log
 house
 into
 a
 more
 durable
 and
 convenient
 establishment.54_{Although
 this
 is
 the
 America} decades
 before
 the
 Dutch
 arrive,
 life
 at
 the
 frontier
 remained
 the
 same
 as
 the
 area
 considered
the
frontier
that
shifted
farther
west
over
time.
When
the
United
States
declared
 its
independence
the
frontier
lay
on
the
western
side
of
the
Appalachians;
in
the
1840s
the
 frontier
 extended
 as
 far
 as
 the
 Mississippi
 river
 and
 in
 1893
 Frederick
 Jackson
 Turner
 declared
the
frontier
had
reached
the
shores
of
the
Pacific
Ocean.



In
the
early
1830s
Michigan
became
a
popular
immigration
destination
among
pioneers
 from
New
England
and
from
the
western
part
of
the
State
of
New
York.
These
Yankees
were
 attracted
 by
 the
 rich
 soil
 in
 the
 area
 around
 Detroit
 and
 the
 southern
 part
 of
 Michigan’s
 Lower
Peninsula.
This
soil
was
far
more
suitable
for
intensive
farming
than
the
dry,
rocky
soil
 of
the
area
that
they
left
behind.55_{The
coastal
area
where
the
Dutch
eventually
settled
was} sandy,
less
fertile
and
remote.
It
was
relatively
unsettled
except
for
the
towns
of
Kalamazoo,
 Grand
 Rapids,
 Grand
 Haven
 and
 Ionia.
 These
 Yankee
 towns
 were
 founded
 more
 than
 a
 decade
prior
to
Dutch
settlement.56_{Michigan
was
still
the
frontier
where
civilization
was
at} an
infantile
stage
when
it
was
incorporated
in
the
Union
in
1837
and
became
the
26th_state. Originally
 inhabited
 by
 a
 small
 number
 of
 French
 fur
 traders,
 Michigan
 became
 a
 popular
 destination
for
Yankees
from
New
England.57_{Although
New
Englanders
were
the
majority,} immigrants
also
started
to
see
Michigan
as
their
final
destination.