Emotional framing in print press at Catalonia 2012 elections

Thesis

Emotional framing in print press at Catalonia

2012 elections

This thesis examines political actors and newspapers linked to emotional framing in the Catalan press in the elections of this region of Spain in 2012. The objective of the analysis was to see whether there was political parallelism between newspapers receiving public funds from the Catalan government and Catalan actors emotional framing. Similarly it was investigated to what extend is different emotional framing in newspapers, subsidized and unsubsidized, when presenting different political actors. Emotions analyzed were fear, sadness, anxiety, enthusiasm and anger. Results shows a prominent use of anger toward Spanish actors in the Catalan newspapers receiving government funds and also was found greater use of the enthusiasm to present Catalan actors within press receiving funding. This thesis leads to further research in emotional presentation of political actors in the media in political campaigns.

Introduction

In November 2012 regional elections took place in Catalonia, the autonomous region of Spain. The President of the region, Artur Mas, had tried to establish a new fiscal order in Catalonia but had found the opposition of the central government of Spain, ruled by Partido Popular party. After this opposition President Mas called early regional elections, that took place on a very short time notice. From the day elections had been announced to the Election Day went about three months. President Mas party had led the central issues of the Catalan political campaign, for President Mas the situation was clear; Catalonia had big economical problems that were affecting Catalan welfare state. According to Mas, the solution to these problems, therefore welfare state salvation, depends on Catalonia independence. For Mas Catalonia independence is the only way to solve Catalonia problems. The nature of the proposal arouses two opposed groups, those defending Catalonia independence and those defending Spanish union. Among main actors defending Catalonia independence were found Convergència i Unió (CIU), with Artur Mas as their leader and leading the independence issue, Esquerra

Republicana de Catalunya (ERC) with Oriol Junqueras as their leader and Candidatura d'Unitat Popular (CUP) with David Fernandez as the most visible player. Those will be

referred to as Catalan actors in this paper. On the other side, main actors defending Spanish union were Partido Popular (PP) with Rajoy as leader, Partit Socialista de

Catalunya (PSC) with Pere Navarro as leader and Ciutadans (C´s) with Albert Rivera as

leader. They will be referred to as Spanish actors in this paper. It was a heated political debate.

This political cleavage before 2012 Catalan elections had become a struggle between Catalan separatist/unionist political conformations, and it was done under very strong emotional frames. Journalists and politicians wrote about the level of emotionality in the political campaign, one of the politicians writing about it was Joan Ridao, he is a renowned Professor of Constitutional Law at the University of Barcelona and was general secretary of the Republican Left Party of Catalonia (ERC) from 2008 to 2011. Ridao spoke openly about emotive nationalism and emotive independence to frame the campaign in his article “El porqué de Cataluña”, published in El País (October 12th, 2012). This thesis aims to clarify how political actors had been framed under emotional frames in Catalonia print press and how emotional frames were used.

On the other hand, President Mas government gave public funding to some newspapers who used Catalan or Aranes language. Analyzing the differences in emotional framing usage between newspapers with public grants from Catalonia government and newspapers without public grants from Catalonia government is another goal of this thesis; this means to know to what extend political parallelism is found in Catalonian print press at 2012 elections. And to know whether there is any difference on emotional framing between newspapers receiving public funding from Catalonia government and newspapers not receiving public funding.

The reason to analyze emotional frames in newspapers relies in the salience that emotions have on political participation (Nabi, 2003; Valentino et al, 2009). Having two opposed political proposals (Independence/Union) on an election ballot makes it a fertile ground for the media to use emotional frames to influence voters (Valentino et al, 2011). This thesis focuses on five core emotions extensively studied in the literature

(Brader, 2005; Flam & King, 2005, Kim & Cameron, 2011; Kühne, 2012), namely sadness, anger, fear, anxiety and enthusiasm. Main part of articles in academia analyzing emotions are experiments inducing emotions over individuals and then checking how emotions affects their beliefs or political participation, in this paper the goal is to indentify which emotional frames had been induced to the audience through Catalonia print media.

I aim to analyze which emotional frame (sadness, anger, anxiety and enthusiasm) was the more common for each main political actor (Catalonian actors versus Spanish actors) within each print press (those with public fundings versus those without). I predict that articles referring about the Spanish actors within press receiving public grants emphasized sadness, anxiety and anger frame towards them, and enthusiasm towards Catalan actors. I also predict that articles referring to Catalan actors within not receiving public grants print press were more prominently framing sadness and anger frames towards them. To test these hypotheses I will rely on literature about emotional frames and I will use emotional words within print text to clarify which emotions an article is evoking.

According to literature there are five core emotions for political communication. Due to the salience of anger, enthusiasm, fear, anxiety and sadness in political communication, and due to the different effects they have in political participation, they had been selected to analyze emotional frames within Catalan newspapers in 2012 regional elections.

The first section defines frames in news and reviews the salience of the emotional frames of sadness, anger, anxiety and enthusiasm within political communication. Then a method section will be explained, followed by the results. Results with be presented in percentage terms. After that, discussion and conclusions will be presented.

The importance of framing to Political Communication

Framing is a core concept on Political Communication. A good definition of framing is that a frame is “a construction of reality within news stories that promote interpretations of complex and ambiguous events and issues” (Kühne, 2012, p 1). Chong and Druckman had set that a frame can be defined just as a link to an issue or to any political actor (Chong & Druckman, 2007). When there are more than one issue or one actor might imply a competition among frames (Chong & Druckman, 2007). Entman (2007) established framing as “the process of culling a few elements of perceived reality and assembling a narrative that highlight connections among them to promote a particular interpretation” (Entman, 2007, p 164). For that reason it is very likely that different newspapers outlets will have different narratives to present view of reality. Also it is very likely that different newspapers outlets will have competition among different frames over different actors. For that reason this thesis analyzes Catalonia 2012 elections; to know whether there is competition among emotional frames in print press.

However framing is not a static concept because communication is not static but dynamic (Vreese, 2005), and thus framing can be an ambiguous concept. Chong and Druckman set that framing is that “an issue can be viewed from a variety of

perspectives and be construed as having implications for multiple values or considerations” (Chong & Druckman, 2007, p 104) that is why, according to them, framing is directly connected to audience opinions. For that reason framing is a very important concept for politicians and political communication. It is very likely that elites worry about peoples´ thinking because elites want people to accept elites performance (Entman, 2007). In order to make a strong frame, politicians use to link a political proposal to a positive idea that is found among the audience (Chong & Druckman, 2007, p116), they do that with the final goal of “favouring one side over other in a political dispute” (Entman, 2007, p165).

Other authors have seen that framing process as a two steps work (Scheufele, 1999; De Vreese, 2005). De Vreese (2005) gives an integrated model of framing composed by frame building and frame setting.

Frame building is at time composed by framing in the newsroom, which implies internal factors such as editorial policies or the way journalist frame issues, and external factors such as a struggle among organization restrains, journalist’s values or expectations about audiences (Scheufele, 1999). In the model given by De Vreese (2005) frame setting refers to the frame in news, and implies a relationship of the frame with the individual and with the society, this is the framing effects on audience. Frame setting is also is related to the salience of issue attributes (Scheufele, 1999).

De Vreese gives two ways to identify frames in news, one is inductive and other deductive (Vreese, 2005), inductive frames refers to specific news frames while deductive frames refers to politics reporting, more deep in electoral campaigns (Vreese, 2005). Nelson & Oxely have found that frames affect individual’s aptitudes by influencing the salience individuals give to a link between issue-beliefs (Nelson &

Oxely, 1999), this means that a issue frame influences belief of the news content, belief salience and opinion about an issue. For Nelson & Oxely issue frames are a basic tool for political persuasion campaigns, that is why so many political actors such as politicians or interest groups create frames and try to put them in the media (Nelson & Oxely, 1999). This thesis had followed a deductive approach to analyze emotional framing. Articles referred to Catalonia politics and 2012. The galaxy of actors used frames to present their proposals, more in deep; it was a struggle between emotional frames to attract supporters.

The salience of emotional framing for Political Communication

The salience of emotional frames in political participation relies in several empirical articles regarding to emotions. An article in the Encyclopedia of sociology says that “Emotions are spontaneous, self-induced, or externally produced self-feelings” (Yang, 2007 p. 1389). Brader (2005) set that emotions are “underlying responses to the perceived relevance of external stimuli” while emotional appeals “are communications intended to elicit an emotional response” (Brader, 2005, p 390). So many articles exploring emotions (Nabi, 2003; Flam & King, 2005; Brader, 2005) had found that individuals have different political behaviour under different emotions inducted through framing. For that reason emotional frames are very important in political communication. Flam had shown that emotions can connect the macro politics to the micro politics (Flam, 2005). This means that giving an emotional frame about macro politics it is possible to affect individuals’ political behaviour. For Flam emotions are a very important factor in social movements and emotions analysis has to start in macro politics (Flam, 2005). She focuses on the emotions used to reframe cognitive reality (Flam, 2005) this is creating a narrative over an issue based on emotions. Marcus in an

analysis on emotions and politics have set that “emotion’s role in politics is persuasive both because emotion enables past experience to be encoded with its evaluative history and because emotions enables contemporary circumstances to be quickly evaluated” (Marcus, 2003, p 221). In this case emotions would be an important political communication tool for the Catalan separatist group as for Spanish unionist group within Catalan print media.

In other article D'Ambrosio & Gross found that frames can lead to different emotional responses (D'Ambrosio & Gross, 2004). In other words; emotions can be induced by the given article frame and this will lead to different outcomes (Valentino et al, 2011; Kim & Cameron, 2011). Gross found that “framing effects on policy opinion operate through both affective and cognitive channels” (Gross, 2008, pp 169). Affective channels occur outside cognition and according to Marcus (2003) this channel has advantage over cognitive appeals (Marcus, 2003), anyway cognitive appeals are more stable and less likely to be modified by media (Marcus, 2003). Affective intelligence model set that individuals´ emotion influences individuals´ political habits, deliberation and attention and voters who stimulated attention though emotions are less partisan and more focus on specific issues (Marcus et al, 2011). As explained above emotional framing can break links with previous beliefs or behaviours. For those reasons emotions are a very important issue within political communication field.

Literature has shown that there are specific different emotions that affect political participation and perceptions (Nabi, 2003; Druckman & McDermott, 2008; Kim & Cameron, 2011; Gray, 1999; Lecheler et al, 2013). According to Marcus affective intelligence model people are more willing to be interested and involved when

they are feeling positive emotions such as enthusiasm, while people under negative emotions generating anxiety, such as fear, are more open to information seeking and attitude change (Druckman & McDermott, 2008). ). In an experiment over emotions the authors have found that specific emotional states influence persuasion, further “persuasion would be more successful when messages were frame with emotional overtones” (Desteno et al, 2004, p 43) which led to think that emotional frames had been used by two opposed groups at Catalan elections. Further Larissa Tiedens have found that in political and in business “the expression of emotions can facilitate social goals” (Tiedens, 2001, p93), because emotions are seen as spontaneous more than manipulative and people are less likely to make questions to expresser (Tiedens, 2001).

The more important emotions analyzed across literature are discrete emotions or basic emotions. These emotions are characterized because they have own universal signals, also a different physiology, have automatic appraisal (not cognitive), are present in other primates and have brief duration among other qualities (Ekman, 1999).

Although the literature focuses on such emotions as joy, fear, anger, sadness, shame, surprise and disgust, among others (Izard, 1994), this analysis will focus on positive emotions such as enthusiasm and negative emotions such as anger, fear, anxiety and sadness. The reason is that these emotions are the ones most analyzed in literature and the effects arising from these emotions are scientifically tested, as explained below.

ANGER. Anger is a negative emotion that prevents individuals from reaching their objectives, this is settings barriers between individuals and goals, anger comes from negative situations, controllable and with blame attribution (Küne, 2012).

According to another study anger derives from the relationship of the individual with the environment leading to a behaviour that adopts risks and to problem focused base (Brader, 2005). Other authors have found that anger led to risk seeking behaviour (Druckman & McDermott, 2008). Kim and Cameron (2011), focusing on emotional responses in crisis situations, found that anger can affect to information seeking and individuals participation. Other studies similarly found that anger boost political participation (Valentino et al, 2011; Weber, 2012), for example, in response to policy threats (Valentino et al, 2009). More in deep on anger emotion Larissa Tiedens found that anger expressions give the idea that expresser is strong, smart and dominant (Tiedens, 2001). Flam shown that social movements use emotions to attack the opponent or to attract supporters (Flam, 2005), for that reason it is very likely that anger against Spanish and Catalan actors had been used to frame different political proposals.

SADDNESS. Sadness is a negative emotion tending individuals to see situations as uncontrollable and without clear actor’s blame attribution, because sadness lead individuals to focus on circumstances, not on individuals blame attribution (Kühne, 2012; Kim & Cameron, 2011). Also we know that sadness lead to different political preferences, different from previous individual’s preferences (Kim & Cameron, 2011). Regarding to sadness emotional frame Kim and Cameron (2011) in their study on emotional responses found that sadness frame led participants to be more open to read news with more attention and that sadness frame led to focus on victims, not in blame attributions. They also found that sad people have “higher credibility perceptions, lower blame attributions and more favourable behavioural intentions” (Kim & Cameron, 2011, p 845), this means that sad people are more open to belief and to change behaviour . Hsee & Weber (1997) as cited by Druckman and McDermott (2008) have

shown sad people tend to “inflate their risk of negative events” (Druckman & McDermott, 2008, p300). For that reason it is very likely that sadness toward Catalonia independence have been used to frame Catalan actors’ proposal.

ENTHUSIAMS. Another emotional frame to be analyzed is enthusiasm emotional frame. Some authors have found that news framing influence support for political issues and that enthusiasm lead to change opinions (Lecheler et al, 2013). In another paper authors have found enthusiasm as a result of goal about to be met, “reinforcing existing behaviours and attitudes” (Valentino et al, 2011, p 158), further in their paper enthusiasm is linked to participation and to information seeking. Another article has also found that enthusiasms activate previous loyalties (Brader, 2005). Druckman and McDermott in an experiment analyzing risk choices have found that enthusiasm led to “greater risk seeking because people become more optimistic about future outcomes when they are feeling good” (Druckman & McDermott, 2008, p300), this is, those under enthusiasm frame are less likely to be influenced by another frame. Another aspect of enthusiasm frame in their work is that it mitigates the impact of external information. Due to salience of enthusiasm on individuals participation, how enthusiasm frame has been used to present Catalan actors´ political proposals within Catalan newspapers at 2012 elections will also be analyzed.

FEAR. Fear emotional frame has been analyzed by several studies (Lecheler et al, 2013; Brader, 2005; Valentino et al, 2009). Brader (2005) found that inducting fear “stimulates vigilance, increases reliance on contemporary evaluations and facilitates persuasion” (Brader, 2005, p 388). According to his study fear (and anxiety as a dimension of fear) is a reaction to threat. Fear emotion lead individuals to put routines

away and direct their attention to factors in the environment and makes people think on alternative ways of action (Brader, 2005). For Brader fear appeals increases information seeking and decreases previous believes at the same time that led individuals to seek choices based on contemporary evaluations (Brader, 2005). Valentino et al (2011) have found that people under fear emotional frame are less likely to adopt risk choices. In other study Lecheler at al have found that fear does not mediate framing effects (Lecheler et al, 2013) while others have found that fear decreases “the quality and quantity of information seeking” (valentine et al, 2008, p 248).

ANXIETY: Some authors set anxiety as a dimension of fear (Brader, 2005; Johnson & Oatley, 1989). However fear emotion seems to have stronger impact over people under anxiety emotional frame. Valentino et al (2008) have found that anxiety lead people to pay more attention to political campaigns and that anxiety boost both information search, learning and participation, also anxiety increases attention to threats, because anxiety implies danger (Valentino et al, 2008).

Beyond emotional framing salience there is another important issue to analyze in this thesis; this is political parallelism between newspapers receiving public funding from Catalonia government and those newspapers not receiving public funding from Catalonia government. According to Hallin & Mancini (2004), Spanish media are located in Mediterranean or polarized media model. This model has as characteristic strong political parallelism. Receiving money from government seems that can arouse political parallelism, therefore this will also be analyzed in this thesis.

In order to analyze differences in emotional framing within Catalan newspapers I posed the following research questions:

To what extent emotional framing differs in Catalonia print press receiving public funding and press not receiving public funding from Catalonia government?

To what extend emotional frames are different when presenting Spanish or Catalan political actors in newspapers receiving funding from Catalonia government and in non-funded newspapers?

Hypotheses arising from these questions are: For first RQ

H1 Sadness, anxiety, fear and anger will be more prominent within newspapers not receiving public funding from Catalonia government.

H2 Enthusiasm will be more prominent within newspapers receiving public grants from Catalonia government.

For second RQ

H3 Spanish actors will be more framed in sadness, anxiety, fear and anger emotions within newspapers receiving public funding from Catalonia government.

H4 Catalan actors will be more framed in sadness, anxiety, fear and anger emotions within newspapers not receiving funding from Catalonia government.

H5 Catalan actors will be more framed in enthusiasm within newspapers receiving public funding.

The methodology followed in this thesis is a print press content analysis. In order to analyze different emotions in print press the most suitable theory to clarify the article’s emotional appeal will be the semantic structure, which analyzes how different verbs are link to different emotions. There are two main articles offering a proper way to link emotions and vocabulary. One is developed by Susanne Niemeier & Rene Dirven. According to them different emotions are linked with different language (Niemeier & Dirven, 1997). Other authors had found similar emotional language coding that helps to analyse emotions in a content analysis (Johnson-Laird & Oatley, 1989). The method to analyze emotions within a print text will be the semantic one given by Johnson-Laird & Oatley but, in order to adapt it to political communication, a sample of emotional words used by Andreas Schuck in his investigations over emotional framing will be used.

Articles coding have followed this line: Date when the article was published Newspaper outlet

Is the newspaper receiving public funding from Catalonia government? Coding YES-NO

Emotional words used by Andreas Schuck:

To analyze sadness frames: loneliness, sadness, pain, miss, abandonment. Then applied to. To analyze anger frames: aggression, resentment, rage, hatred, anger. Then applied to. To analyze fear frame: horror, fear, panic, anxiety, despair. Then applied to. To analyze enthusiasm frame: pleasure, joy, enthusiasm, satisfaction, hope. Then applied to. To analyze anxiety frame: anxiety, fear, panic, fright, despair. Then applied to.

“Applied to” coding had revealed which is the direction of the emotion. For example aggression reveals that an aggression is coming from one actor, maybe into another actor.

In order to make the emotional words analysis more wide an online dictionary of synonyms has been used. This online dictionary is www.wordreference.com

Four newspapers were analyzed. Print press selection has been done through newspaper’s audience rates and newspaper’s public funding received in 2012, year of the elections. From a list with the ten most read newspapers two with public funding and higher audience, and two with higher audience but not receiving public funding were chosen. The newspapers analyzed receiving public funding from Catalonia government and with high audience are La Vanguardia and El Periódico de Cataluña. Non-receiving public funding and among most read newspapers are El País and El Mundo.

In order to know which newspapers are most read in Catalonia Encuesta

General de Medios (EGM) was consulted. This is produced by the Asociacion para la Investigacion en los Medios de Comunicación (AIMC). Along with other studies, this

organization focuses on media research and provides a list with the most sold Catalan newspapers. Their studies are found on thes address www.aimc.es, but info in this paper has been retrieved from www.publipressmedia.com. The study used in this paper refers to 2013 (with 2012 data) study. In the period of 2012 electoral campaign EGM revealed in their study that La Vanguardia newspaper was the one most read in Catalonia, with

an audience that reach 730.000 persons daily. Following to La Vanguardia is found El Periódico de Cataluña, with an audience reaching 549.000 readers per day. In third place is El País, with an audience reaching 190.000 persons daily. It is worth to mention that another organization for media research has found the same scale within Catalan print press, this organization’s name is Organismo para la Justificación de la Difusion (OJD), their studies can be found in this address www.introl.es.

In order to find out which newspapers had funding offered by the Catalonia government the Diari Oficial de la Generalitat de Catalunya (DOGC) was used, this is the official record for Catalan public institutions. According to DOGC press can receive direct or indirect (institutional publicity mainly) funding, in this paper newspapers must receive direct funding in order to be selected. According to “resolution PRE/109/2013” from DOGC the Catalan government gave public funding to several media companies publishing only in Catalan and Aranes languages in 2012. Within print newspapers we find that La Vanguardia received 445.898,73 Euros and El Periódico de Cataluña received 442.373,09 Euros. This document reveals that within the five most read newspapers in Catalonia, four of them are receiving public funding. Only El País is within most read newspapers in Catalonia not receiving money from Catalonia government. To find another newspaper not receiving public funding from Catalonia government and with high audience it is necessary to jump to sixth place, where El Mundo is situated. Thus, La Vanguardia and El Periódico de Cataluña have been selected because they have public funding and are among most read and El País and El Mundo because they do not have public funding and are among most read newspapers.

The articles were selected from within political pages. In those cases where there was a special section about Catalonia 2012 elections, this section has been used. Article salience within the page and article length has been main criteria for selection. The main five articles per day and newspaper were analysed. This makes four articles and an editorial per day and newspaper. The period of time analysed will be the last week of campaign in order to find clear positions towards elections. This period implies from November 17thto November 24th(one day before elections). The reason for this period relies in the intensity of frames one week before elections. Selected articles had Catalonia 2012 elections or this paper actors as their main topic.

Newspapers sample was retrieved from each newspaper’s online databases except El País that has been consulted at www.kioskoymas.com. This website is a global data base including worldwide newspapers. Spanish newspapers are included.

Spanish actors are those political forces defending Spanish union; PP, PSC and C´s. From these political forces leaders are analyzed too; Rajoy for PP, Navarro for PSC and Albert Rivera for C´s. “Spain” is counted also as an abstract political actor, as well as “Catalonia”. Catalan actors are those political forces defending independence; CIU, ERC, CUP. Their leaders are analyzed too; Artur Mas for CIU, Oriol Junqueras for ERC and David Fernandez for CUP. ICV is also analyzed since it is an important actor in the campaign, but this political force did not define whether they wanted independence or not.

Results have revealed several emotional frames within Catalan print press. Within the 160 articles analyzed 209 emotional framing over Spanish and Catalan actors were found, this makes a 1.3 emotional framing per article. Taking all articles together we find that 30.6% of articles had some sadness emotional framing. Referring to anger emotional frame we find that 50% of articles had any anger emotional frame, being anger the most prominent emotional framing in Catalan print press during 2012 elections. For fear emotional framing we see that 12.5% articles were using any emotional words to induct fear in frame. Articles using any emotional word to frame enthusiasm rise up to 11.8%, while articles using anxiety as emotional framing rise up to 7.5%.

Emotional framing in print press at Catalonia 2012 elections

Sadness Anger Fear Enthusiams Anxiety

Taking newspapers receiving public funding from Catalan government we find that El Periódico de Cataluña and La Vanguardia together had used sadness frames up to 25% of their articles. Anger is the most prominent frame in these newspapers with a 57% of articles using emotional words to frame anger. 15% of articles were using emotional words to frame fear, and the same percentage per enthusiasm emotional frame. In the last place of emotions inducted by emotional words in funded print press is found anxiety, with a 3.75%.

Articles sample from El Periódico de Cataluña revealed a 17.5% of emotional framing inducting sadness. Anger is also the most prominent emotional framing used by this outlet, rising up to 55% of articles. Fear emotional framing is also found in El Periódico de Cataluña with a share of 7.5% of articles analyzed. Enthusiasm emotional framing is similar to sadness with a 17.5% of articles revealing emotional words to frame articles. Finally, anxiety emotional frames are found in 2.5% of articles, anxiety emotional frame being used less by this newspaper.

El Periódico de Cataluña had used sadness frame to frame CIU, PSC, Mas and others. 42.8% of sadness frames in this newspaper were used to present PSC, being this actor more involved in sadness within the articles analyzed. The second place for sadness frame goes to Mas, having the President of Catalan government 28.5% of the total sadness inducted by El Periódico de Cataluña. The last place for sadness emotional frame is for CIU and others, sharing 14.2% each. Having an Spanish actor the main part of sadness frames may lead to think that there is any correlation between newspapers with funding or without funding, but this point cannot be stated since there are no other Spanish actors in the sadness frame list. However a 42, 8% goes to frame PSC while a 43% goes to frame Catalan actors.

Regarding to anger emotional frame, El Periódico de Cataluña used it as a prominent emotional frame. Out of the 60% of articles framing anger in this newspaper, Mas, Rajoy, Catalonia, Spain, PP, PSC, ERC and others are found under this emotional frame. 45 emotional words referring to anger are found within this 60% of articles. Percentages of anger for each actor are: Mas 26.6% of anger frame, out of this

percentage Mas was framed as a victim in 91.6% of anger emotional words referring to him. 8.8% of articles were framing Catalonia under anger frame, 75% out of those articles were framing Catalonia as a victim of an aggression. ICV is framed under anger emotion in 12.5% of articles revealing this emotion, having a 6.6% of anger emotional words presenting this political party as victim. Spain is found under anger frame in El Periódico de Cataluña up to 22.2% of total anger frame. Spain is presented as aggressor in 90% of anger emotional framing. Another 13.3% is used for PP under anger emotional framing in this newspaper, out of this percentage in 83.3% of all cases presented as aggressor. PSC gets a 6.6% of anger frames in El Periódico de Cataluña, being aggressor all times. ERC was framed under anger on 2.2%, being aggressor all times. An 8.8% of anger emotional framing are focused on others. A 4.9% of emotional framing did not have any actor involved. This data shows that there are not strong differences between anger emotional frame, political actors and newspapers receiving public funding. Spanish actors do not seem to be preferential in anger framing sharing them a 42, 1%.

Anger. El Periodico de Cataluña

Mas Catalonia Spain ICV PP PSC ERC Other

El Periódico de Cataluña used fear framing in 7.5% of articles. Out of this percentage 33.3% stands for to Spain, 33.3% for CIU and another 33.3% for ICV. Not really preferences in fear framing. Enthusiasm emotional framing is also found in this newspaper in 17.5% of articles. Out of this percentage, 37.5% is used to frame PSC,

25% is used to frame ICV and a 12.5% is used to frame each Mas, ERC and independence. In this newspaper anxiety is only found to frame Mas. These data show that there is no difference between Spanish or Catalan actors regarding fear emotional framing. The conclusion is the same for enthusiasm, since most part of enthusiasm stands for a Spanish actor and just a 37, 5% to Catalan actors. 100% of anxiety goes to frame Mas.

When analyzing articles in La Vanguardia we find that sadness was used in 32.5% of all articles, anger emotional frame is found in 60% of all articles, fear emotional frame is found in 22.5% of all articles, enthusiasm appears in 12.5% of all articles, while anxiety is found in 2.5% of all articles.

The way La Vanguardia used sadness frame revealed that 26.6% of all sadness frames were used to frame PSC and Mas. 13.3% of total sadness was used to frame Spain and PP, while 6.6% were used to frame all Catalonia, independence and others. This data show that a newspaper receiving public funding is framing Spanish actors more than Catalan actors under sadness –53.2% of sadness in La Vanguardia.

Anger emotional framing is also prominent in La Vanguardia. Within the 60% of all articles using anger frame we find that 38 emotional words revealing anger were used to frame different actors. Mas registered 47.3% of all anger emotional framing. However, Mas is presented as a victim in all cases. PP has been framed under anger frames in 13.15% of articles evoking anger. Out of this percentage PP has been framed as aggressor in 80% of all cases and as a victim on the remaining 20%. Spain has been framed under anger frame in 10.5% out of all anger frames in La Vanguardia, always as

aggressor. CIU, ERC and PSC have each been framed under anger in 5.2% of the total anger frame in La Vanguardia. PSC and ERC are always framed as aggressors and CIU as victim in all cases. ICV is framed under anger frame in 2.6% of the total, always as a victim. The rest of emotional frame percentage stands for others. This data show that according to the emotional words coding system, stating that anger emotional frame was prominent to frame Spanish actors is not possible. Spanish actors reached 28, 8% of anger frame in La Vanguardia.

Fear emotional framing in La Vanguardia revealed that this emotional frame was used in 22.5% of all their articles. Out of this percentage 50% was used to frame Spain. 20% was used to frame PP and Independence and CIU and others present 10% each one. This data reveal a prominence of fear framing to present Spanish actors.

Enthusiasm emotional framing in La Vanguardia was used equally to frame Mas, CIU, PSC and ICV, having each one 20% of total enthusiasm emotional framing in these newspapers. In this newspaper anxiety is found only once to frame Mas.

With regard to newspapers not receiving public funding we find that both El País and El Mundo have used sadness emotional frames in 36.2% of their articles, anger in 42.5% of articles, fear in 10% of articles, enthusiasm in 8.7% and anxiety in 11.2% of the total. Taking data from El Periódico de Cataluña and La Vanguardia we can conclude that newspapers receiving public funding used enthusiasm, fear and anger emotional frames more than El Mundo and El País, but the latter used more sadness frames.

El País & El Mundo emotional framing

36,20%

42,50% 10%

8,70%11,20%

Sadness Anger Fear Enthusiams Amxiety

Articles analyzed in El País revealed that this newspaper used sadness emotional frame in up to 45% of all articles. Anger emotional frames are found in 37.5% of the total. Fear emotional frame is found in 15% of articles while enthusiasm and anxiety are each of them found in 10% of all articles.

Sadness frame in El País shows that 22.2% of sadness frames were used to present Mas. 33.3% of sadness emotional frame was used to frame CIU and 27.7% was used to frame PSC. PP was framed under sadness emotion in up to 16.6%, equal percentage that for Catalonia. Spain represents the 5.5% of sadness in El País. These data show that sadness frames were more prominent to frame Catalan actors. However, second place stands for a Spanish actor.

In El País anger emotional frame is present in 37.5% of all articles. 18 emotional words were found, involving different actors in anger frames. Within those emotional frames Mas is present in up to 33.3 % of the total, out of this percentage Mas was victim in 83.3% of all cases. Catalonia is present in 11.1% of all anger framing, in all cases presented as a victim. The same figures are obtained for CIU. PP is present in anger frames in 16, 6% of cases, all times presented as aggressor. These data show that anger emotional framing was used more frequently to frame Catalan actors, but the direction of the frame can not lead to conclude that there is a prominent use of angers against Catalan actors.

Fear emotional framing in El País rises up to 15% of all articles. Out of this percentage 28.5% was used to frame PSC and 28.5% to frame Independence under fear frame. Mas, CIU, and ERC share each 14% of total fear emotional framing in El País. These data show that there is more frequent use of fear framing towards Catalan actors. Although PSC is a Spanish actor and is framed under fear, the rest are all Catalan actors, having them 62, 5% of fear frames.

Enthusiasm emotional framing in El País is found in 10% of articles analyzed. Out of this percentage 40% is used to frame ERC while 20% is used to frame CIU, 20% is used to frame ICV and another 20% to frame others. Anxiety emotional framing is also found in 10% of articles and out of this percentage 20% is used equally to present PP, CIU and independence. 40% is used to frame others. These data show that there is no prominent use of enthusiasm frame towards Spanish actors.

Results from the articles analyzed in El Mundo newspaper revealed that in this newspaper sadness emotional frame was used in 27.5% of all articles, anger emotional frame is found in 42.5% of all articles, while fear emotional frame only reach 5% of the total. Enthusiasm frames are found in 7.5% of the sample and anxiety is found in 12.5% of all articles.

Sadness emotional framing on El Mundo rises up to 27.5% of the total. Out of this percentage 25% was used to frame Mas and another 25% used to frame PSC. CIU was framed under sadness emotion in 16.6% of total sadness emotion articles. 8.3% of sadness framing was used to frame each Catalonia, PP, Independence and others. These

data show that use of sadness frame is more frequently used to present Catalan actors (58, 2%) in this newspaper without public funding.

Anger emotional framing in El Mundo reached 42.5% of analyzed articles. 26 emotional words framing actors under emotional frames were found. Mas is present in a 34.6% of the total anger emotional framing percentage, out of this percentage Mas was framed as a victim in 88.8% occasions and as aggressor in 11.1% of cases. CIU was framed under anger emotion in 23% of the total, out if this in 33.3% cases as aggressor and in 16.6% as victim. The remaining percentage was mainly used to frame CIU policies. Catalonia was framed under anger emotion by 10.3% in El Mundo’s anger framing. In all cases Catalonia was regarded as victim. ERC and independence presented each 3.8% of anger frames in El Mundo, ERC appearing only as aggressor. 16% of anger framing stands for others. These data shows that there is a prominent use of anger frame to present Catalan actors in this newspaper.

Fear emotional framing in El Mundo shows that 5% o articles were framing with fear, and 100% out of these articles were framing CIU with fear. These data reveal a prominent use of fear framing towards Catalan actors in El Mundo. Enthusiasm emotional frame in this newspaper reached 7.5% of all articles, out of percentage 33% were used to frame CIU, 33% to frame Mas and another 33% to frame ICV. These data show that there is not a prominent use of enthusiasm to present Spanish actors. Anxiety emotional framing in El Mundo reached 12.5% of all articles. Out of this percentage 28.5% were used to frame Mas, 28.5% to frame PSC, while ICV and Catalonia share 14, 2% each. These data show that there is not prominent use of anxiety emotional frame to present Catalan actors.

Discussion

The first hypothesis can not be proved. El Mundo and El País show higher levels of sadness and anxiety, but La Vanguardia and El Periódico de Catalunya show higher levels of anger and fear. The second hypothesis can be proved, enthusiasm has been most prominent in the press receiving public funding, in the same way that most enthusiasm stands for Catalan actors. Direction of emotions made more complex the emotional frames analysis in the press. The third hypothesis regarding sadness percentages have been evenly matched when actors are present. The two newspapers receiving public funding used 48% of their sadness frames to present Spanish actors, but also 100% of anxiety was used towards Mas. These diaries also used 49.9% of fear frame to present Spanish actors, being La Vanguardia the one to make a more frequent use of that frame with Spanish actors. Measuring anger has been more complex due to the direction of the emotion and the actors involved, despite finding Mas involved anger frames most often as a victim than others. An emotional word does not have the same meaning when used in an ironic way. Therefore, emotional words semantic approach would need more tools to be accurate.

With regard to the fourth hypothesis dealing with sadness, newspapers receiving public funding have framed Catalans players within 65% of the total percentage of sadness framing, being similar to the amount used to introduce Catalan actors under anger frame. These two newspapers show prominent use of anger towards Catalan actors, although victimizing levels in Catalan players might have distorted anger frame analysis. Newspapers that did not receive public funding also framed more prominently Catalan players under the fear frame, representing 81% of their fear frames. The latter

hypothesis concerning the enthusiasm about Catalan actors in the print press receiving public funding has not been proved, El Periódico de Catalunya and La Vanguardia devoted 38.7% of their enthusiasm framework to introduce Catalan actors.

This thesis has several limitations. The first of them is the literal translation of the emotional words from German to Catalan and Spanish and then to English. However, this thesis gives room to further research aimed at analyzing the audience exposure to different emotional frames, thus shedding some light on the extend emotions exposure in media is linked with political participation in political campaigns.

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