ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirect
Education
for
Chemical
Engineers
j o ur na l h o me p a g e :w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a te / e c e
Process
intensification
education
contributes
to
sustainable
development
goals.
Part
2
David
Fernandez
Rivas
a,∗,
Daria
C.
Boffito
b,
Jimmy
Faria-Albanese
c,
Jarka
Glassey
d,
Judith
Cantin
e,
Nona
Afraz
f,
Henk
Akse
g,
Kamelia
V.K.
Boodhoo
d,
Rene
Bos
h,
Yi
Wai
Chiang
i,
Jean-Marc
Commenge
j,
Jean-Luc
Dubois
k,
Federico
Galli
b,
Jan
Harmsen
l,
Siddharth
Kalra
m,
Fred
Keil
n,
Ruben
Morales-Menendez
o,
Francisco
J.
Navarro-Brull
p,
Timothy
Noël
q,
Kim
Ogden
r,
Gregory
S.
Patience
s,
David
Reay
d,
Rafael
M.
Santos
i,
Ashley
Smith-Schoettker
t,
Andrzej
I.
Stankiewicz
m,
Henk
van
den
Berg
u,
Tom
van
Gerven
v,
Jeroen
van
Gestel
w,
R.S.
Weber
xaMesoscaleChemicalSystemsGroup,MESA+InstituteandFacultyofScienceandTechnology,UniversityofTwente,Enschede,7522NB,theNetherlands bCanadaResearchChairinIntensifiedMechano-ChemicalProcessesforSustainableBiomassConversion,PolytechniqueMontréal,ChemicalEngineering
Department,C.P.6079,succ.Centre-ville,Montréal,QC,H3C3A7,Canada
cFacultyofScienceandTechnology,CatalyticProcessesandMaterialsGroupMESA+InstituteforNanotechnology,UniversityofTwenteEnschede,7522NB,
theNetherlands
dSchoolofEngineering,MerzCourt,NewcastleUniversity,NE17RU,UnitedKingdom
eBureaud’appuietd’innovationpédagogique,PolytechniqueMontréal,CP.6079,succ.Centre-ville,Montréal,QC,H3C3A7,Canada
fOtto-von-GuerickeUniversityMagdeburg,IAUT(InstituteforApparatusandEnvironmentalTechnology),Universitätsplatz2,39106,Magdeburg,Germany gChairmanPIN-NL,ProcessIntensificationNetwork,theNetherlands
hLaboratoryforChemicalTechnology,GhentUniversity,Technologiepark125,9052,Gent,Belgium iSchoolofEngineering,UniversityofGuelph,50StoneRoadEastGuelph,Ontario,N1G2W1,Canada jLaboratoireRéactionsetGéniedesProcédés,UniversitédeLorraine,CNRS,LRGP,F-54000,Nancy,France kARKEMA,CorporateR&D,420Rued’Estienned’Orves,92705,Colombes,France
lHarmsenConsultancyBV,HoofdwegZuid18,2912EDNieuwerkerkaandenIJssel,theNetherlands
mProcess&EnergyDepartment,DelftUniversityofTechnology,Leeghwaterstraat39,2628CB,Delft,TheNetherlands
nHamburgUniversityofTechnology,DepartmentofChemicalReactionEngineering,EissendorferStrasse38,21073,Hamburg,Germany oTecnológicodeMonterrey,Mexico
pInstitutUniversitarid’ElectroquímicaiDepartamentdeQuímicaFísica,Universitatd’Alacant,Apartat99,E-03080,Alicante,Spain
qDepartmentofChemicalEngineeringandChemistry,MicroFlowChemistryandSyntheticMethodology,EindhovenUniversityofTechnology,DenDolech
2,5612AZ,Eindhoven,theNetherlands
rTheUniversityofArizona,DepartmentofChemical&EnvironmentalEngineering,1133E.JamesE.RogersWay,Tucson,AZ,85721,UnitedStates sCanadaResearchChair,HighTemperature,HighPressureHeterogeneousCatalysisPolytechniqueMontréal,ChemicalEngineeringDepartment,C.P.6079,
succ.Centre-ville,Montréal,QC,H3C3A7,Canada
tRAPIDManufacturingInstitute,NewYork,NY,UnitedStates
uSustainableProcessTechnologyGroup,FacultyofScienceandTechnology,UniversityofTwente,Enschede,7522NB,theNetherlands vProcessEngineeringforSustainableSystems(ProcESS),Dept.OfChemicalEngineering,KULeuven,3001,Leuven,Belgium wChemicalEngineeringDepartment,UtrechtUniversityofAppliedScience,Utrecht,theNetherlands
xPhysicalandComputationalSciencesDirectorate,PacificNorthwestNationalLaboratory,Richland,WA,USA
a
r
t
i
c
l
e
i
n
f
o
Articlehistory:
Received11February2020
Receivedinrevisedform20April2020 Accepted4May2020
Availableonline23May2020
Keywords: Industrychallenge Processdesign
a
b
s
t
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t
AchievingtheUnitedNationssustainabledevelopmentgoalsrequiresindustryandsocietytodevelop toolsandprocessesthatworkatallscales,enablinggoodsdelivery,services,andtechnologytolarge conglomeratesandremoteregions.ProcessIntensification(PI)isatechnologicaladvancethatpromises todelivermeanstoreachthesegoals,buthighereducationhasyettototallyembracetheprogram.Here, wepresentpracticalexamplesonhowtobetterteachtheprinciplesofPIinthecontextoftheBloom’s taxonomyandsummarisethecurrentindustrialuseandthefuturedemandsforPI,asacontinuationof thetopicsdiscussedinPart1.Intheappendices,weprovidedetailsontheexistingPIcoursesaround theworld,aswellasteachingactivitiesthatareshowcasedduringthesecoursestoaidstudents’lifelong
∗ Correspondingauthor.
E-mailaddress:d.fernandezrivas@utwente.nl(D.FernandezRivas). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ece.2020.05.001
1749-7728/©2020TheAuthor(s).PublishedbyElsevierB.V.onbehalfofInstitutionofChemicalEngineers.ThisisanopenaccessarticleundertheCCBYlicense(http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
16 D.FernandezRivasetal./EducationforChemicalEngineers32(2020)15–24 Pedagogy ProcessIntensification Entrepreneurship Sustainability Chemicalengineering Educationchallenge
learning.TheincreasingnumberofsuccessfulcommercialcasesofPIhighlighttheimportanceofPI educationforbothstudentsinacademiaandindustrialstaff.
©2020TheAuthor(s).PublishedbyElsevierB.V.onbehalfofInstitutionofChemicalEngineers.Thisis anopenaccessarticleundertheCCBYlicense(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
1. Introduction
Thecurrentworldeconomic orderdemands professionalsto becreative and innovative, nomatter theirfield of work.This is particularly important in chemical and process engineering disciplinesthatsignificantly contributetoaddressing thegrand challengesfacedbysocietyonclimatechange,energytransition, andfreshwatermanagementasstatedintheUN-SDG(Sustainable DevelopmentGoals,2019;AusfelderandHannaEwa,2018;Boulay etal.,2018;CEFICandDECHEMA,2017;Storketal.,2018;Klemeˇs andJiˇríJaromír,2020),andalsotheonesrelatedtothe technolog-icalneedofcreatingcircularityoforganic,carbonandinorganic resources.Thisisalsoconnectedwithwatersourcemanagement, includingitsqualityandfootprinttowarrantanoverallsustainable process/productparadigm,wherebylifecyclesassessmentplaysa keyrole(Boulayetal.,2018).Togetherwiththesechallenges,the chemicalindustryconstantlyseekstoincreaseenergysavings,an objectiveofthechemicalindustrysincethe70swhilereducing theirgreenhousegasemissions.
Process Intensification (PI) is a relatively new toolset for addressingthesegoalsthatisgainingmomentuminindustryand academiccircles.WeprovideanupdateddefinitionofwhatPIin thecontextofeducationforchemicalengineersinPart1(Rivas etal.,2020),andissummarisedas1)anapproach“byfunction”,a departurefromtheconventionalprocessdesignbyunitoperations, and2)anapproachthatfocusesnotonlyontheprocessitself,but alsoonwhathappens“outsideorasaconsequenceoftheprocess”. TherecentInternationalConferenceonProcessIntensification (IPIC2, Leuven 2019 (EFCE, 2018)) included an academic seg-ment, an industrial segment, as well as several workshops on selectedtopics:continuousmanufacturing,multifunctional pro-cesses,alternative energy sources, and 3D printing. During the LorentzCentreWorkshopheldinJune2019,introducedinPart1 (Rivasetal.,2020),therelevanceofPIfortheeducationofthe pro-fessionalsoftomorrowwasdiscussed.Thispaperexpandsonthe toolsavailabletomeetthisscope.
Traditionalchemical engineering courses arebased on unit-operationorientedtopics,suchaschemicalreactionengineering, massandheattransfer,polymerprocessing,particletechnology, etc(Stankiewiczand Yan,2019).PIeducationrequires students tomasterthosefundamentalconceptsaswellasmaterial-specific functions(e.g.surfacearea,permeability,responsivenessto induc-tion heating and microwave heating, and catalysis) to solve complexchemicalconversionand/orseparationprocesses. Intro-ducingtheseconceptsinthestudyofprocessesandapplicationof thePIprincipleswillrequireconsequentialchangesinthecurrent teachingmethodsandcontent.Forthisreason,wemustupdate the20-yearoldtoolboxapproachtoPIandincludematerialdesign and engineering, i.e. concepts and representative examples on howtoconceive and integratematerialsinto existingand new designstocontributetotheindustrialandecologicalchallenges oftoday.
Thisarticle details current provisions and proposals of how tointroducePIintochemicalengineeringeducationandtraining. Italsospecifiesconcreteresourcesandmaterialsappropriatefor academicsettings(BSc,MSc,andPhD)andprofessionalsworking intheindustrytoeffectivelycreatelong-termlearningofthePI principles.
2. Currenteducationalprogramsonprocessintensification Thenumberofeducationalprogramsinchemicalscienceand engineeringprograms offeringPIcourses hasgrownin thelast decade, as evidenced by a database of the PI courses offered atseveraluniversitiesand instituteswehavecompiled.Eachof thesecourseshasempiricalexperienceonadvantagesand chal-lengesassociatedwiththetypeofdeliverytheychose.Thejournal EducationforChemicalEngineershasagreedtoupdatethis informa-tion(Supplementarymaterial–Appendix1)regularlytoinclude changes and additions to the database. Furthermore, we have includedsomeofthebooksused.Whilethisnumberofchemical engineeringprogramsactiveinPIissignificant,onecouldstopto wonder:ifthisisenough?
DiscussionsduringanexpertpanelworkshoponPIeducation (Rivasetal.,2020)recognizedthattheintroductionofnewcourses inexistingcurriculaisoneoptiontoteachPIatatertiarylevel. How-ever,thismaybedifficultinthealreadyfullcurriculathatareoften structuredtofulfil professionalaccreditationrequirements(e.g.
IChemE,2019(InstitutionofChemicalEngineers(IChemE),2019;
ABET,2017).AmorerealisticapproachistointroducePIelements (ifnotthewholeframework)acrossseveralcourses.Forthis strat-egytosucceed,studentsmusthavebasicengineeringknowledge first(Part1,Figure3).Forthisreason,thesetheoreticalcoursescan beleveragedtointroducestudentstoPIandsustainabilityconcepts incombinationwithproject-basededucation,inwhichstudents usethelecturer-studentcontacttimetopracticesolvingproblems. ThepreceptsofBloom’sTaxonomy,whichdescribeandorder thedifferentcognitiveskills,offerastructuredwayofteachingPI. IfPIisadeparturefromtheconventionalprocessdesignbyunit operation,withafocusnotonlyontheprocessitself,butalsoon environmentalandsustainabilityissues,thenwhatarethe condi-tionsthatweshouldputintoplaceforthestudentstomastervery high-levelcompetencies(Rivasetal.,2020)?When“complex prob-lemsrequiresophisticatedproblem-solvingskillsandinnovative, complicatedsolutions”(Maddenetal.,2013),educatorsmustbe creativedesignersoflearningexperiencesthatmoveawayfrom traditionallearning(Henriksenetal.,2019).
Bloom’sTaxonomy(Bloom,1956)haslongbeenrecognisedby theinternationalcommunityofpedagogicalexpertsasaneffective framework that is applicableacrossdifferenteducational disci-plinesforconceivingandguidinglearningoutcomes.Revisedin 2001,itconceptualizesandclassifiescognitiveprocessesthatthe brainperformsandordersthosehierarchicallyfromthemost intro-ductory and accessible (remember) to the most advanced and integrative(create).Thethreecognitiveprocessesatthebottom oftheFig.1(righttriangle),remember,understandandapplyare the“lowerorder cognitiveskills”or LOCS,whileanalyse, evalu-ateandcreateare“higherordercognitiveskills”orHOCS(Resnick, 1987);(Thompson,2008)),(Appendix2inSupplementary mate-rial for more details). These cognitive skills are linked to the Chemical-Engineeringtoolbox,inwhichtransferableskills comple-mentfundamentalknowledgeinchemicalengineeringacademic program.Onlyasmallselectionoftransferableskillsisshownhere: otherslikecriticalmindset,(interdisciplinary)collaboration, com-munication,andinformation literacyarelistedamongthe“21st CenturySkills”andreceivemuchattentioninthedevelopmentof newcourses.
Fig.1.CombiningthechemicalengineeringtoolboxwiththecognitiveprocesstaxonomyforthedevelopmentofeffectiveteachinginPI.Arguably,thisconceptisvalidalso foraglobalprogram,PIaddssynthesis(integration)tothetoplevel.
Thecognitiveprocesstaxonomyelucidateswhyitisvirtually impossibleforstudentstobecreativeiftheyspendmostofthe classtimelisteningtoanexpert.Hearinganexpertthinkingout loudduring thecreativeprocess is one essentialstep, but it is insufficienttoenablestudentstodoitthemselves.Ifthemain cog-nitiveactivityofstudentsistryingto“understand”,thereislittle roomforthemtorapidlyapply,analyse,andevaluateinfrontof acompetenteducator.Theeducatorinturn,mustdiagnoseany weaknessesandthecognitiveprocessinwhichtheyarestuck.Here, theconceptof“failfast”philosophyisparticularlyimportantforan enjoyableandeffectiveteaching-learningprocess(Khannaetal., 2016).BycombiningBloom’sTaxonomywiththe“Chemical Engi-neeringToolbox”requiredinPI,onecanfindattheintersection clearguidelinestobuildaneffectiveeducationalprogram onPI (Fig.1).Thisposesanadditionalchallengetotheeducators,asoften theyhavenotclimbedthe“PIladder”.WeadvocatethatPIshould beincorporatedinthesingletechnicaltoolbox.
Learning PI and being able to transfer the knowledge into realsituations encouragesstudentstoworkincircumstancesas closeaspossibletothework-floor.Thisrequiresactivelearning approaches,likeproject-basedlearning,problem-basedlearning, team-basedlearningandcasestudies,wherethestudentsare cog-nitivelyengagedandmorelikelytosupporthigherordercognitive skills(Freemanetal.,2014).Ifthetaskinspiresreachingthehigher levelsofthecognitiveprocesses,itwillallowdivergentthinking andinterdisciplinarityneededforthefutureofindustry(Connor etal.,2017).Table1presentstypicalPIlearningactivitiesandthe cognitiveprocessstudentspotentiallyreachthroughthese.
3. ChallengesofteachinganddeployingPIwithinhigher education
Preparingstudentstojointhecreativeandopen-minded work-forcerequiresflexibilityintheuniversityenvironmentandlearning conditions (material, flexible schedules, academic tasks, etc.). WhiletheobjectiveistousePIcoursesastheplaygroundfor chem-icalengineeringstudentstofree-uptheircreativityandingenuity tocreate,study,andvalidateintensifiedprocesses,inpracticethe crowdedacademicagendalimitsthetime ofstudentsand
edu-cators.Instructingstudentsusingmoreinteractivestrategieswill increasethestudents’engagement.Thenextsectionfocusseson threechallengestoincorporatePIintoexistingcourses:(1) find-ing the righteducational modules in the chemical engineering curriculum tointroduceand deepenedPItechnologies;(2) lim-itedavailability ofcase studiesfor education;and,(3) theneed topreparestudentswithessential-skillstocommunicateeffective techno-economicanalysesofPIwhenworkinginindustry.
3.1. AdequateintegrationofPIinestablishedchemical engineeringcurriculum
Duringtheworkshop,therewasaquestionthatallparticipants weregrappling with:where doesa PIcoursefit in thealready crowdedacademiccurricula?ThoughthemajorityagreedthatPIis moreappropriateatagraduatelevel,itwasdeemedimportantto findwaystoinspirestudentsevenattheundergraduatelevel, espe-ciallyregardingtheunderlyingphysicsofnon-traditionalforces, withoutdetailedPIanalysesatahigherorderofcognitiveskills (HOCS,Fig.1).However,thisapproachfacesagreaterchallenge nowadaysatalllevels.Thisisrelatedtothemultidisciplinary pro-grammesthatarethenorminmanytechnicaluniversitiesandtend tosaturatethestudentswithinformation.DoesPIaddtothis con-fusion withallitsnoveltyand definitions?We believethat the benefitsofbringingatleastthebasicprinciplesandcomprehensive approachofPIoutweighanyriskofcomplicatingexisting curric-ula,aslongasPIcanbeseamlesslyincorporated,eitherinongoing courses,orinanewcourse.
Aneasier-to-answerquestionthatsurfacedwaswhetheraPI courseshouldbemandatory:unanimously,andnotsurprisingly, theanswerwasyes.Thisanswerwasaccompaniedbypractical suggestionsofprogressiveimplementationwithintheoverall cur-ricula,suchasmentioningPItobothundergraduateandgraduate studentsanddemonstratingexamplesofPIinthecontextof chem-icalreactionengineering and unitoperations,as wellasdesign projectsforthestudentstopracticeandimplementPIprinciples. Itisalsousefultobringpracticalexamplesthatconcernnature. Forinstance,whenmentioningmicro-reactors,apopularexample, PIcontraststraditionalmicrochannelsandhumanbloodvessels:a
18 D.FernandezRivasetal./EducationforChemicalEngineers32(2020)15–24
Table1
ExamplesoflearningactivitiesinPIandtherequiredfundamentaldisciplinesandtransferableskills.Appendix3providesspecificimplementationexamplesofeachof theselearningactivitieswheretheinvolvementofdifferentconceptsinchemicalengineeringareillustrated.FurtherdetailsontheexamplesprovidedinAppendix3canbe obtainedfromcitedreferencesorbycontactingtheco-authorsofthiswork.
CognitiveProcess PIlearningactivity Chemicalengineeringtoolbox
Create(Lucas,2001)1 Agroupofthreetofivestudents(frommorethanonediscipline,if
possible)analysearealproblemsituation,co-createanoriginal strategyemergingfromthecombinationofmultidisciplinary frameworks.Theyplanhowtheywouldputitintoplace.
Largergroupsthan5studentsmightprovedifficulttohandle,andthe chanceof“free-riders”increases.
Fundamentalknowledge:
Safety,Sustainability,ProcessDesign,UnitOperations,Transport Phenomena,Thermodynamics,ChemicalKinetics,Chemistry,Physics, Mathematics
Transferableskills:
Teamwork,Innovation,criticalmindsetandinformationmanagement, creativity
SeeAppendix3.2,3.3,3.4,3.5,3.6,3.7inSupplementarymaterial Evaluate Agroupofstudentsanalysearealsituationwithintheirowndiscipline
andshareitwiththeirpeerssoeveryoneunderstands.Together,they evaluateallthepossiblestrategiestosolvetheproblemandidentify whatwouldbethebestoption.Then,studentsshouldbeableto substantiatetheirselectiontothelecturer.StudentscompareaPI processorapparatustoaconventionalone,listingadvantagesand disadvantages
Fundamentalknowledge:
Safety,Sustainability,UnitOperations,TransportPhenomena, Thermodynamics,ChemicalKinetics,Chemistry,Physics,Mathematics Transferableskills:
Teamwork,Innovation,criticalmindsetandinformationmanagement. SeeAppendix3.1,3.2,3.3,3.4,3.6,3.7,3.8and3.9inSupplementary material
Analyse Studentsdeconstructarealsituationintoitscomponentsandconnect thecorrespondingcomponentsofarelevantconcepttoascertainits underlyinglogicandpredictwhatwouldhappenifwechangeoneor moreparameterstotherealsituation.Theyexplainunexpectedresults thathappenedinanexperiment.StudentsdescribeaPIprocess,break itdownintoitscomponentsandindicatewhichphysicalphenomena playarole.
Fundamentalknowledge:Safety,UnitOperations,Transport Phenomena,Thermodynamics,ChemicalKinetics,Chemistry,Physics, Mathematics
Transferableskills:
Teamwork,innovation,criticalmindsetandinformationmanagement. SeeAppendix3.1,3.2,3.3,3.4,3.5,3.6,3.7,3.8and3.9in
Supplementarymaterial Apply Studentscansolveabstractproblemsusingformulasprovidedor
learnedbyheart.Theyareabletoreproduceagivenexperimentinthe lab.Studentsapplye.g.mass-transfertheoryinaPIcontext,calculate therequiredsizeofanapparatus
Fundamentalknowledge:TransportPhenomena,Thermodynamics, ChemicalKinetics,Chemistry,Physics,Mathematics
Transferableskills: Teamwork,criticalmindset
SeeAppendix3.0and3.1,3.2,3.3,3.4,3.5,3.6,3.7inSupplementary material
Understand Studentsexplainintheirownwordstheinfluenceofvelocity, temperatureandconcentrationinachemicalprocess.Theycanfind examplesofthepresenceofthesephenomenainotherapplications. Theycanalsorecognizewhy(e.g.)astaticmixerisanexampleofPI equipment.
Fundamentalknowledge:TransportPhenomena,Thermodynamics, ChemicalKinetics,Chemistry,Physics,Mathematics
Transferableskills:Teamworkifinteam
SeeAppendix3.0,3.1,3.2,3.3,3.4,3.5,3.6,3.7,3.8inSupplementary material
Remember Studentsmemorizeformulas,materialcharacteristics,stepsofa process,conceptsattributes,etc.(oranyothertypeofrotelearning). ThestudentsareabletoreproducethedefinitionofProcess Intensificationwhenasked
Fundamentalknowledge:Thermodynamics,Chemistry,Physics, Mathematics
Transferableskills: Teamworkifinteam
SeeAppendix3.0,3.1,3.2,3.3,3.4,3.5,3.6,3.7,3.8inSupplementary material
1 AccordingtoLucas(2001),«[c]reativepeoplequestiontheassumptionstheyaregiven.Theyseetheworlddifferently,arehappytoexperiment,totakerisksandtomake
mistakes.Theymakeuniqueconnectionsoftenunseenbyothers.»(p.138)(Lucas,2001).
circularmicrochannelof400minamicroreactordeliversa spe-cificareaofca.15000m2/m3.Nature,however,beatsengineering:
ourcapillaryveinsareca.10mindiameter,havespecificareasof ca.400000m2/m3and(mostofthetime)donotclog(VanGerven
andStankiewicz,2009)!
ParticipantsintheLorentzworkshopalsodiscussedwhatare theminimumresourcesrequiredtohaveabasic,undergraduate PImodulewithinacourse.First,acostlesssolutionwouldbeto introducetheterm“processintensification”anditsmeaningin dif-ferentmandatorycourses(asithappensnowwithheatandmass transfer,unit-operations,safetyetc.).Somebasicrequirementsfor groupproject-basedactivities,include:
• Basic infrastructure for students to meet regularly with the instructorandteachingassistants,andseparatelyasgroups. • Accesstostructuredcourseslides,successstories–some
exam-pleswhereitworks,couldbeinstructionalvideos.
• Accesstoliterature(traditionalorelectronic)includingjournals thatpublishbothPItheoryandapplications.Differentspecific journalsareavailableonPIandreportonboththetheoryand theapplicationofPIindifferentfields.Tobeevenmoreeffective, anonlinedatabasereportingcompaniesapplyingPIprocesses shouldbeavailabletostudentswhowanttoanalyseand under-standrealexamples.Anothervaluabletoolcouldbeacollection ofpatentsonPItechnologies,andfailedPIapplications.Inthis
waystudentswillappreciatethedriverstoapplyPI,aswellas thefactorsthathavepermittedandimpededthedeploymentof thetechnology.
• Meanstocompileinformation,storageandpreparationof docu-ments,reports,etc.
• InthecaseofProblemBasedLearningandChallengeBased Learn-ing(section4.1)thatrequiremodellingactivities,whicharekey inaPIcourse,thecorrespondingtools,e.g.AspenPlus,COMSOL, etc.alongwithateachingassistantdedicatedtotheseactivities. Instructive,learningobjectivescanalsobereachedwithsimpler toolssuchasMicrosoftExcelandMATLABtosolvedifferential equationsforflow,heatandmasstransfer,reactionkinetics,etc. ThesetoolsenabledesignorinvestigationofoneormoreofthePI domains(structure,synergy,energyandtime)atoneormoreof thePIscales(plant,process,particleandmolecular)(Santosand VanGerven,2011).
• AccesstoRAPID’sandCOSMIC’swebinarsonboththetheoryand modelling(e.g.COSMIC’stutorialonultrasoundandmicrowaves irradiation).Thesewebinarscouldbetakenasanassignment(a reportbyastudentorgroupofstudentscanfollow).
• Brainstorming/creativeactivities.
• Laboratories:ultrasoundhornorbathtoexaminesonication pro-cesses,(Haqueetal.,2017),thermogravimetricanalyser(TGA), ideallywithdifferentialscanningcalorimetry(TGA-DSC) capa-bility,andevenmoreideallyhyphenatedtoamassspectrometer
(TGA-MSorTGA-DSC-MS),toinvestigatehigh-temperature reac-tionsinreal-time(Santosetal.,2012);tubularandstirred-tank reactorsforbatch-to-continuousandmixed-to-plugflowprocess transitions(Zhangetal.,2019b);in-situanalysers(e.g.particle size,infrared)fortrackinginreal-timeunsteady reaction pro-cesses;amongotherspossibilities.
Ultimately,theresourcesdonotneedtobeexpensiveforthe studentstodeepentheiranalysisandcomeupwithcreativeor wellsupportedideas.MoredetailsaregiveninSection5.
3.2. IndustryrequirementsinPIeducation:commercialsuccess stories
ManylargescaleplantshaveappliedPI(Rivasetal.,2020): distil-lationplants(Kiss,2014)(dividing-wallcolumns(Johnetal.,2008), internallyheatedintegrateddistillation(Fangetal.,2019), reac-tivedistillationsformethylandethylacetate(Singhetal.,2014), andfortheesterificationofaceticacid(AgredaandHeise,1990), structuredreactors(e.g.selectivereactiveNOxreduction), rotat-ingHiGeeequipment(Cortes Garcia etal.,2017)(e.g.seawater deaerator,strippingofhypochlorousacid,CO2absorption),tailgas
cleaningofSO2 bymeansofarotatingpackedbed(RPB)reactor
(Darake et al.,2014), printed circuitheatexchangers(PCHE) in offshoregastreatmentplants(Baeketal.,2010),andtheTwister foroffshoregasdrying (Esmaeili,2016).Similarly,varioustypes ofmicro-andmilli-reactorsorequipmenthavebeenusedinfine chemicals,automotiveexhaustaftertreatment,andthe pharma-ceuticalsindustry,wherenumbering-upofmicrofluidicstructures orreactorsallowsforproductionscale-up.(Kockmannetal.,2011;
Modestinoetal.,2016;Shenetal.,2018;Zhangetal.,2017). ThereareimportantreasonswhyPIlarge-scaleequipmentand microreactorsalike,arestillnotusedmorewidely,andeducation hasthepotentialtoresolvethisinpart.Alistofaspectswehave identifiedcanbefoundinAppendix4inSupplementarymaterial. Implementingtheseexamplesandthetheoryandeconomic mod-elsbehindtheorysuccessinPIcourses,aswellascoursesoffered toindustrialstaff,canacceleratePIknowledgedisseminationand itsimplementation.
Thedifficultyofmakinga compellingcasefornewsolutions shouldnotbeunderestimatedinPIeducation.Thisisaboutbeing abletotellacredibletechno-economicstory,tobothmanagement andseniortechnologistsinthecompanyforwhomPIsolutionsare newand“different”aswell,forexample:
• PItechnologyUimprovesyieldX%,reducesenergyconsumption byY%,andlowersCAPEXandOPEXcomparedtoconventional processes,whilereducingourCO2footprintbyZ%.
• ThisPItechnologyis differentindeed,butwe understandthe fundamentals.
Orabelievableinvestmentriskstory:
“ThisnewPIsolutionisdifferentfromconventionaltechnology butwillallowthecompanytoreducecapitalrisk,makenew products(unattainablewithconventionaltechnologies),reduce inventory,managethesupplychainmoreeffectively,etc.” InIndustry,timingiscritical:tellingthetechno-economicand riskstoriesattherighttimeintheinvestmentcycleisfundamental tohavethemanagementselectingPIoveranincumbent technol-ogy.RAPIDdevelopedastudentinternprogramthatfocuses on developingthenextgenerationofleadersinPI.TheInternswork onprojectsatRAPIDmemberinstitutionsthatadvancePIor mod-ularprocessing,whilesimultaneouslylearningabouttheconcepts virtually throughPI E-learning coursesand webinars.This pro-videsstudentswithreal-worldcontextandavalue-propositionfor
PI.Appendix5inSupplementarymaterialsummarizesahistorical accountofpast(Dutch)experienceregardingPIandtheindustry setting.
Implementing PI technology, like any novel development requires up toa decade and includes a research phase, a pilot plant,andademonstrationunit.Trainingstudentswithinnovative technologiesmayincreasetheprobabilityofadoptionandreduce industrytendencytodirectlyjumptoproventechnologieswitha shorterimplementationcycle.
Finally,overcomingthesebarriersrequirescooperativeefforts in academia, industry and certification agencies. For example, largegapsin equipmentdesign inthefieldsof ultrasonic reac-tors,microwaves,electricandmagneticfieldsshouldbehandledin academia,whileproductionproblemsoftherespectiveequipment shouldbehandledbyindustryorindustry-ledconsortia.Butthere aremanyotherdesignproblemsofalreadyintroducedequipment. Forsomeoftheseitemsthereareonlysimplecorrelations.Amajor problemistofindoutwhichunit operationsshouldbestudied first,thatmeanswhichequipmenthashighestprobabilityto pen-etratethemarket.Astherearealreadymanytheoreticalanalyses ofpotentialPIstrategiesforagivenapplications,anevaluationand rankingoftheseinbusinessterms(CAPEX,OPEX)and sustainabil-itypotential(energyuse,rawmaterialefficiencyusage,E-factors, etc.)asundertakeninarecentstudyonintensifiedamidation pro-cessinginthepharmaceuticalindustry,wouldbewelcomedbythe community(Fengetal.,2019).
4. EnablersofPIeducation
Inthissectionwereviewsomeofthestrategiesandeducational technologiesthatcanfacilitatetheimplementationofPI educa-tionina moreeffectivemannerandovercomethesomeof the aforementionedchallenges.
LearningPIinchemicalengineeringprogramsshouldbe con-ceived as sandbox in which students can creatively apply all theirknowledgeonunitoperationtotackle chemicalindustrial problems.To fosterlively discussionsand brainstorming activi-tiesbetweenstudents,wecanleverageseverallearningtoolsand strategies.
4.1. Problem-basedlearning(PBL)orChallengeBasedLearning (CBL)
In PBL,students analyzeanddiscussa realproblemwithan expectedscopeand solution,defining theacademicconceptsto learn(Dolmansetal.,2016).Therefore,inPBL,thefocusinmore ontheacquisitionofknowledge, ratherthanonitsapplication. In CBL (not to confuse with case-based learning) students are activelyengagedinarelevantandchallengingproblemrelatedto a real-worldcontext(it isan openproblem, where nosolution isknown).CBLismoreadvancedthanPBLasitimpliesthatthe knowledgehasbeenalreadyacquired,anditinterpretsit,rather thanassimilatingit,toimplementsolutionsthatanswerthe chal-lenge(Hernández-de-Menéndezetal.,2019).Forexample,when faced witha challenge,successfulgroups andindividuals lever-ageexperience,harnessinternalandexternalresources,develop aplanandpushforwardtofindasolution(VegaandNavarrete, 2019).Alongtheway,thereis experimentation,failure,success andultimatelyconsequencesforactions.Byaddingchallengesto learningenvironmentstheresultisurgency,passion,and owner-ship–ingredientsoftenmissinginschools.CBLcanbestructured inthreecyclingphases(Fig.2):(1)aninvestigatingphaseinwhich studentshavetointernalizetheproblemdefinitionanddiagnosis andself-studytheinformationtosolvethecase;(2)actingphase thatisaimedatdesigning,implementing,andtestingtheproposed
20 D.FernandezRivasetal./EducationforChemicalEngineers32(2020)15–24
Fig.2.CyclicphasesofChallengeBaseLearning.(https://cbl.digitalpromise.org/stories/).
solutions:and(3)engagingphaseinwhichthestudentsleverage theinteractionwiththetutorandhispeerstosolvetheproblem. Thisstrategysupportsthedevelopmentofknowledgeacquisition inanautonomousmanner,developmentoftransferable-skillsor essential-skillsandlife-longlearning(Ruiz-Ortegaetal.,2019).In thisstrategy,thestudent-tutorinteractionisemployedtosupport theproblem-solvingstageratherthantheknowledgeacquisition (KOLMOS, 1996).We reportexamplesofhow different instruc-torsimplementeitherPBLorCBLinAppendix3inSupplementary material.
4.2. Practicalexperimentation
Practicallaboratorieswithstudents manipulatingequipment continues toplay a prominent role in thecurrent engineering education(Chenetal.,2016)).Inordertoeffectivelycreate life-longlearningonPIthecookbookexperimentation(Hofsteinand Lunetta,1982; Kontraetal.,2015)shouldbereplacedby peer-instructionandcollaborativelearning.Tosuccessfullyimplement this,universitieswillstillneedtoprovidetheinfrastructure for theseactivities–space,materials,lab-andpilot-scale equipment-at a cost. While potentially an expensive option, buying an experimentalPIsetupforeducationalpurposescanofferdeeper understandingandhands-onexperienceforstudents.Experiments canbedesignedinwhichtheaimistocomparethePIsetupto amoreconventionaloneanddiscernthebenefitsanddrawbacks ofeach.Possibilitiesrange fromstaticmixerstoreactorsetups. Creativeimplementationofthesesetupsinthecurriculum(e.g.a spinning-diskreactorcanbeusedtostudyfluidflowinonecourse, masstransferprocessesinanotherandreactionkineticsinathird) canhelpalleviatehighcostandmaintenanceoftheapparatus.
Rentingequipmentisamodelwhereitispossiblenotonlyto teachPI,buttoletacompanytestthetechnologyandeducateits
personnel.Severalcompanies(techsuppliers)havearenting pro-gram.Similarly,theequipmentcouldbeownedbyanInstitute,that rentsitandthecompanycanprotectitsknow-howofthechemistry andtestthetechnologyaftersometraining.
4.3. Computer-aidedteachingofPI
Computer-aided teaching can be leveraged to facilitate the learningofPIatmicro-(e.g.molecularandconvectivetransport, heat transfer, chemical reaction mechanism, etc) and macro-scopic(e.g.processcapitalandoperationalcosts,environmental impact,sustainability).Here,PartialDifferentialEquations(PDEs) canbeinteractivelyvisualisedtostudythemicroscopicprocesses occurringin a unit of operation(e.g. thevelocity, temperature andconcentrationchangesasafunctionoftheoperating condi-tions.Newsoftwaremodulesprovideintuitionandapplicability of these fundamentals. For example, to understand the differ-encebetweendiffusionandadvectionofchemicalspecies(Figure A6.3.1),problem-basedlearningorinquiry-basedlearning(Belton, 2016;Glasseyetal.,2013)canbeused.Withthismethodology,one caninteractivelyvisualisehowtointensifyaprocessbymodifying thegeometryofthechannel,thediffusioncoefficientorthe veloc-ityeventuallyself-discoveringastaticmixer(FigureA6.3.2),one ofthemostversatileprocessintensifiedtechnologies(Keil,2018;
Kiss,2016;TowlerandSinnott,2013).
Atthemacroscopicscale,Processsimulation(RAPID,2020)tools canbeusedtohelpstudentsunderstandingprocessconfiguration andtheconsequencesofPIimplementationthroughcasestudies andeconomicanalysis.Themainfactorhinderingcomputer sim-ulationsofPIisthatcurrentchemicalprocesssimulatorsoftware packageslackofphenomenologicalorevenempiricalmodelsthat cancapturethecomplexityofPIprocesses.Forinstance,inthecase ofmolecularreactors,simulationsshouldintegrateintrinsickinetic
modelsataresolutionofthemicro-mixingscales,aswellas non-conventionaldrivingforcesorheatandmasstransferratesatthe reactorscalefromafewtoseveralhundred-litrevolume.However, rapidadvancesinfirst-principlecomputationalmodellingpromise thatthesoftwaretoolstosimulatePItechnologiesmaybesoon available(Appendix6.3inSupplementarymaterial),thusspeeding upPIeducationand,asaconsequence,itsimplementationatthe commercialscale(BoffitoandVanGerven,2019;Fontes,2020;Ge etal.,2019)
Morerecently,advancesinbothmachinelearningalgorithms andcomputerhardwareareopeningupnewpossibilitiestoidentify opportunitiesforprocesscontrol(andtheneededmethodstoteach it)(Rio-Chanonaetal.,2019).Forexample,ReinforcementLearning cansuccessfullygenerateanoptimalpolicyofstochasticdecision problems(Petsagkourakisetal.,2020).Thus,bycombiningboth processsimulation softwareand data-driventechniques(Zhang etal.,2019a), theintensifiedprocesscanbeimprovedin terms ofcontrolandschedulingdecisions.While,thereareseveraltools forAIavailable,(e.g.MATLAB,neuralnetworktoolboxor Python-basedTensorflow/TFLearning,PyLearn2,NeuroLab,PyTorch,Caffe, andKeras),massiveamountsofdatacollectedinthevicinityof con-trolpointsareinsufficientforextrapolation.So,wemustcaution studentsabouttheseseeminglyrobustmethodologies.
4.4. Exploitingnew(visualization)technologies
VirtualandAugmentedReality,3DPrinting,InternetofThings, ArtificialIntelligence,VirtualLaboratoriesareconsideredas trans-formative technologies that can be leveraged to enhance PI education.Besidesofferinganexcitingwayofeducation,they pro-vide flexibility for students toacquire knowledge and practice theirskillsattheirownpace.Amongthecompetenciesthatthese advancesfostertherearespatialvisualization,innovativethinking, problemsolving,creativity,analysisandcriticalthinking:essential abilitiesthattheworkforceofthefuturemusthave,especiallyin PI.
Twoimportantexamplesare:VirtualandAugmentedReality and3DPrinting.VirtualandAugmentRealityaretworelated tech-nologies.Theformerdevelopsdigitalenvironmentsinwhichusers cangetimmersedandareabletomanipulateobjectsandinteract withthespace.Thelater,superposesvirtualobjectsinrealimages thatarecapturedthroughamobiledevice,theideaistoimprovethe environment.Ineithercase,thesetechnologiesareusefulin edu-cationtodevelop,forexample,intensifiedprocessesinacontrolled manner,exploreabstractconceptsandstudyphenomenaindetail. Theirkey characteristicsare: immersion, interaction and visual realismandthesecanbeclassifiedasimmersive,semi-immersive, andnon-immersive.Thepositiveeffectsofvirtualrealityteaching usinghapticmethodshavebeenalreadydemonstratedforlearning chemicalbonding.Theseforcefeedbackhapticapplicationscanalso offernewopportunitiesforlearningtostudentswhohave difficul-tiesinunderstandingsomesubjects,whichwouldbegamechanger intheapplicationofPIoneducation.(Ucaretal.,2017)
5. NewsubjectsandmaterialtoconsiderinPIcourses
BasedonourpastexperienceinteachingPIandothersubjects, aswellastheoutcomeofthediscussionofourworkshopatthe LorentzCentre,wecompiledalistofitemstointegrateintonew andexistingPIcourses,atseveralcognitivelevels(Fig.1): • Stressonthermodynamicsandtheconceptofentropy(Appendix
3.0inSupplementarymaterial).
• Methodologiesorstepstoguidethestudents(andfutureindustry workers)onwhentointensify(appendix3.1,6.1,6.2in
Supple-mentarymaterial).Incaseswheretheinformationavailablein academicsettingsisunavailable,itmakessensetomotivate stu-dentstoguesstimate(estimatewithinadequateorinsufficient information).
• Modelling,inparticularnewsoftwaremodulestohelpboth edu-cation and scale-up to become commercial (Appendix 6.3 in Supplementarymaterial).Currentmodelsarelimitedanddonot coverallPIsystems,butonlythemostpopularones(staticmixers, reactivedistillation,ultrasoundmixingandinductionheating), whiletheylackmorecomplexcases(modellingofacoustic cav-itation,plasmareactors,etc.).WiththeadventoftheIndustry 4.0,weanticipateanincreaseintheavailabilityofthesemodels, whichcanbetheninturnadoptedasteachingmaterial. • Laboratorysessionscanbeveryeffectivetopractically
demon-stratetherelevanceofintensifieddevices.Despitethesesessions requiring dedicated resources and time, they can be rapidly implemented sincesome manufacturersprovide ready-to-use kits,thatarecompatiblewithstandardacademicfacilitiesand analytics. For example, micro-structured mixers, reactors or spinning-disc reactors efficiently demonstrate the impact of intensificationontheselectivityofchemicalsyntheses.Seesome examplesonrentingequipmentinSection3.1c.
• Tutoredprojectsmayalsobeanoptiontohelpstudents prop-erlyunderstandPIconceptsandapplythemtomorecomplex problems,while gettingintohigher cognitivelevels:thetime dedicatedtotutoredprojectsisalsoappropriate tohelpthem becoming creativeand togobeyondtheircurrentknowledge (Appendix3.3inSupplementarymaterial).
• AnewandimportantlinkcanalsobeestablishedbetweenPIand materials(StankiewiczandYan,2019),sincePIisnotrestricted toreactorsizing/designandactivationmodesonly.Several inten-sification strategies are directly related to various aspects of materialsproperties:thermalconductivityforheatrouting,hot spotscontrol,tortuosityandporosityforcatalyticapplications, etc. Other innovative solutions such as product formulations andcatalysiswerenotconsideredpartofPI.Materialscanbe formedtohave“shape-selective”geometries,fromthe molecu-lartothemesoscale.It issufficienttothinkofzeolites,which havecavitiesthatarebothsizeandshape-selective.Other prop-ertiessuchassuper-wettability,super-hydrophobicity,magnetic andparamagneticproperties,magnetocaloricandmetamaterials offeruniqueopportunitiesforPI.Thedevelopmentsofthenew visualizationtechnologiesoutlinedinSection4.4.mayaccelerate evenmorethissynergy.
• New software modules for education and scale-up can help understanding transport phenomena, especially under non-conventionalconditions andincase ofnon-traditionaldriving forces.Thelackofpseudo-empiricalcorrelationsisoneofthefirst challengesastudentfaceswhentransformingorscalingup/down anewchemicalprocess(Zhangetal.,2018).Oftentaughtasan abstractwayofestimatingheatandmasstransfercoefficients, theseequationslimittheunderstandingandinnovativeaspectof processdesign.Seeappendix6.3inSupplementarymaterialfor anexampleonhowtoenhancemass-transferphenomenausing computer-aidedsimulations.
6. OpportunitiesforPItofulfilitspromises
Toensureindustry-pullintoPIsolutions,theremustbeaclear advantagetoconvincecompaniesand investorstoadoptit.We believethatarealisticapproachistofindabottleneckratherthan tooverhaulacomplete process.For example,aplantemployee explainsaprocesstoaPIexpert,andtogethertheydeterminewhat thebottlenecksare,andjointlydeviseasolution.Thefeasibilityof thePIoptionscanbeassessed,consideringthe(economic)goalsof
22 D.FernandezRivasetal./EducationforChemicalEngineers32(2020)15–24
theprocess,andusingavailablemethods(Reayetal.,2013),which rangefrombeingfamiliartoobscure(Appendices6in Supplemen-tarymaterial).Atraditionalriskassessmentmustfollow.Logically, thisreasoningmustbetaughtatallrelevantlevelstothestudents orworkersreceivingtraining.
Therearetwomainsourcesthatcanbeconsultedforproven solutions.First,datafromtheIbDprojectoncontrolofanumberof PIprocesses/demoscanbeshownasexamplesoftherecent suc-cessfulimplementationofPI.-(JannePaaso(VTT),RistoSarjonen (VTT),PanuMölsä(VTT),MarkkuOhenoja(OULU),Christian Adl-hart(ZHAW),AndreiHonciuc(ZHAW),TimFreeman(FREEMAN), 2017)Second,IPIC:https://kuleuvencongres.be/ipic2019/Home.
Modellingduringthedesignofindustrialprocessreducestime requirements.Companiestendtocommissionnewprojectsto min-imizerisksanddelays.Theexpertsperformingthesesimulations musthaveasolideducationandunderstatingofprocess engineer-ingaswellascomputer-aidedsimulationtechniques.
7. Conclusionsandrecommendations(part2)
Itisimportanttoreachandeducateallthesocial layersand increasetheacceptabilityofthechemicalindustriesbyusingthe tightlinkbetweenProcessIntensification(PI)andsustainability. PI offers opportunities to achieve the United Nations Sustain-ableDevelopmentGoals(UN-SDG)becauseitoffersstrategiesto implementtechnologieswithremoteinstallationandlowerCAPEX thanconventionalprocesses.Thisappliesinparticularto miniatur-izedchemicalplants(suchasmicro-pyrolysisorgasificationunits, micro-hydroormicrogas-to-liquidssystems).
WebelievePIhasthepotentialtoidentifysolutionswhere con-ventionalstrategiesfocusedonstep-by-stepincrementalprocess improvementsfail. However,PI solutionsintroduce more tech-nologicalandinvestmentriskthanconventionalapproaches.The involvementofcompaniesinthecontinuousacademiceducation iskey,aswellasnewmethodstocalculateinvestmentandassess risk,someofwhichweproposeinthisdocument.
A thorough analysis of the thermodynamics, kinetics, and transportinintensifiedprocessesaffordnewopportunitiesto illus-tratethecorepreceptsofchemicalengineering.Themultiphysics attributesthatcharacterizemostoftheintensifiedreactorsclearly introduceanon-linearbehaviourforthesedevices.The accelera-tionofphenomena(fastreactionskinetics,hightransfercapacities, processgainnonlinearity,etc.)alsorequiresfastmeasurementsand actuatorstoensurestability.Furthermore,theconversionofbatch processestocontinuousprocessesnecessitatesdrastic modifica-tionsofthecontrolsystems,aswellastrainingforengineers.
Forthisreason,weconsiderthatprocesscontrolinthecontext ofPIshouldreceivespecial attentioninPIeducation.PI-specific casestudies,eitherintegratedinthelast-yearchemical engineer-ingdesignproject,orinothercourses,isanapproachthatmostof theparticipantsoftheworkshoprecommend(seeAppendicesin Supplementarymaterial),andthatstudentsseemtoenjoy. Expos-ingallofthestudentstoPIalreadyattheundergraduatelevels, increasestheopportunityofthemtoproposePIsolutionsinthe futureintheindustrialcontexttheywillworkon.
Webelievethatthiswork,togetherwithPart1,willpavethe waytoamoreefficientadoptionofeducationonPI,andhopefully afasterimplementationintheindustry.
ReferencescitedintheSupplementarymaterial
AndersonandKrathwohl(2001),Andresen(2011),Charpentier (2010), Chen et al. (2015), Crooks (2007), Denbigh (1951),
Durmayaz(2004),Fengetal.(2017),Ghanemetal.(2014),Janne Paaso(2017),KingstonandRazzitte(2017),Kockmannetal.(2017),
Lawetal.(2017),Leitesetal.(2003),Lieberman(1989),Livotov (2019),Livotovetal.(2019),LivotovandPetrov(2013),Milanovic andEppes(2016),Missenetal.(1998),Navarro-Brulletal.(2019),
Noel(2019),PatienceandBoffito(2020),Reay(1991),Rivasetal. (2018),ROSJORDEetal.(2007),StankiewiczandMoulijn(2002),
Torabietal.(2019),TribeandAlpine(1986),Weberand Snowden-Swan(2019),Wright(1936).
DeclarationofCompetingInterest
Theauthorsdeclarethattheyhavenoknowncompeting finan-cialinterestsorpersonalrelationshipsthatcouldhaveappearedto influencetheworkreportedinthispaper.
Acknowledgments
TheauthorsthanktheLorentzCentrefor hostingthis work-shop(EducatingonProcessIntensification)andallattendeesofthe workshopfortheirinvaluableinput,visionforprocess intensifi-cationtechnologies,andcandiddiscussions.Wearealsograteful tootherparticipantswho voluntarilyarenotco-authorsof this manuscript:M.Goes(TKIChemie),P.Huizenga(Shell),J.P.Gueneau deMussy(KULeuven),C.Picioreanu(TUDelft),E.Schaer(Univ. Lor-raine),MarkvandeVen(NationalInstituteforPublicHealthand theEnvironment(RIVM),TheNetherlands).
Theviewsandopinionsexpressedinthisarticlearethoseofthe authorsanddonotnecessarilyreflectthepositionofanyoftheir fundingagencies.
We acknowledge thesponsors of theLorentz’ workshop on “EducatinginPI”:TheMESA+InstituteoftheUniversityofTwente, SonicsandMaterials(USA)andthePIN-NLDutchProcess Intensi-ficationNetwork.
DFRacknowledgessupportbyTheNetherlandsCentrefor Mul-tiscaleCatalyticEnergyConversion(MCEC),anNWOGravitation programmefundedbytheMinistryofEducation,Cultureand Sci-enceofthegovernmentofTheNetherlands.
NAacknowledgestheDeutscheForschungsgemeinschaft(DFG) -TRR63 ¨IntegrierteChemischeProzesseinflüssigen Mehrphasen-systemen¨(TeilprojektA10)-56091768.
TheparticipationbyRobertWeber intheworkshopand this reportwassupportedbyLaboratoryDirectedResearchand Devel-opmentfundingatPacificNorthwestNationalLaboratory(PNNL). PNNL is a multiprogram national laboratory operated for the US Department of Energy by Battelleunder contract DE-AC05-76RL01830
Theviewsandopinionsoftheauthor(s)expressedhereindonot necessarilystateorreflectthoseoftheUnitedStatesGovernmentor anyagencythereof.NeithertheUnitedStatesGovernmentnorany agencythereof,noranyoftheiremployees,makesanywarranty, expressedorimplied,orassumesanylegalliabilityorresponsibility fortheaccuracy,completeness,orusefulnessofanyinformation, apparatus,product,orprocessdisclosed,orrepresentsthatitsuse wouldnotinfringeprivatelyownedrights.
AppendixA. Supplementarydata
Supplementarymaterial relatedto this articlecanbe found, intheonlineversion,atdoi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ece.2020.05. 001.
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