The effect of
professional
attitude on the
relationship
between potential
and realized
absorptive capacity
T. C. Dijkman 11230800 26-06-2017Executive Programme in Management Studies University of Amsterdam
Statement of Originality
This document is written by Student Timon Dijkman who declares to take full responsibility for the contents of this document.
I declare that the text and the work presented in this document is original and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating it.
The Faculty of Economics and Business is responsible solely for the supervision of completion of the work, not for the contents.
Inhoud
Statement of Originality ... 1 Abstract ... 4 1 Introduction ... 5 1.1 Research problem ... 5 1.2 Previous research ... 71.2.1 Previous research on absorptive capacity ... 7
1.2.2 Previous research on social integration mechanisms ... 8
1.2.3 Previous research on professionalism ... 9
1.3 Research gap ... 10
1.4 Research question ... 10
1.5 Thesis structure ... 11
2 Main concepts ... 12
2.1 Literature introduction ... 12
2.2 The background of absorptive capacity; resource based view, dynamic capabilities and knowledge based view ... 12
2.3 Absorptive capacity ... 13
2.4 Social integration mechanisms ... 16
2.5 Professionalism ... 17
2.6 Professionalism as a social integration mechanism ... 19
3 Theoretical framework ... 20
3.1 Conceptual model ... 20
3.2 Boundary conditions and assumptions ... 20
3.3 Hypotheses ... 21 4 Method ... 25 4.1 Research method ... 25 4.2 Population sample ... 26 4.3 Data collection ... 26 4.4 Measurement ... 27
4.5 Reliability and validity ... 28
4.6 Analysis ... 30
5 Results ... 31
5.1 Descriptive analysis ... 31
5.3 Regression analysis ... 35
6 Discussion-conclusion... 38
6.1 Discussion ... 38
6.1.1 Potential absorptive capacity and realized absorptive capacity ... 38
6.1.2 Professionalism and realized absorptive capacity ... 39
6.1.3 Professionalism as a moderating effect ... 41
6.2 Contributions ... 41
6.3 Limitations and future research ... 42
6.4 Conclusions ... 43
7 References ... 44
Appendix A: Survey questions a ... 49
Appendix B: Introductory letter and survey ... 51
Abstract
In the literature about absorptive capacity, there is a difference between potential absorptive capacity (consisting of acquiring and assimilating new knowledge) and realized absorptive capacity (consisting of transforming and exploiting new knowledge). Analyzing absorptive capacity at the level of individual workers, there is a claim that social integration mechanisms increase the efficiency factor with which potential absorptive capacity is turned into realized absorptive capacity. Social integration mechanisms include formal and informal networks in which information is distributed. In this research, professionalism is introduced as a distinct type of social integration mechanisms. Professionalism provides individual workers extensive autonomy, which even limits the need to coordinate their work closely with their colleagues. In order to test the moderating effect of professionalism on the relationship between potential absorptive capacity and realized absorptive capacity, survey research was done within a large healthcare service organization. In total, 207 professional workers (doctors, behavioral
scientists and paramedics) have participated in the survey. Results show that there is a significant positive effect of potential absorptive capacity on realized absorptive capacity. There was also a significant positive effect of professionalism on realized absorptive capacity. However, the moderating effect of professionalism on the relationship between potential absorptive capacity and realized absorptive capacity was not found in this research. A possible explanation might be that professionalism performs a mediating role, rather than a moderating role. In this way, potential absorptive capacity influences the degree of an individual’s professionalism, which in turn influences the degree of realized absorptive capacity. This research shows that there is a direct positive relationship between the degree of professional autonomy and realized absorptive capacity. Further, findings
add to the understanding of social integration mechanisms as a moderator on the relationship between potential absorptive capacity an potential realized absorptive capacity by
demonstrating that professionalism (as distinct type of social integration mechanism) does not have a moderating role. Future research should investigate a potential mediating effect.
1 Introduction
1.1 Research problem
It is generally recognized that, because of the increasing speed of technological developments, innovation and the application of technological innovation is essential to a firms competitive advantage (Vinding, 2000, p. 507; Birkinshaw & Gibson, 2004, p. 47; Greve 2003, p. 685). The ability to innovate can lead to higher profitability, greater market value, superior credit ratings, and higher survival probabilities (Volberda et al., 2010, p. 1). But in order to innovate, outside knowledge is of vital importance (Cohen & Levinthal, 1990, p. 128; Tu et al, 2006, p. 693). There is even research that reveals that innovations are more often the result of borrowing, than they are the result of a single invention (March & Simon, 1958, p. 188). This means that outside knowledge is essential to innovative capability (Cohen&Levinthal, 1990, p. 128; Fosfuri, & Tribó, 2008, p. 173).
In order to grasp the ability to use external knowledge Cohen and Levinthal introduced the concept of absorptive capacity (Cohen & Levinthal, 1990). They defined absorptive capacity as the “ability to identify, assimilate, and exploit knowledge from the environment” (Cohen & Levinthal, 1990). Later Zahra and George (2002) gave a more refined definition of absorptive capacity: “A set of organizational routines and processes by which firms acquire, assimilate,
transform and exploit knowledge to produce a dynamic organizational capability”.
Zahra and George (2000) clearly distinguish four dimensions of absorptive capacity.
Acquiring and assimilating take care of potential absorptive capacity and transformation and exploitation lead to realized absorptive capacity (Zahra & George, 2002, p. 185). The shift from potential to realized absorptive capacity is influenced by social integration mechanisms (Zahra & George, 2002, p. 194). According to Zahra and George social integration
mechanisms can make employees aware of the types of data that shape potential absorptive capacity and social mechanisms facilitate the flow of information, making information available for transformation and exploitation (Zahra & George, 2002, p. 194). The effective use of social integration mechanisms should, according to Zahra and George (2002, p. 194), improve the efficiency factor with which knowledge moves from potential to realized absorptive capacity.
Social integration mechanisms, according to Todorova and Durisin (2007, p. 781) work as networks, build connectedness, build shared meanings and can be seen as strong as well as weak ties. Weak ties are considered to be distant and infrequent relationships (Hansen, 1999, p. 84) where strong ties are relationships in which a large amount of time is invested, there is a high degree of emotional intensity, mutual confiding and reciprocal services (Granovetter, 1973, p. 1361). The effect of strong ties as well as weak ties can be both negative and positive on absorptive capacity according to Todorova and Durisin (2007, p. 781). This claim is based on the concept of weak ties and their positive effect on sharing new knowledge (Granovetter, 1973; Tu et al, 2006, pp. 705-706). It is also based on the further conceptualization by Hansen (1999) who states that weak ties help to search for knowledge but impedes the transfer of complex knowledge, where strong ties are more needed. But the use and existence of strong and weak ties can differ. In professional bureaucracies the organization relies on the
standardization of skills. There is a strong pull to professionalize and the professionals have a great deal of autonomy (Mintzberg, 1989, p. 174). Mintzberg (1989, p.188) mentions that the professional organization disseminates its power directly to its workers. It provides them with extensive autonomy and even limits the need to coordinate closely with their colleagues. Professionals build connectedness and shared meanings among peers because of schooling by faculties controlled by the occupation (Freidson, 2001, pp.122-123; Noordegraaf 2004, p. 185), the sense of community and solidarity it creates (Freidson, 2001, p. 101) and the
language and habits specific to the profession (Noordegraaf, 2004, p. 185). Brint (1994, p. 24) describes the professionals as: “…people whose ties to the skills and cultures of an organized
professional group provide structure for markets for professional labor. Disciplinary training and ties out to the occupational group also provide a constraint on the hierarchical control of the organizations professionals work for”. In other words, professional control supersedes the
hierarchical administrative control (Mintzberg 1989, p. 184; Brint, 1994, p. 6). This holds that the strength and weakness of ties of professionals are different from those of usual
organizational members. Professionals have clear strong ties with their organized professional group and they show less commitment to what should be the strong ties of the (economic) organization they work in. Mintzberg (1989, p. 189) calls standardization of skills a loose coordination mechanism at best within the professional organization.
Professionalism creates strong ties within the profession and through the boundaries of organizations. This social integration mechanism is not a mechanism an organization can use as formalized, but it is a social integration mechanism that exists because of the professionals
that work within the organization. Because the organization has limited control over professionalism as a social integration mechanism, it is important to at least know what the influence of this mechanism is on absorptive capacity, because eventually this will affect the competitive advantage of the firm.
1.2 Previous research
Previous research can be divided in previous research concerning absorptive capacity,
previous research on social integration mechanisms and previous research on professionalism.
1.2.1 Previous research on absorptive capacity
Cohen and Levinthal (1990) were the first to write about the absorptive capacity concept. They defined absorptive capacity as the “ability to identify, assimilate, and exploit knowledge from the environment”. Lane et al. (2006) conducted a detailed analysis of the papers written about absorptive capacity in 2006. They found that previous research on absorptive capacity can be classified into seven categories: (1) defining and measuring absorptive capacity, (2) types of knowledge and absorptive capacity, (3) organizational structure and absorptive capacity, (4) organizational scope and absorptive capacity, (5) organizational learning and absorptive capacity, (6) interorganizational learning and absorptive capacity, (7) innovation and absorptive capacity. These categories will be explained shortly in this paragraph.
Much of the literature has identified absorptive capacity as a knowledge base. Lane et al (2006, p. 844) mention a R&D bias because R&D intensity and patents were often used as proxies for a prior knowledge base. This prior knowledge base is seen as an opportunity to operationalize absorptive capacity. There are relatively few papers that try defining absorptive capacity, of which the paper of Zahra and George (2002), who redefine absorptive capacity through the lens of dynamic capabilities, is the most influential. There are two streams of studies on types of knowledge. The first stream researches the characteristics of external knowledge because of the assumption that it affects assimilation and absorption by an organization. The second stream is about identifying knowledge characteristics within an organization that have an influence on absorptive capacity (Lane et al., 2006, p. 846). The role of organizational structure is not that big a subject of research. Researchers have focused on cross-functional teams, levels of centralization, formal integration mechanisms and
organizational flexibility. Some research is done at interorganizational level and some of these research strong and weak ties between organizations (Lane et al., 2006, p. 847). Studies about
organizational scope and absorptive capacity primarily write about how a firm’s absorptive capacity and scope influence each other. The common finding is that organizations perform better if they diversify to areas which relate to their current knowledge base (Lane et al., 2006, p. 847).
Most research on organizational learning and its relationship with absorptive capacity state that by increased learning in a specific area, the knowledge base in that area of the firm increases. In turn this should increase absorptive capacity and the increased absorptive
capacity can, in turn, increase learning. The central comment on these findings is that research does not have an extensive explanation how an increased knowledge base exactly leads to absorptive capacity (Lane et al., 2006, p. 848). Interorganizational learning is mentioned by Lane et al. (2006, p. 848) as the most well-developed research stream. Research on this theme falls into two groups: studies of dyadic relationships and studies of network relationships. The first research group concentrates on the relational aspects of interorganizational learning. Firms should have enough similarities to recognize the potential synergies, but should have enough differences in their knowledge base to create a learning effect. The network approach rests largely on the assumption that in a time of increasing innovation speed and the necessity to keep up the pace, a firm needs a network to feed its absorptive capacity (Lane et al., 2006, pp. 848-849). The research on innovation and absorptive capacity finds that absorptive capacity helps the speed, frequency, and magnitude of innovation and that innovation produces knowledge that becomes part of the firm’s absorptive capacity (Lane et al., 2006, pp. 849-850).
1.2.2 Previous research on social integration mechanisms
Although Lane et al. (2006) show that social integration mechanisms are no major research object, there is however some research about social integration mechanisms in relation to absorptive capacity. Social integration is defined as a multifaceted phenomenon that reflects the attraction to the group, satisfaction with other members of the group, and social
interaction among the group members” (O’Reilly et al. 1989, p. 22). A social integration mechanism, therefore, must be a structured way to achieve social integration.
Björkman et al. (2007, p.17) give a summation of social integration mechanisms in the multinational cooperation and between multinational corporation in the situation of an acquisition, based on seven scientific articles, dating from 1977 to 2001. They state that
commonly accepted social integration mechanisms are: (1) personnel rotation, (2) short term visits, (3) participation in joint training programs and meetings, (4) membership in cross-unit teams, taskforces and committees. These social integration mechanisms are meant to lead to interunit trust, development of shared vision, objectives and cultural values (Björkman et al., 2007, p.17).
In literature there is, of course, more research on social integration. There is however confusion about determining social integration and determining social integration
mechanisms. For example, Jansen et al. (2009, pp. 797-798) write about social integration mechanisms, but introduce senior team social integration as a mechanism. According to their research there is only established if there is senior team social integration, but the mechanism by which this was achieved is unclear.
1.2.3 Previous research on professionalism
Professionalism is a broad field of research. Especially in combination with knowledge of and learning by the professional. The combination of professionalism and absorptive capacity is a less researched theme. Most articles that use both the absorptive capacity concept as well as the professionalism concept, claim that professionalism of the workforce (R&D, IT,
purchasing function, medical) increases absorptive capacity. Professionalism, however, remains most of the time undefined and is often meant as the maturity of the unit.
A research that explicitly mentions absorptive capacity in combination with professionalism is the research of Knudsen and Roman (2004). Knudsen and Roman (2004) relate the use of innovations to professionalism, where professionalism is measured by the percentage of MA counsellors, percentage licensed/certified counselors, percentage recovering counselors and staff physicians. Knudsen and Roman (2004, pp. 56-57) claim that absorptive capacity is indirectly (and limited) related with workforce professionalism. Based on the work of Cohen and Levinthal (1990) and Zahra and George (2002) relating absorptive capacity only to the use of innovation by staff members featured by their education level is not the most secure way to define absorptive capacity. Defining professionalism only by the educational level of staff members is also not a research perspective that is firmly grounded in professionalism theory like, for example Freidson (2001).
1.3 Research gap
Cohen and levinthal (1990) introduced the concept of absorptive capacity. Zahra and George (2002) build on the concept as introduced by Cohen and Levinthal (1990), but add the elements acquisition, transformation, activation triggers, social integration mechanisms and regimes of appropriability. After introducing the social integration mechanism, Zahra and George (2002) advised further research to capture the magnitude of the social integration mechanisms and its effect on future performance. They even suggest the research methods, survey and interview, that could best be applied (Zahra & George, 2002, p. 199). Following the conclusions of Lane et al. (2006) there is research done on the subject of absorptive capacity, but social integration mechanisms were no separate field of research..
With the exception of the research of Knudsen and Roman (2004), professionalism was never explicitly researched as a social integration mechanism with a potential effect on absorptive capacity in an organization. Professionalism is an interesting phenomenon to study as a social integration mechanism, because of the strong ties with the professional occupation. Where most firms have their own set of formal and informal social integration mechanisms, which work as strong ties within the organization to build connectedness and shared meanings, professionalism is a social integration mechanism that is not specific to the firm, but specific to the professional occupation. With professionalism, it can be argued that the strong ties, which build connectedness and shared meanings, are stronger than the ties between the professional and the firm the professionals work for. But still this social integration mechanism has the potential to influence the absorptive capacity of the firm as a whole. Understanding this influence will help firms to make better use of their absorptive capacity and will therefore be able to positively influence competitive advantage.
1.4 Research question
The main research question of this thesis is: What is the effect of professionalism (as a distinct
type of social integration mechanisms) on the ability to turn potential absorptive capacity into realized absorptive capacity?
Professionalism can theoretically affect the dimensions of absorptive capacity in a positive and a negative way as well as weak and strong ties would. The practical relevance of this research is to help firms understand the influence of professionalism on their absorptive capacity. This mechanism is potentially deviant from other social integration mechanisms, because, apart from the usual formal and informal social integration mechanisms of the firm,
professionalism is a broader social integration mechanism than just within the firm. The professional organization also cannot exclude the effects of professionalism, but at best understand it and learn to use or mitigate its influence. Understanding this influence will help firms to make better use of their absorptive capacity and will therefore be able to positively influence competitive advantage.
1.5 Thesis structure
The next chapters of this thesis describe the research on the effect of professionalism on the ability to turn potential absorptive capacity into realized absorptive capacity. Where this first chapter introduced previous research on absorptive capacity, social integration mechanisms and professionalism to determine the research gap, the second chapter will give a description of the main concepts used in this research. The third chapter describes the theoretical
framework of this research and its hypotheses. In the fourth chapter the research methods that were used are described. The chapter describes the research method, population sample, the manner in which data was collected, measurement and analyzed and the reliability and validity of this research. The fifth chapter describes the results of the descriptive, correlation and regression analysis. In the sixth chapter the results are discussed. The limitations of this research and suggestions for further research are described. The chapter ends with the
contribution of this research to the field of research and managerial knowledge and the overall conclusion.
2 Main concepts
2.1 Literature introduction
In order to create the necessary conceptual basis for the research proposed, some concepts used in this research need further introduction. Because of the research question that is to be answered, the following concepts are deepened using relevant literature: (1) resource based view, dynamic capabilities, knowledge based view, (2) absorptive capacity, (3) social integration mechanisms, (4) professionalism, (5) professionalism as a social integration mechanism.
2.2 The background of absorptive capacity; resource based view, dynamic capabilities and knowledge based view
There are several backgrounds against which absorptive capacity developed. These
backgrounds are the resource based view, dynamic capabilities and the knowledge based view of the firm.
In 1984 Wernerfelt contributed to the rise of a resource based view of the firm. Wernerfelt states that products and resources are two sides of the same coin. By specifying the size of a firms activity in a specific market with a product, a firm would be capable to predict the needed resources. By specifying the needed resources a firm would be able to make an optimal product-market combination (Wernerfelt 1984, p. 171). While an early stream of literature concentrated on the factor market itself (Barney, 1986), later on literature
concentrates more on dynamic arguments and building capabilities, rather than a static factor market (Teece et al., 1997; Dierickx&Cool, 1989).
Based on the Resource based view Teece et al. (1997) introduce dynamic capabilities. They define dynamic capabilities as: “The firms processes that use resources, specifically the
processes to integrate, reconfigure, gain and release resources to match and even create market change. Dynamic capabilities thus are the organizational and strategic routines by which firms achieve new resource configurations as markets emerge, collide, split, evolve and die”. Teece et al. (1997) introduce learning and developing new strategic assets, integrating
new strategic assets and the transformation of assets after depreciation as vital capabilities in an organization.
Although Kogut and Zander (1992) introduced the knowledge based view of the firm only a few years after the introduction of absorptive capacity in 1990, the two concepts share the same base. Kogut and Zander (1992, p. 394) found that the decisions which capabilities to maintain and develop, is influenced by the current knowledge of the firm and is influenced by the expectations new knowledge brings. This argument matches the idea of knowledge as a dynamic capability and the argument behind absorptive capacity that firms need a prior knowledge base as well as to develop new knowledge constantly. It is safe to say that despite the difference in time, both theories know a parallel development, when it comes to the dynamic use of knowledge in the firm that is needed for competitive advantage.
2.3 Absorptive capacity
Cohen and Levinthal introduced the concept of absorptive capacity in 1990. They defined absorptive capacity as the “ability to identify, assimilate, and exploit knowledge from the environment” (Cohen & Levinthal, 1990). According to Cohen and Levinthal it was essential for firms to be innovative and, because mostly innovations are applied knowledge instead of inventions, external knowledge was a critical component to be innovative (Cohen &
Levinthal, 1990, p. 128).
An essential element of absorptive capacity is prior (related) knowledge. There must be an existing body of knowledge for new knowledge to make sense to the firm and acquire the new knowledge (Cohen & Levinthal, 1990, p. 129). Because of the different organizational
members, an organization can achieve a broad and differentiated body of knowledge, that in turn can improve the assimilation of new knowledge (Cohen & Levinthal, 1990, p. 131). To do so, the organization may rely on specialized actors to transfer knowledge from the
environment. These individuals have “gatekeeper” and “boundary-spanning” roles (Tushman, 1977, pp. 591-593). Because of these roles, not every organizational member needs to scan the environment for relevant knowledge. The gatekeeper is able to detect relevant new knowledge and is able to translate it to the team. But not only the gatekeeper is of vital importance. The ability of the team and across teams to understand and assimilate knowledge is equally important (Cohen & Levinthal 1990, p. 133). There is a necessity of the overlap in the sorts of knowledge and being aware of it. This sort of knowledge can be knowledge of who knows what, who can help with what problem, or who can exploit new information (Cohen & Levinthal 1990, pp. 133-134). This knowledge helps to build internal networks as well as external networks, which are vital to identify, assimilate and exploit knowledge
(Cohen & Levinthal 1990, p. 134). Cohen & Levinthal (1990, p. 147) add that spillover should be used to invest in research and development. Where regimes of appropriability prevent spillover and the investment in research and development, this will negatively affect absorptive capacity. These concepts brought by Cohen and Levinthal (1990), were translated into a model of absorptive capacity by Todorova and Durisin (2007, p. 775) as shown below:
The most influential research in conceptualizing absorptive capacity after the introduction by Cohen and Levinthal (1990) is that of Zahra and George (2002). Zahra and George use another lens to look at absorptive capacity and claim absorptive capacity to be a dynamic capability (Zahra & George, 2002, p.185). Zahra and George make, based on literature research, a clear difference in potential absorptive capacity and realized absorptive capacity. Potential absorptive capacity consists of the dimensions acquisition and assimilation, where realized absorptive capacity consists of the dimensions transformation and exploitation (Zahra & George, 2002, pp. 189-190). Zahra and George (2002, p. 186) define absorptive capacity as: A set of organizational routines and processes by which firms acquire, assimilate, transform and exploit knowledge to produce a dynamic organizational capability.
Apart from the introduction of the difference between potential and realized absorptive capacity and its dimensions, Zahra and George introduce another view on regimes of
appropriability. They claim that regimes of appropriability moderate the relationship between realized absorptive capacity and sustainable competitive advantage in two ways: (1) strong
regimes of appropriability will have a positive effect on the eventual sustainable competitive advantage because of the higher costs for imitation by competition (or new entries). (2) Weak regimes of appropriability will also have a positive effect on sustainable competitive
advantage, but only if firms protect their knowledge assets and capabilities (Zahra & George 2002, p. 197).
Zahra and George also add activation triggers for absorptive capacity and social integration mechanisms as well as the efficiency factor. Activation triggers are defined as events that encourage or compel a firm to respond to specific internal or external stimuli (Zahra & George, 2002, p. 193). Internal triggers could be some form of organizational crisis and external triggers events that influence the firms future such as technological shifts, radical innovations, changes in government policy etcetera.
All of these dimensions and concepts are translated by Zahra and George (2002, p. 192) into the following model:
Five years after the presentation of the model of absorptive capacity by Zahra and George, Todorova and Durisin (2007) studied the papers of Cohen and Levinthal (1990) and Zahra and George (2002) and reconceptualized the model. Especially by adding power to the model as an influence on absorptive capacity and on the relation between prior knowledge and the knowledge source on the one hand and absorptive capacity on the other. Todorova and Durisin (2007, pp. 1780-781) change the influence of social integration mechanisms on
absorptive capacity. Because of their claim that knowledge processes are in essence
communication and social processes, they claim that social integration mechanisms affect all the dimensions of absorptive capacity. One other contribution to the model of Todorova and Durisin (2007, p. 777) is to add recognizing the value to absorptive capacity as a dimension. This was already in the model of Cohen and Levinthal (1990) and Todorova and Durisin recognize that a first step in absorptive capacity cannot be acquisition unless the value of the new knowledge is already recognized. The conceptualizations of Cohen and Levinthal (1990) and Zahra and George (2002) are, despite the suggested reconceptualization of Todorova and Durisin (20067), still the most accepted conceptualizations of absorptive capacity.
2.4 Social integration mechanisms
Although social integration mechanisms are a part of the absorptive capacity model, the introduction of social integration mechanisms as a prominent element in the research question asks for some more elaboration on this part.
When it comes to social integration mechanisms, there is no visible influence in the models presented by Cohen and Levinthal (1990, p. 140) and the model that Todorova and Durisin (2007, p. 775) based on the Cohen and Levinthal (1990) paper. Social integration mechanisms seem absent.
Zahra and George (2002, p. 194) introduce social integration mechanisms as the facilitator of the sharing and exploitation of new knowledge. Social integration can occur formally (via the use of coordinators) or informally (through social networks). The use of social integration mechanisms should, according to Zahra and George (2002, p. 194) increase the efficiency factor with which potential absorptive capacity is transformed to realized absorptive capacity. Zahra and George (2002, p. 194) give a clear position to social integration mechanisms but do not elaborate much about social integration mechanisms and the perceived influence on the efficiency factor. Apart from stating that “social integration mechanisms lower the barriers to information sharing while increasing the efficiency of assimilation and transformation
capabilities” (Zahra & George 2002, p. 194), there is little clarity about how this might work.
Todorova and Durisin (2007, p. 780) pose that organizational processes consist of social interaction and that therefore, each component of absorptive capacity is likely to be
mechanisms to knowledge processes that take place among organizational members and among organizations (Todorova & Durisin, 2007, p. 781). In the further explanation of Todorova and Durisin there are some elements to be found which show what they understand by social integration mechanisms: (1) social integration network as knowledge networks, (2) social integration mechanisms build connectedness, (3) social integration mechanisms build shared meanings, (4) social integration mechanisms as weak ties, (5) social integration mechanisms as strong ties (Todorova & Durisin, 2007, p. 781).
The linkage of weak ties and strong ties to the understanding of how social integration mechanisms work, offers new insight. Where Zahra and George focus on a positive effect from strong ties only, Todorova and Durisin (2007, p. 781) add that weak ties based on Granovetter (1973) can have a positive effect on absorptive capacity as well because of the existing distant and infrequent relationships. Todorova and Durisin (2007, p. 781) also show that strong ties can have not only a positive, but also a negative effect on absorptive capacity. This will happen when strong ties constrain the flow of new knowledge by constraining the search process.
2.5 Professionalism
Professionalism is a well-known and often researched topic. According to Freidson (2001, p. 52-55), the division of labor, and specifically the occupationally controlled division of labor is an essential part of professionalism. Freidson (2001, p. 56) argues that occupationally
controlled division of labor can create horizontal cooperation of occupation in related tasks based on technical or functional limits of the occupation. Simultaneously there is a vertical hierarchy of some occupations over others depending on special productive goals. When this involves direct control by the specialized workers themselves over terms, conditions, goals and content of their particular work or goals, Freidson (2001, p. 60) speaks of
professionalism. This leads to the description of five interdependent elements of professionalism (Freidson 2001, p.127): (1) Specialized work grounded in a body of theoretically based, discretionary knowledge and skill (Raelin, 1986, pp. 109-116), (2) Exclusive jurisdiction in a particular division of labor, controlled by occupational negotiation (Raelin, 1986, pp. 105-108), (3) Sheltered position based on qualifying credentials created by the occupation, (4) Formal training program outside the labor market controlled by the occupation (Raelin, 1986, p. 87), (5) An ideology that asserts greater commitment to quality, than the economic efficiency of work (Raelin, 1986, pp 116-120).
According to Brint (1994, p. 36, p. 7) the professional ideology of the professional is
twofold: (1) A moral appeal being a commitment to public welfare (Swick, 2000, p. 614), (2) A technical appeal with high technical standards and a claim to specialized authority over a limited sphere of formal knowledge (Swick, 2000, p. 615).
Following this professional ideology we know that the professional has a preference for solving complex problems and wants to work with a well-designed toolbox on these complex problems of which the structure as a whole is not yet clear (Simon 1977:98). This and the above by Brint (1994, p. 36, p. 7) described motivation characterizes the way professionals act. Schön (1983: 129-130) claims that the professional reflects on his/her own actions and treats every problem as a unique case. This is supported by Swick (2000, p. 615). The professional uses the existing body of knowledge, but only as a reference or toolbox. The problem definition is not set in advance and may evolve in time.
But this ideology and the presented elements of professionalism do not only have positive effects. In the 1960s to the 1980s professionalism was critiqued based on examples of
professional self-interest and there was a claim that professional ethics were “a cynical ploy” (Wynia 1999, p. 1612). Maister (1997, pp. 75-83) and Noordegraaf (2004, p. 199) add that because of professionalism, professionals do not have an evident loyalty to the organization. They have a loyalty to the profession and the values of the profession (Southon &
Braithwaite, 1998, p. 23). Organizations often struggle to commit professionals to the values and targets of the organization. There are also some practical issues with the work and attitude of professionals. According to De Bruijn (2008, p. 41) professionals often act fragmented and are therefore not always willing to share knowledge. Professionalism also consists of a
vertical hierarchy (Southon & Baithwaite, 1998, p.23) which sometimes impedes acting in the best interest of public welfare. Because innovation is in many cases only permitted when the internal occupational hierarchy agrees, innovations have the tendency to be slowly acquired and exploited (De Bruijn, 2008, p. 109). Because of these flaws public welfare can be harmed instead of improved, because also when professionalism has its negative effects, the sheltered position and exclusive jurisdiction as described by Freidson (2001, p.127) still apply (Morgan, 1992, pp. 164-166, 168-170; De Bruijn, 2008, pp. 36-37).
2.6 Professionalism as a social integration mechanism
Zahra and George (2002, p. 194) introduce social integration mechanisms, which are said to have a positive influence on creating realized absorptive capacity out of potential absorptive capacity. A social integration mechanism, according to Todorova and Durisin (2007, p. 781) work as networks, build connectedness, build shared meanings and can be seen as strong as well as weak ties. In this research professionalism is set as a social integration mechanism. Arguments for professionalism as a social integration mechanism can be found in arguments of Freidson (2001), Brint (1994), Noordegraaf (2004) and Mintzberg (1989). Freidson (2001, p. 101) states that professionals build an occupation in which the sense of community and solidarity is strengthened, which can be argued as connectedness. There is not only
connectedness between practitioners, but also a strong connectedness to formalized faculties (Brint 1994, p. 6). These faculties are the places where shared meanings are introduced or learned, even when knowledge or skills change. Freidson (2001, p. 123) explains that faculties elaborate and clarify values served by the discipline, independent of market and polity. This is not only done with schooling programs, but also with magazines and scientific journals controlled by the occupation itself (Noordegraaf, 2004, p. 185). They thus build shared meanings. Normally, the relationships within an organization work as strong ties, but Todorova and Durisin (2007, p. 781) add that weak ties can have a positive effect on
searching new knowledge (Hansen, 1999) and sharing new knowledge (Granovetter, 1973). Because there is a strong pull to professionalize and because professionals have a great deal of autonomy (Mintzberg, 1989, p. 174) one could argue that the ties of the professionals to each other and to the occupation are stronger that the ties with the organization. Brint (1994, p. 24) even mentions that: “Disciplinary training and ties out to the occupational group also provide
3 Theoretical framework
3.1 Conceptual modelThis thesis aims to search for the effect of professionalism (as a distinct type of social integration mechanisms) on the ability to turn potential absorptive capacity into realized absorptive capacity. In this model there is a potential positive effect of professionalism on the ability to turn potential absorptive capacity into realized absorptive capacity. There is also a positive effect of professionalism directly on realized absorptive capacity. The design of the research is shown in the following conceptual model:
3.2 Boundary conditions and assumptions
There are boundary conditions and several assumptions that underlie this research. The boundary condition is that only the elements of absorptive capacity itself, as described by Zahra and George (2002), are researched. The elements activation triggers and regimes of appropriability of the Zahra and George (2002, p. 192) model are not the subject of this research. An assumption is that professionalism is measured at an individual level to get a complete view on professionalism and its effect of absorptive capacity. This is because professionals can act according to the occupational code, but can also create fragmentation and isolation (Durkheim 1964, pp. 356-357). Although professionals share a common body of knowledge and skill, this knowledge and skill works primarily as a technical bases. In practice the professional has to choose what part of the toolbox to use for the specific situation at hand (Noordegraaf, 2004, p. 195; Wilensky, 1964, p. 138). Mintzberg (1989, p.193) even calls this individual behavior the key to the effective functioning of a professional organization. This individual professional autonomy explains why professionals do not necessarily present
Realized absorptive capacity
Transformation Exploitation
Potential absorptive capacity
Acquisition Assimilation
Professionalism H2 +
H1 +
H3 +
themselves as one homogenous group and do not necessarily work well together with other (healthcare) professionals (Mintzberg, 1989, p. 189). This assumption coincides with the boundary condition that professionalism and absorptive capacity can only be jointly
researched at an individual level. Another assumption is that with professionalism, it can be argued that the strong ties, which build connectedness and shared meanings, are stronger than the ties between the professional and the firm the professionals work for. This assumption is based on Noordgraaf (2004, pp. 194, 186) and Mintzberg (1989, p. 174), who mention that the professional does not feel a strong loyalty to the organization, but is stronger tied to his or her profession. The final assumption in this research is that knowledge and a professionalized workforce is essential to a professional service organization and knowledge intensive firms. Professionalism in a strong combination with knowledge can be found in the professional service organization (Von Nordenflycht, 2010). Von Nordenflycht (2010, pp. 159-165) claims that the professional service organization can be recognized by three elements: (1) knowledge intensity, (2) Low capital intensity and (3) a professionalized workforce. Von Nordenflycht (2010, pp. 165-167) ties the elements of the professional service firm to a categorization of the knowledge intensive firm.
3.3 Hypotheses
While Cohen and Levinthal (1990) introduced the concept of absorptive capacity, Todorova and Durisin (2007, p. 775) designed a conceptual model of the research of Cohen and Levinthal (1990). This model suggests a relationship between recognizing the value,
assimilation and applying new knowledge (Todorova & Durisin, p. 775). Zahra and George (2002) suggest that there are four elements of absorptive capacity, being acquisition,
assimilation, transformation and exploitation. Acquisition and assimilation form potential absorptive capacity and transformation and exploitation form realized absorptive capacity (Zahra & George, 2002, p. 190-191). The model Zahra and George (2002, p. 192) present suggests a relation between potential absorptive capacity and realized absorptive capacity. Zahra and George (2002, pp. 190-191) argue that realized absorptive capacity cannot exist without potential absorptive capacity and that the way in which potential absorptive capacity is turned into realized absorptive capacity is influenced by the efficiency factor of the firm. Jansen et al. (2005, p.23) found that that organizational mechanisms associated with
coordination capabilities primarily enhance potential absorptive capacity while organizational mechanisms associated with socialization capabilities primarily strengthen realized absorptive capacity. And although these are separate mechanisms that work on potential or realized
absorptive capacity, Jansen et al. (2005, p. 27) also claim that potential absorptive capacity has an effect on elements of realized absorptive capacity. Because of the suggestion that is in the model of absorptive capacity (Zahra & George, 2002, p. 192) and research recognizing the effect of potential absorptive capacity on realized absorptive capacity the first hypothesis of this research is posed as below.
H1: Potential absorptive capacity is positively related to realized absorptive capacity.
Apart from the direct positive effect of potential absorptive capacity, professionalism could also have a direct positive effect on realized absorptive capacity. According to Zahra and George (2002, p. 190) transformation, as a part of realized absorptive capacity, is about developing routines that facilitate combining existing and new knowledge. For a professional the profession dictates through faculties the knowledge and skills of a professional, not only by providing a technical base, but also by influencing the way they think and work
(Noordegraaf, 2004, p. 195). Professionals build on a bases of tacit recognition, judgements and skills, but make a conscious use of it in different situations (Schön, 1983, p. 50). They have learned a way to reflect on their own work and even on their tacit understandings (Schön, 1983, p. 50). Professionals are thus trained to combine existing knowledge with new knowledge and can reflect on whether new knowledge should be applied regardless of the existing or tacit knowledge. Exploitation of new knowledge consists of refining, leveraging and extending existing competencies and creating new competencies (Zahra & George, 2002, p. 190). According to Freidson (2001, p.97) this is what professionals do; they develop new knowledge, extend the old knowledge and refine what is known. This is not only an individual effort by the professional. The professional is supported by the infrastructure of the
occupation. The occupation provides schooling by (by the occupation controlled) faculties for professionals at the start of their career as well as during their careers (Mintzberg, 1989, p. 192). In order to use the professional skills that positively influence realized absorptive capacity through transformation and exploitation, occupational control over their own work is necessary for the professional (Freidson, 2001, pp. 82-83; Mintzberg, 1989, p.189).
Professional autonomy is an important aspect of professionalism and also important for an effect on realized absorptive capacity. In addition to the control of the professional over his or her own work, the occupation adds to the professional control. Instead of hierarchical and administrative control one could argue that the professional freedom is controlled by the profession (Mintzberg, 1989, p. 184). Occupational control is exercised by peers who have a
professional judgement about the way tacit and new knowledge and skill is applied by the individual professional (Noordegraaf, 2004, p. 196). The professional autonomy in
combination with the tacit knowledge and skills of professionals to apply tacit knowledge and override the existing knowledge and combine existing knowledge with new knowledge leads to the second hypothesis.
H2: Professionalism is positively related to realized absorptive capacity.
In paragraph 2.6 professionalism is introduced as a social integration mechanism. It can be argued that where a social integration mechanism works as a network, builds connectedness, builds shared meanings and can be seen as strong as well as weak tie (Todorova and Durisin, 2007, p. 781), this matches characteristics of professionalism. Professionalism creates strong ties between members of the profession by creating a common body of knowledge and skill, a common language and common habits (Freidson, 2001, p. 123). The profession has an
infrastructure of communities (Freidson, 2001, p. 101), faculties (Brint 1994, p. 6) and scientific journals (Noordegraaf, 2004, p. 185) to spread the existing as well as new knowledge and skills.
There are several reasons why professionalism, when posed as a social integration
mechanism, can have a positive effect on the creation of realized absorptive capacity out of potential absorptive capacity. Professionalism provides an infrastructure of knowledge sharing by which new knowledge is actively introduced and discussed by peers (Freidson, 2001, pp. 101, 122; Noordegraaf 2004, pp. 195). This of course is positive in relation to acquiring knowledge, but also promotes new knowledge within a context of shared meaning, so that assimilation and transformation of the new knowledge are facilitated for the
professional. Besides the shared meanings, the occupation provides a prior knowledge base (Noordegraaf, 2004, p. 195; Freidson, 2001, p. 83). This prior knowledge base of the
professional is likely to have a positive effect on understanding the value of new knowledge and transforming new knowledge into usable interventions, because Cohen and Levinthal claim that a prior knowledgebase is needed for new knowledge to make sense to the firm (Cohen & Levinthal 1990, p. 129). Simon (1977, p. 98) and Schön (1983, pp. 129-130)
strengthen the idea that the prior knowledge base of the professional eases the acquisition and assimilation of new knowledge, because the professional uses a “toolbox” and uses that to assess every problem as a unique case. The prior knowledge base of professionals that help
them apply existing knowledge and evaluate new knowledge and the possibilities the professions infrastructure provides for developing and discuss the application of new knowledge leads to the third hypothesis of this research.
H3: Professionalism has a positive moderating effect on the relationship between potential absorptive capacity and realized absorptive capacity.
4 Method
The research philosophy in this research is positivism. Positivism is a research philosophy in which the main concern is to study observable and measurable variables in certain
controllable conditions and to describe the reactions of those variables (Saunders & Lewis, 2012, p.106). Because the research aims to describe the effect of professionalism on the development of realized absorptive capacity out of potential absorptive capacity, this research clearly aims to describe the effect of different variables on each other. The next paragraphs describes the research method, the way data was collected and the measures taken to ensure reliability and validity.
4.1 Research method
This research can be characterized as a deductive research approach (Saunders & Lewis, 2012, p.108). The stages of deductive research are: (1) defining research questions from an existing general theory, (2) operationalizing these questions, (3) seeking answers to the
questions, (4) analyzing the results to determine whether it supports the theory, (5) confirming or modifying the initial general theory. Because this research aims to make use of existing theory about absorptive capacity and professionalism and describe the actual effect between the two phenomena it can be seen as a deductive research approach.
The answer to the research question was sought using a survey. This method was already suggested by Zahra and George (2002, p. 199). From sample results of the population, a researcher can generalize and make claims about the population as a whole (Cresswell, 2003, p. 153), because the standardized answers make it easy to compare responses across different departments and locations (Saunders & Lewis, 2012, p. 116). Professionals were asked to fill in the survey individually, because professionals tend to act fragmented (De Bruijn, 2008, p. 41). And although a functional interdependence between professionals can be assumed, Durkheim (1964, pp. 356-357) found that there were forms of specialization which created fragmentation and isolation, rather than solidarity. The survey was cross-sectional, because the claim is about the current point in time. The research does not display the ambition to follow the development of the relationship between professionalism and the elements of absorptive capacity in time.
4.2 Population sample
Because healthcare professionals are generally known as being one of the most classical examples of a professional (Freidson, 2001, p.21; Schön, 1983, pp. 3-4; Larson, 1979, p. 5), it was logical to conduct the research within healthcare. The occupation of the researcher grants unique access to a relatively large group of different healthcare professionals. For this reason the research was conducted in the Netherlands within a business unit of ‘s Heeren Loo, Advisium. ‘s Heeren Loo is the largest healthcare provider in healthcare for the mentally disabled in the Netherlands. Advisium is the business unit which is responsible for the medical, psychological, behavioral, pedagogical, physiotherapy, dietetic, speech therapy, occupational therapy and dental services for people with a mental disability. Within Expertise Centre Advisium work roughly 700 healthcare professionals divided over 12 subunits,
geographically present in all Dutch provinces except for Zeeland and Limburg.
To be able to ensure anonymity the largest groups of healthcare professionals were included in the research. The different groups used are: (1) doctors (49 persons), (2) psychologists and behavioral specialists (268 persons), (3) paramedics (physiotherapy, dietetic, speech therapy, occupational therapy, 119 persons). The survey was sent to 436 respondents in total. Of these 436 respondents, 239 respondents started the survey. 207 respondents responded with a complete survey. 2 respondents did not answer any questions. 21 respondents only answered the questions concerning the control variables. 9 respondents only answered the questions concerning the control variables and absorptive capacity. With 207 complete responses there is a response rate of 47,5%.
4.3 Data collection
The first step in the data collection process was asking permission of the board of ‘s Heeren Loo to conduct the research. After the permission was granted a test survey and an
introductory message was designed in in the online program Qualtrix. The survey and the introduction message were first reviewed by an experienced researcher. After applying the suggested corrections the survey and the introductory message were tested for the correct interpretation by professionals of the meant content (Cresswell, 2003, p.158) and for the time it would take a professional to fill in the survey. Of each group as described in paragraph 4.2 one professional (3 in total) was asked to make comments on the introduction message and to read the questions. They were also asked if they understood the questions and what their interpretation of the questions is. Of each group as described in paragraph 4.2 one other
professional (3 in total) was asked to fill in the survey. The researcher asked for the needed time and comments of the professionals after filling in the survey about the (clarity) of the research questions. After applying the suggested corrections, the introductory message was mailed to the respondents with a digital link to an online survey. The list of potential respondents was derived from a download of the personnel system of ‘s Heeren Loo,
Beaufort, downloaded on march 28th 2017. The survey was available for twenty-five days.
After eighteen days a gentle reminder was sent to the respondents to increase participation.
4.4 Measurement
There were four types of variables used; an independent variable, dependent variable, a moderating variable and control variables (Cresswell, 2003, p. 94). The independent variable is potential absorptive capacity. The dependent variable is realized absorptive capacity. The moderating variable is professionalism. Control variables that were used in the survey are employee gender, profession, age, work experience in total, work experience within Advisium and location.
The dependent and independent variable were measured with a survey designed by Jansen et al. (2005, p. 16). Six items measure knowledge acquisition, three items measure assimilation, six items measure transformation and six items measure exploitation of new knowledge (Appendix A). All these items were measured on a 7 point scale, with 1 “Strongly disagree” to 7 “Strongly agree”. This way of measuring proved reliable in the research of Jansen et al. (2005, p. 16) (reliabilities: acquisition, 0.79; assimilation, 0.76, transformation, 0.72,
exploitation, 0.71). These variables were changed to fit the perceptions of the individual professional. This means that “unit” was replaced by “I” and commercial terms were replaced by healthcare jargon. To measure potential absorptive capacity, the variables acquisition and assimilation were added together and to measure realized absorptive capacity, the variables transformation and exploitation were added together.
Carrington et al. (2013, pp. 19-20) measured professionalism before with a survey. Although it was used to measure the professionalism of accounting professionals, it was a more
complete measurement of professionalism. Most articles about professionalism measure just some elements of professionalism, instead of the construct as a whole (Veloski et al., 2005, p. 368). This survey held 5 elements of professionalism with a total of 22 items (Appendix A). All these items were measured on a 7 point scale, with 1 “fully disagree” and 7 “fully agree”. This way of measuring proved reliable in the research of Veloski et al. (2005, p. 368).
Professional commitment, rigor and enforcement of independence requirements, value of the authorization/approval designation, organizational commitment, and client commitment had Cronbach’s alphas above 0.7, indicating acceptable reliability. Measuring the organizational commitment seems strange because of the literature on the tension between professionals and management (Wynia 1999, p. 1612). Research of Bartol (1979, p. 820) shows that there was no relation between professionalism and role stress as well as employee turnover. This
research adds to other research that confirms a more positive relation between professionalism and organizational commitment (Flango & Brumbaugh, 1974, p. 208; Friedlander, 1971, pp. 180-182). The other elements of professionalism as measured by Carrington et al. (2013, pp. 19-20) match the elements that Raelin (1986) and Freidson (2001) use to describe
professionalism. For example, exclusive jurisdiction and sheltered position have an overlap with enforcement of independence requirements and the value of the authorization/approval designation. To measure professionalism, the variables professional commitment, rigor and enforcement of independence requirements, organizational commitment, and client
commitment were added together (value of the authorization/approval designation was not used bcause of a low Cronbach’s Alpha, see paragraph 4.5).
The control variables were also derived from Carrington et al. (2013, pp. 19-20), but tenure was changed into the control variables “work experience total” and “work experience Advisium” and formulation was changed to match the healthcare jargon and environment. Gender was measured as categorical data and was changed into a dummy variable.
Occupation and location were also measured as categorical data and changed into a dummy variables. Age, work experience total and work experience Advisium were measured as numerical data. The survey and introductory letter that were used in this research can be found in Appendix B.
4.5 Reliability and validity
The reliability and validity of the research were given attention to ensure a scientifically valid and reliable research. This paragraph describes the measures taken for this purpose.
Reliability is the extent to which data collection methods and analysis procedures will
produce consistent findings (Saunders & Lewis, 2012, p.128). To ensure reliability during this research, several steps were taken. The research design, survey design and the research
the research plan beforehand and in detail the execution of the research as part of the final thesis, the researcher strives for transparency of the research. The survey was reviewed by a staff member of the Amsterdam Business School and in two rounds by representative professionals of Advisium, as described in paragraph 4.2. Qualtrix was used as an online survey to ensure the reliability of the way the survey was handled end to ensure anonymity for the respondents. Reliability checks were run in IBM SPSS 24.0 by measuring the Cronbach’s Alpha of potential absorptive capacity, realized absorptive capacity and professionalism. The results are shown in table 1.
Not all variables had a Cronbach’s Alpha >0 .7. In order to continue the research, the variables that form potential as well as realized absorptive capacity were still used, despite their too low Cronbach’s Alpha scores. For the variables that form professionalism, only the variable “value of the authorization/approval designation” was excluded from the research, because of the too low Cronbach’s Alpha score. The other variables that form professionalism had a sufficient Cronbach’s Alpha and could be used. However, to reach a sufficient
Cronbach’s Alpha, the number of survey questions used in the calculation of the Cronbach Alpha of the variables “organizational commitment” and “client commitment” were reduced to two.
To prevent validity problems (Cresswell, 2003, p. 171; Saunders & Lewis, 2012, p. 127-128), the following measures have been taken by the researcher. Previous research with validated questions was used to compose the survey. The use of research techniques is motivated with relevant methodological instruments and research processes. Because of the measures to ensure statistical conclusion validity (a response rate of 47,5%), a detailed description and matching literary motivation, external validity was ensured.
Variable Cronbach’s Alpha
Potential absorptive capacity-Acquisition 0,689 Potential absorptive capacity-Assimilation 0,694 Realized absorptive capacity-Transformation 0,621 Realized absorptive capacity-Exploitation 0,595 Professionalism-Professional Commitment 0,787 Professionalism-Rigor and Enforcement of Independence Requirements 0,899 Professionalism-Value of the Authorization/Approval Designation 0,640 Professionalism-Organizational Commitment 0,749 Professionalism-Client Commitment 0,700
4.6 Analysis
After closing the survey, the data in Qualtrix was downloaded into IBM SPSS Statistics 24.0 (SPSS) to conduct quantitative analysis. In SPSS the data was edited and analyzed with the following steps. The missing data was list wise excluded. For the control variables gender, occupation and location dummy variables were made. After making the dummy variables a frequency analysis was performed to take a first look at the data and to find errors in the data entry. Next the skewness or kurtosis of the data was measured and statistical corrections were applied to the skewness and kurtosis. The data of reverse coded questions was changed into scales matching the other questions of the survey. The reliability checks were run by
measuring the Cronbach’s Alpha of the variables used and after that a correlation matrix was created using the variables with a sufficient Cronbach’s Alpha and the variables which had an insufficient Cronbach’s Alpha, but for which there were no alternative variables. Finally a hierarchical regression analysis was executed.
5 Results
5.1 Descriptive analysis
For the dummy variables, the moderating variable, the dependent and the independent variable the minimum and maximum values, means and standard variations were calculated. This data is presented in table 2.
Of all the respondents 85,7 percent was female and 14,3 percent male. The age was on average 40 years old with a minimum of 23 years old and a maximum of 69 years old. Although the age for retirement is 67, it is possible to have a professional of 69 years old, because some of the professionals choose to keep working after 67. Work experience in total is on average 14 years and specifically with Advisium almost 9 years. Work experience varies from 0 to 42 years in total and 40 years specifically with Advisium. This seems feasible, because after graduation at about 23 years old 42 years of work experience make 65 years old. 65 years is the former retirement age. Work experience is shown in figure 4.
Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
Age 23 69 40,20 11,97
Work experience total 0 42 14,17 10,81
Work experience Advisium 0 40 8,88 8,08
Potential absorptive capacity 4 13 9,012 1,712
Realized absorptive capacity 7,34 13,33 11,064 1,062
Professionalism 15,33 27 21,203 2,134
Table 2: Minimum and maximum values, means and standard deviations
Most of the respondents in this research are behavioral scientists (59,1%). 29,1% of the respondents is a paramedic and the smallest part of the respondents is doctor (11,8%).
The locations with relatively more respondents are also the locations with the largest numbers of employees. The locations with the lowest percentage respondents are also the locations with the smallest number of employees. More details about location, occupation and gender are presented in appendix C.
The variables of potential absorptive capacity, acquisition and assimilation, had a mean of respectively 3,75 and 5,25. The variables of realized absorptive capacity, transformation and exploitation, had a mean of respectively 5,38 and 5,69. The minimum values of acquisition and assimilation were lower than the minimum values of transformation and exploitation. The variable scores resulted in a relative higher mean and minimum and maximum value of realized absorptive capacity than potential absorptive capacity. Overall this means that
respondents scored more positive on the questions about realized absorptive capacity, than on the questions about realized absorptive capacity. The distribution of scores on realized
absorptive capacity is shown in figure 6. There is a moderate negative skewness at the high end of the scores, but given the sample size the relatively limited deviations in skewness and kurtosis are acceptable (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007, p. 80).
Because of the low Cronbach’s Alpha of the variable “value of the authorization/approval designation”, this variable was not included in further analysis. Professional commitment, rigor and enforcement of independence requirements, , organizational commitment and client commitment all had means above 5,000, minimum values above 2 and maximum values up to 7. Because of the four variables used to form professionalism, the minimum value of
professionalism had to be above 4 and the maximum could not supersede 28. The mean of professionalism was 21,203. Because a mean of 21,203 is higher than 16, it can be said that the respondents answered on average positive on questions regarding professionalism.
5.2 Correlation analysis
After calculating means and standard variables a correlation matrix was created with SPSS. The results are in table 3. A Spearman correlation coefficient was used because of the normal distribution, as found by checking skewness and kurtosis. An example of a non-normal distributed (control) variable is gender.
In general age, work experience in total and work experience within the organization Advisium are positively related. Age relates to work experience in total with a Spearman correlation coefficient of r = 0.897 and a significance value less than 0.01 and relates to work experience within Advisium with a Spearman correlation coefficient of r = 0.604 and the significance value less than 0.01. Work experience in total relates to work experience within Advisium with a Spearman correlation coefficient of r = 0.690 and the significance value less than 0.01.
Potential absorptive capacity related positive to both work experience in total (Spearman correlation coefficient of r = 0.156 and significance less than 0.05) and work experience within Advisium (Spearman correlation coefficient of r = 0.136 and significance less than 0.05). Potential absorptive capacity was also positive related to realized absorptive capacity (Spearman correlation coefficient of r = 0.471 and significance less than 0.01) and
professionalism (Spearman correlation coefficient of r = 0.271 and significance less than 0.01).
Realized Absorptive Capacity related positive to age (Spearman correlation coefficient of r = 0.150 and significance less than 0.05), work experience in total (Spearman correlation
coefficient of r = 0.215 and significance less than 0.01) and work experience within Advisium (Spearman correlation coefficient of r = 0.145 and significance less than 0.05). Realized absorptive capacity was also positively related to potential absorptive capacity with a Spearman correlation coefficient of r = 0.471 and significance less than 0.01 and positively
