Deconstructing traditional masculinity:
How entertainment education can bring men
to the conversation about gender roles
Renata Longhi de Carvalho | 12283762 Master’s Thesis
Graduate School of Communication Master’s programme Communication Science
Supervisor: Isabel Rodríguez de Dios, Ph.D. 26/06/2020
Abstract
This study explores the potential of media in deconstructing traditional gender roles through entertainment education (EE) strategies and the role of identification as a mechanism of the effect. The target audience were Brazilian male adults. In an 2x2 Factorial Experimental design, four alternative conditions were presented to 140 participants using written, first person EE narratives. The first factor, focused on perspective on masculinity, examined the effect of an empathetic approach, opposing traditional and non-traditional views on the topic; the second factor, gender of character, was founded in the concept of identification and opposed a male character and a female character in the different conditions. No significant results were found. Perspective on masculinity was not effective in lowering endorsement of traditional masculinity, and the gender of the character was not relevant for the relationship. Identification was not a significant mediator. Future studies could explore longitudinal design and audio-visual stimuli to address potential limitations.
Traditional masculinity has been scientifically associated to multiple societal issues, from domestic violence to alcoholism, depression and suicide rates among males (Zysberg, 2012). Men are also more likely to be involved in mass shootings, aggressive behaviour and harassment (Blackburn & Scharrer, 2019; Zysberg, 2012); and these tendencies are not associated to the masculine nature, but to the cultural construction of gender, and to how males are somewhat expected to support traditional traits of their manhood (Zysberg, 2012).
In Brazil and other conservative countries, such propensities are even more pronounced. Brazil is considerably traditional regarding gender roles (Baldwin & Desouza, 2001); the Brazilian culture celebrates hypermasculinity, associated with virility, drinking and violence against women (Baldwin & Desouza, 2001; Parker, 1986). Known as “machismo”, the Brazilian context of traditional masculinity supports the belief that men are superior to women, and that masculinity is about power and domination in multiple spheres, from work and economy to sexual dynamics (Baldwin & Desouza, 2001). And the consequences are multiple: Brazilian men commit suicide four times more often than Brazilian women (Flacso, 2015; IPEA, 2017), and die victims of violence ten times more often than females (PAHO, 2019). As a consequence,
Brazilian men live, on average, 5,8 years less than women (PAHO, 2019), and Brazil has the 5th highest rate of violence against women and feminicide in the world (Flacso, 2015; WHO, 2015). Therefore, it is possible to argue that traditional masculinity is killing both men and women, especially in conservative countries.
Considering that gender roles are constructed culturally, one key discussion is the relationship between masculinity and media effects. Media has been extensively associated to traditional masculinity. Although there is an increasing number of entertainment formats that present non-traditional masculinity views (Morris & Anderson, 2015; Zhu, 2016), traditional
gender roles still represent the majority of the content in popular entertainment media (Morgan, Shanahan, & Signorielli, 2015; Scharrer & Blackburn, 2018). Consequently, media has already been associated to negative attitudes tied to gender, such as aggressive behaviour and risk-taking (Blackburn & Scharrer, 2019; Giaccardi, Ward, Seabrook, Manago, & Lippman, 2017; Morgan, 1982; Scharrer & Blackburn, 2018).
However, there is an opportunity to explore the potential of media in also deconstructing these same traditional gender roles, considering the relevance of entertainment media in society today and its growing importance in prompting key discussions in society (Scharrer &
Blackburn, 2018). Through intentionally informative media formats, especially regarding Entertainment Education (EE), there are historical effects that prove media can help deconstruct deeply rooted beliefs such as religious prejudice (Murrar & Brauer, 2018) and violence against women (Lapsansky & Chatterjee, 2013).
Yet, there is still a need to analyse the positive potential of media regarding traditional masculinity. Entertainment can not only help deconstruct traditional gender roles, but also lower barriers and bring males to the conversation. Studies support that bringing men to the
conversation about women rights and toxic masculinity can support change in their attitudes towards gender roles, as a liberating perspective (Lapsansky & Chatterjee, 2013; Zysberg, 2012). As discussions about gender often present men as perpetrators, an alternative approach is to consider that men are also victimised by such constricting beliefs regarding gender identity (Blackburn & Scharrer, 2019; Zysberg, 2012). Therefore, the conversation about traditional gender roles should be associated with a deconstruction of masculinity among males –
understanding the cultural elements that reinforce these traditional beliefs and exploring different ways to question and reimagine them.
Additionally, it is necessary to explore what elements in entertainment media can contribute to positive media effects. Among multiple entertainment subcategories, narrative formats are strongly associated to audience involvement and identification with the characters. By observing models they relate to, viewers can see themselves within a new behaviour, minimising resistance and motivating change (Graaf, Hoeken, Sanders, & Beentjes, 2012; Walkington, Wigman, & Bowles, 2019). While the importance of identification has been explored in previous research, there is a critical gap regarding traditional masculinity. By
analysing the role of identification in entertainment about gender roles, this study can contribute to more effective EE campaigns in the future.
Scientifically, the positive effects of EE on individuals’ endorsement traditional masculinity are certainly a relevant discussion. Although these three elements have been
separately covered by extensive literature - namely (1) positive media effects, (2) entertainment media and (3) traditional masculinity - there are fewer examples combining the three, which shows a gap in literature.
Starting with positive effects and entertainment media, the power of EE narratives has been associated to changes in attitudes towards Muslims (Murrar & Brauer, 2018), gay people (Christy, 2018), outgroup members (Wojcieszak, Kim, & Igartua, 2020) and life-threatening illnesses (Murphy, Frank, Moran, & Patnoe-Woodley, 2011). Although these studies address positive EE effects on deeply rooted social beliefs, there is a lack of EE literature specifically focused on traditional masculinity, as far as we know.
Differently, there are studies connecting entertainment media and traditional masculinity; however, they are mostly focused on negative effects, describing how media reinforces
television genres (Scharrer & Blackburn, 2018), videogame playing (Blackburn & Scharrer, 2019), and the influence of risk-related entertainment (Giaccardi et al., 2017). However, they do not explore traditional masculinity being deconstructed by the media, only reinforced by them.
There are fewer studies combining these three elements (entertainment media, positive effects and traditional masculinity). Lapsansky and Chatterjee (2013) analyse the positive impact of multiple EE examples on violence against women in India in a case study, but focusing on domestic violence. Other traits of traditional masculinity such risk-taking behaviour and emotional control are not addressed. Additionally, the study is not executed through an experimental design, and does not establish causality between EE and the observed effects. There are also studies focused on non-traditional masculinity being portrayed in entertainment (Maloney, Roberts, & Caruso, 2018; Morris & Anderson, 2015; Thompson, 2015), exploring in content analyses and case studies the different characteristics of more recent male characters, purposefully created to question traditional masculinity; however, these studies do not establish a relationship between the content and the effects, leaving a gap in literature regarding positive effects and the mechanisms that explain them.
Therefore, the present study will investigate potential positive effects of entertainment media. In order to fill gaps in the literature, we will explore the potential of EE in deconstructing traditional masculinity among males. Our objective is to analyse the topic and establish causality for a short-term effect by applying an experimental design, as summarised in the research
question:
RQ: What is the short-term effect of exposure to EE about gender roles on males’ endorsement
Theoretical Background
When discussing positive media effects, EE strategies are key: intentionally aimed at creating social change, EE supports the balance of informative, educational content and entertaining formats, as described by Singhal and Rogers (1999). According to them, the EE model is significantly founded in Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory, with several studies that connect both.
For this study, we will also adopt Social Cognitive Theory as the theoretical framework. Social Cognitive Theory supports that behaviour can be learned through observation (Bandura, 2004; Bussey & Bandura, 1999), and three of its elements will be key to this study. The first element is observational learning, supporting that behaviour can be learned through observation, and not only by individual experience; by watching positive and negative role models, noting the rewards and consequences they face, individuals can change their own attitudes and behaviour. The second element is self-efficacy; by observing a model behaviour, individuals can visualise themselves in their position and feel more capable of acting in a similar manner. By watching the character’s behaviour and its consequences, one can feel more prepared and confident in their own power to change. The third element is collective efficacy, which represents people’s shared belief in their collective ability to create change. Considering entertainment media as a vehicle for positive influence, the potential reach and scale of the format can influence the perception of collective efficacy and trigger new behaviours (Bandura, 2004; Bussey & Bandura, 1999).
EE theorists supported by Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory sustain that, by presenting the audience with positive and negative role models, it is possible to motivate change as
something that can be achieved (Papa & Singhal, 2010; Singhal & Rogers, 1999). In a number of these studies, identification is a key mechanism of the persuasive effect. Identification with the
character reduces the barriers to a behaviour change and can affect the expected outcomes to a behaviour the individual thought they were not able or allowed to reproduce (Lapsansky & Chatterjee, 2013; Papa & Singhal, 2010). Murrar and Brauer (2018), also founded in Social Cognitive Theory, successfully found a positive effect of EE in reducing implicit and explicit prejudice against Muslims. Additionally, the effect was stronger among individuals that could see themselves in the characters of the narrative, and identification was found to be a moderator of the effect.
The Present Study
Founded in Social Cognitive Theory, our study will evaluate whether the observation of a character in a narrative can affect endorsement of traditional masculinity, and the role of
identification with the character in that process. The key concepts are defined below:
Endorsement of traditional masculinity. A socially constructed set of beliefs that
intersect with sexuality, race and social class. Different cultural contexts and historical moments can impact masculinity ideals, but there is a set of core traits that are strongly associated with male roles over time (Scharrer & Blackburn, 2018). Traditional masculinity is defined by multiple components; Levant, Hall and Rankin (2013) have described the key elements of this construct: emotional restrictiveness, violent behaviour, self-reliance, avoidance of femininity, reinforcement of heterosexuality, importance of sex, dominance and primacy of work. This construction of masculinity has been associated with several problematic outcomes, from the marginalisation of women (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005) to violent behaviour (Levant & Richmond, 2007), and it is part of a number of cultural norms that are internalised by
belief systems (Morgan, 2009), often reinforcing traditional gender roles. For this study, we will contrast messages that support and question these traditional beliefs about masculinity and explore the media potential to also deconstruct them.
Entertainment education. EE is a communication strategy based on the intentional
insertion of prosocial information within an entertainment media format (Singhal & Rogers, 1999). The EE approach contributes to social change both individually and collectively;
individually by presenting information that can inspire and motivate people, on a personal level, to review their behaviours and attitudes; and collectively by initiating conversations and creating conditions for change on a social level, advocating for relevant policies and initiatives (Singhal & Rogers, 1999). Existing studies about EE formats highlight its potential to raise awareness about societal issues, motivate favourable attitudes and change social norms (Christy, 2018; Murrar & Brauer, 2018; Singhal & Rogers, 1999; Wojcieszak et al., 2020). Within entertainment formats, it is possible to highlight narratives as a powerful tool for behaviour change. The
argument is that the narrative formats contribute to more involvement and identification with characters, lowering barriers to persuasion. Moyer-Gusé (2008) has supported that the ‘‘narrative structure of EE messages can overcome reactance by diminishing the viewer’s perception that the message is intended to persuade’’ (p. 415). For this study, EE will be considered within the written narrative format, in a first-person blog post, as supported by Graaf et al. (2016) and Walkington et al. (2019).
Identification. In the context of narrative persuasion, identification is the cognitive and
emotional process by which a viewer takes the character’s perspective (Cohen, 2001). It means sharing feelings, perspectives and motivations with the character, understanding their decisions and adopting their goals (Moyer-Gusé & Nabi, 2008). Identification is associated to the
persuasive effects of narratives, and is considered one of the key mechanisms of EE. By reproducing the character’s experiences as their own, through imagination, readers might
empathise and understand the behaviours and consequences experienced by the character (Mar & Oatley, 2008). This tendency is associated to Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (2002), based on observational learning, with the characters acting as the role models (Graaf et al., 2012).
Based on these concepts, to answer the RQ, this study will explore different approaches to gender roles, and their short-term effects on men’s endorsement of masculinity. The different approaches will focus on two main factors: (1) the perspective on masculinity in EE narratives, regarding traditional and non-traditional gender roles and (2) the gender of the main character or narrator, male or female. Identification will also be explored as a mediator of the short-term effects.
Factor 1. Perspective on masculinity in EE narratives.
The intention with this first factor is to measure the effect that different approaches to masculinity will have on individuals’ beliefs. Our main assumption is that EE can prompt critical thinking and help deconstruct traditional masculinity. Based on the demonstrated power of EE narratives in persuading individuals (e.g. Murphy et al., 2011) and influencing their beliefs even in the short-term after an experimental exposure (Murrar & Brauer, 2018), it is possible to hypothesise that the same effect might be observed regarding masculinity. In the experiment, we will observe the short-term effect of messages that either reinforce or criticise traditional
H1: Exposure to EE narratives reinforcing non-traditional gender roles will lead to a lower
endorsement of traditional masculinity than exposure to EE narratives reinforcing traditional gender roles.
The second hypothesis is based on the interaction effect of the two main factors -
perspective on traditional masculinity and gender of the narrator, as presented in Figure 1. Based on the potentially stronger identification of participants with a male character (than with a female character), as we will further explore in this study, we hypothesise the narrative reinforcing non-traditional gender roles will be more persuasive depending on the gender of the character.
H2: Exposure to EE narratives reinforcing non-traditional gender roles will lead to a lower
endorsement of traditional masculinity than Exposure to EE narratives reinforcing traditional gender roles, but the effect will be stronger for males exposed to EE with a male character than for males exposed to EE with a female character.
Figure 1. Conceptual model. Perspective on masculinity in EE narratives.
Factor 2. Gender of character.
The gender of the main character is also an important predictor for this study, potentially affecting how males will respond to the discussion of masculinity.
For this set of hypotheses, we will consider only the individuals exposed to
non-traditional masculinity. The intention is to specify the mechanisms that potentially lead male
individuals to question traditional masculinity; therefore, we will ignore the experimental conditions that reinforce these traditional beliefs.
Graaf and colleagues (2012) explored the persuasive power of written narratives based on identification with the main character. In the study, identification mediated the effect of the message on readers’ prejudice regarding the insertion of disabled persons on the job market. Moyer-Guse (2008) also explored the persuasive power of narratives, improving viewers’ involvement and engagement with the content and contributing to lower barriers to persuasion. Therefore, readers are more strongly influenced by a message when it is presented in a narrative (Moyer-Guse, 2008) and through a character they identify with (Graaf et al., 2012). It is possible to argue that, for a narrative about gender roles, the gender of the narrator is a key element for persuasion and will influence the persuasive effect of the narrative, as explored by Banerjee and Greene (2012), Lee and Bichard (2006), and Chen, Bell and Taylor (2016); we then hypothesise that the persuasive effect on males will be stronger when the narrative is expressed by a man.
H3: Among individuals exposed to narratives reinforcing non-traditional masculinity, exposure
to EE about gender roles with a male character will lead to a lower endorsement of traditional masculinity than exposure to EE about gender roles with a female character.
Supported by the aforementioned literature, identification is a key concept in this present study, as a potential mediator of the EE effect. According to Papa and Singhal (2010), levels of identification with an EE character are directly correlated to the influence of their behaviour as a role model for viewers. Murphy et al. (2011) explored the EE effects regarding a health narrative
and found EE is more effective when the viewers see themselves in the characters of the narrative.
In view of the above, research is needed to explore identification as a persuasive
mechanism in the context of traditional masculinity. In addition, it is also essential to evaluate if the potential effect of the character’s gender is indeed related to a stronger identification with a male character, excluding other alternative explanations.
Thus, among individuals exposed to non-traditional masculinity, we hypothesise that:
H4: Identification with male characters will be stronger than with female characters. H5: Higher identification with character will lead to a lower endorsement of traditional
masculinity than lower identification with character.
H6: The effect of gender of character (male character / female character) on males’ endorsement
of traditional masculinity will be mediated by identification with the character. The stronger the identification, the lower the endorsement of traditional masculinity.
Method
Participants
To test the hypotheses, an online survey experiment was conducted with 140 participants. The sampling technique utilized was a convenience sample via an online marketplace called MTurk. Through the platform, participants were offered a small incentive in exchange for their time ($0.60 for 10 minutes), and were recruited based on gender and location, as the study was focused on Brazilian males. Any person registered on MTurk could equally see the survey and incentive, and based on the information provided, choose whether to participate. There were no additional demographic criteria such as income or education level, only the fact that participants had to be older than 18 years old. To guarantee engagement with the study, an attention check was included in the questionnaire, asking respondents “Please select ‘do not agree or disagree’ on this item” in one specific item that was randomly placed in one of the questions. 15
participants were excluded from the analysis because they did not provide the correct answer to the attention check. In the final sample of 125 participants (100% male), the mean age was 28.27 (SD = 7.47).
Design
The study was an online experiment, applying a 2 x 2 factorial between-subjects design, with factor ‘perspective on masculinity’ as between-subjects variable (2 levels: traditional masculinity and non-traditional masculinity), and factor ‘gender of character’ as between-subjects variable (2 levels: male character and female character).
The study included one experimental component, presented to the participants during the questionnaire. The participants were randomly assigned to one of the four conditions: (1)
traditional masculinity perspective + male character, (2) traditional masculinity perspective + female character, (3) traditional masculinity perspective + male character and (4) non-traditional masculinity perspective + female character. All four conditions were shown in the
form of a written narrative, all comparable, with similar length.
Procedure
The research design was a survey experiment executed through an online questionnaire for convenience and timeframe. Participants were contacted via MTurk, as described above, and to those interested in participating in the study, the survey URL was available on the platform. There was no need for a specific login or identification for the completion of the questionnaire. The first page included a statement approved by the research supervisor, in which the study was briefly described and the policy regarding data and anonymity was explained. Participants had to confirm their agreement with the terms before starting the questionnaire.
The questionnaire started with an experimental exposure. Participants were randomly assigned via Qualtrics to one of the four conditions, and exposed to a written narrative, similar to a blog post. To reinforce attention, participants had to spend at least one minute on the page before moving forward. A manipulation check was included right after the narrative, asking participants to confirm the gender of the character and the character’s views on masculinity, and an attention check was included in one of the questions. Following the experimental exposure and the manipulation check, participants responded a questionnaire that measured their level of identification with the character, and their levels of agreement to traditional masculinity beliefs. At the end of the questionnaire, participants also responded to control questions about age, gender, sexual orientation and educational level.
the participants were provided with a randomly generated confirmation code to grant access to the offered incentive via the MTurk platform. The data collection happened between April 29th and May 19th, 2020.
Stimulus material
Exposure to entertainment education. The experimental instruments were four
manipulated pieces of written narrative. The format was inspired by first person testimonies and narratives - similar to the ones often found in blog essays and documentaries - in an attempt to improve identification with the character while allowing for explicit argumentation about the topic, increasing the potential for a short-term effect even with a single exposure. This choice prioritises internal validity, as written narratives allow for the four conditions to be comparable, with only the manipulated elements being different, which minimises other potential factors for an effect.
The foundation for the narratives was the trailer of the documentary “The Mask You Live In” (2015), which is a critically acclaimed narrative about the harms of traditional masculinity to males. The trailer was transcribed and adapted into a first-person narrative, resembling a blog post, and adjusted to each of the four conditions, as described in Procedure. From the initial narrative, only the specific keywords were different between the conditions, on a first level regarding the perspective on masculinity, and on a second level regarding the gender of the character. The manipulated instruments were inspired by existing experimental instruments by Cohen, Weimann-Saks and Mazor-Tregerman (2018) and Christy (2018). One example of manipulation applied to the narrative is the following sentence: “As a man/woman, I believe the
three most destructive/important words every man receives when he is a boy is when he is told to ‘be a man’”.
Regarding external validity, the study presents a narrative in an artificial setting, compromising ecological validity as it is common for experiments; however, the online format also offers good population validity, with a sample that is considerably large for an
experiment. Additionally, there are studies on narrative persuasion that show written narratives also have the potential to lead to identification and persuasion (Wojcieszak et al., 2020).
The complete instruments can be found in the Appendix.
Measures
Endorsement of traditional masculinity. This construct was measured using the
Conformity to Masculinity Norms Inventory (CMNI-46), developed by Parent and Moradi (2009) and applied in multiple studies with satisfactory results, including Giaccardi et al. (2017) and Iwamoto et al., (2011). The CMNI-46 measure differs from other masculinity endorsement instruments such as MRNI-R, applied by Scharrer and Blackburn (2018). One key difference is that while MRNI-R presents the items phrased as broader beliefs around cultural norms (e.g. men
should, men are), CMNI items are more focused on the individuals’ beliefs and behaviour (e.g. I believe, I think). This choice was based on the first-person characteristic of the experimental
instrument; by opting for a more personal phrasing of the questionnaire, the assumption is that it will be more likely that the identification effect will be perceived.
CMNI-46 includes 46 items, divided in 9 concepts: (1) emotional control (e.g. “I tend to
keep my feelings to myself”); (2) winning (e.g. “In general, I will do anything to win”); (3)
playboy (e.g. “If I could, I would frequently change sexual partners”); (4) violence (e.g. “I am
willing to get into a physical fight if necessary”); (5) self-reliance (e.g. “I hate asking for help”);
“Things tend to be better when men are in charge”); (8) primacy of work (e.g. “My work is the most important part of my life”); and (9) heterosexual self-presentation (e.g. “I would be furious if someone thought I was gay”). All items were measured using a 7-point Likert Scale
(1=Strongly disagree to 7=Strongly agree). Reverse items were recoded. A mean score was then calculated across all 46 items, with higher scores reflecting stronger adherence to masculinity ideology (α = .63).
Based on the questionable Cronbach alpha for the CMNI-46 measure, we wanted to further investigate the reliability of the construct on this study (α = .63). A principal axis factor analysis with Varimax rotation was conducted with the 46 items. Both the Eigenvalue-criterion and the Scree Plot show that there are nine factors, as shown on Table 1 below. Results confirm the nine factors described in the original CMNI-46 instruments. However, due to the questionable
Cronbach’s Alpha of the resulting construct (endorsement of traditional masculinity), we will also explore each of the nine factors on the relevant hypotheses that have endorsement of masculinity as a dependent variable.
Table 1
Factor Analysis CMNI-46
Factor Eigenvalue Heterosexual self-presentation 8.60 Risk-taking 5.06 Emotional control 3.93 Violence 3.70 Winning 2.74
Power over women 2.43
Playboy 2.08
Primacy of work 1.66
Self-reliance 1.48
Identification. Identification was measured with the same instruments applied by Graaf
and colleagues (2012), using 7-point Likert Scales (1=Strongly Disagree to 7=Strongly Agree). The measure included eight items, considering that participants could potentially imagine
themselves in the position of the character (e.g. “During reading, I imagined what it would be
like to be in the position of the author”), feel empathy (e.g. “I empathized with the author”), and
imagine themselves as the character (e.g. “In my imagination it was as if I was the author”). Reverse items were recoded. A mean score was then calculated across all eight items, with higher scores reflecting stronger identification (α = .91).
Control questions. Control questions were also included, measuring age (“How old are
you?”), sexual orientation (“Which of the following best describes how you think of yourself?”,
including the options Heterosexual/Straight, Homosexual/Gay, Bisexual, Other and I prefer not
to say) and educational level (What is the highest level of education you have completed or the highest degree you have received?). Although filtered for males, the questionnaire also included
a question regarding gender, to validate the sample (“What is your gender?”). The complete questionnaire can be found in the Appendix.
Results
This study sought to identify a potential positive short-term effect of EE in male
individuals' beliefs about traditional masculinity; additionally, we aimed at exploring the role of identification as a mediator of the effect.
Randomisation check
To check if the randomisation of the experimental conditions was successful, Chi-Square tests using crosstabs analysis were executed for sexual orientation and educational level. Results showed a non-significant relationship for sexual orientation, with χ2(1, N = 125) = 13.05, p = .365, and for educational level, with χ2(1, N = 125) = 19.34, p = .371. For age, a one-way ANOVA was executed, and found a non-significant relationship, with F(3, 121) = 0.557, p =
.645, η2 = 0.013. These results show the randomisation of the participants for all control
variables was successful. Descriptive statistics of the control variables across the four conditions can be found on Table 2.
Table 2
Descriptive Statistics of Control Variables Across Conditions
Variable Condition 1 Condition 2 Condition 3 Condition 4
Age (Mean) 27.78 29.75 27.81 27.70
Age (SD) 8.54 7.20 6.35 7.75
Sex orient. Heterosexual 81% 94% 94% 97%
Sex orient. Other 19% 6% 6% 3%
Ed. Level Highschool or lower 59% 41% 42% 50%
Ed. Level College or up 41% 59% 58% 50%
Manipulation check
Two items were included in the measuring instruments to ensure that participants understood the narratives correctly; one item addressing perspective on masculinity (“The blog
post you read supports…” with the alternatives traditional masculinity / non-traditional masculinity / I don’t know or I don’t remember) and one item addressing gender of character (“The blog post you read was written by…” and the options a man / a woman / I don’t know or I don’t remember). For the first manipulation check, we applied a one-way ANOVA. We found
that F(1, 123) = 9.424, p = .003, η2 = 0,07, which shows a significant result and confirms that the
manipulation of perspective on masculinity was successful. This result implies that respondents understood the perspective on masculinity that was presented to them in the experimental
instruments (traditional or non-traditional). For the second manipulation check, another One-way ANOVA was applied, and found F(1, 123) = 192.008, p < .001, η2 = 0.61. Because the result is
successful, which shows that participants correctly identified the gender of the character presented to them.
Main analysis
Regarding our research question, the first hypothesis predicted that EE narratives reinforcing non-traditional gender roles would have a stronger short-term effect on males' endorsement of traditional masculinity than EE narratives reinforcing traditional gender roles. The statistical model chosen for the analysis was an independent samples T-Test. Levene's test for equality of variances was significant, F=4.980, p=.027. Results revealed that the non-traditional group had non-significantly lower scores (M=3.46, SD=0.61), in comparison to the traditional group (M=3.52, SD=0.77). t(123) = -0.455, p=.650, d=-0.007, 95%CI [-0.30, 0.19]. This means H1 is rejected.
The second hypothesis was based on the interaction effect between the two main factors (perspective on masculinity and gender of the character); H2 predicted that the narrative
reinforcing non-traditional gender roles would be more persuasive depending on the gender of the character. The statistical model chosen for the analysis was a two-way ANOVA, and showed a non-significant interaction effect of perspective on masculinity and gender of character, F (1, 124) = 0.071, p = .790, η2 = .0005.
Participants exposed to a non-traditional perspective were less inclined to agree with traditional masculinity (M = 3.38, SD = 0.62) than those exposed to a traditional perspective (M = 3.46, SD = 0.64) when the character was male; when the character was female, the gap
between the effect of non-traditional perspective (M=3.55, SD=0.60) and traditional perspective (M=3.57, SD=0.89) was smaller, yet with non-significant differences. Thus, H2 is rejected.
Regarding our second factor, gender of character, the hypotheses (H3, H4, H5 and H6) were tested only among individuals that were exposed to non-traditional masculinity conditions. By measuring only conditions 3 and 4, we isolate gender as the single variation between
conditions, and can evaluate its role in lowering the endorsement of traditional gender roles. In that context, the third hypothesis expected that EE narratives about gender roles with a
male character would have a stronger short-term effect on males' endorsement of traditional
masculinity than EE narratives about gender roles with a female character. The statistical model chosen for the analysis was an independent samples T-Test. Levene's test for equality of
variances was non-significant, F=0.009, p=.925. Results revealed that the male character group had non-significantly lower scores (M=3.38, SD=0.62), in comparison to the female character group (M=3.55, SD=0.60). t(59) = -1.090, p=.280, d=-0.037, 95%CI [-0.48, 0.14]. This means H3 is rejected.
The fourth hypothesis predicted that identification with male characters would be
stronger than with female characters. An independent samples t-test was conducted. Levene's test for equality of variances was not significant, F = 1.323, p = .255. Results revealed that the
participants exposed to a female character had non-significant higher identification levels (M = 5.28, SD = 1.12) in comparison to the participants exposed to a male character (M = 5.11, SD = 1.42), t(59) = -.495, p =.622, d = -0.02, 95% CI [-0.82, 0.49]. Thus, H4 is rejected.
The fifth hypothesis stated that, among individuals exposed to non-traditional masculinity, a higher identification with character would lead to a lower endorsement of
traditional masculinity than a lower identification with character. A single regression model was applied. Results showed a non-significant relationship, F(1,59)=1.733, p =.193. Identification was not a significant predictor of endorsement of traditional masculinity (b = -0.081, b* = -.169,
t = -1.316, p = .193, 95% CI [-0.20, 0.04]). Therefore, H5 is rejected.
As an exploration for future studies, we investigated the separated factors of endorsement of traditional masculinity (e.g. primacy of work, emotional control) in relationship with the independent variable. Statistically significant results were found only for one of the nine CMNI factors (Violence), as shown on Table 3.
Table 3
Simple Regression per Factor
Variable B 95% CI B* t p
(Constant) 4.910 [3.68;6.14] 7.985 .000
Identification -.284 [-0.51;-0.05] -.306 -2.465 .017
Note: Dependent variable: Endorsement of violence. CI = confidence interval for B.
Finally, the sixth hypothesis stated that the effect of gender of character on males’
endorsement of traditional masculinity would be mediated by identification with the character. A PROCESS single mediation model by Andrew F. Hayes (model 4) was executed to evaluate the mediation effect of identification. Results show a non-significant effect of gender of character on identification: F(1,59)=0.244, p=.624, r2=.064; b= -.162, t(59)=-.494, p=.624. Looking at the combined effect of gender of character and identification on endorsement of traditional
masculinity, the results are also non-significant (F=(2,58)=1.575, p=.216, r2=.052); for the direct effect of gender of character, results show b=-.184, t(58)=-1.186, p=.241; for the effect mediated by identification results show b=-.086, t(58)=-1.394, p=.169. These results are summarised on Figure 3. Considering these non-significant results, H6 is rejected.
Note:. Effect coefficients (b).
As an exploration for future studies, we investigated the separated factors of endorsement of traditional masculinity in relationship with the independent variable. Statistically significant results were found only for one of the nine CMNI factors (Violence), as shown on Table 4.
Table 4
PROCESS Analysis per Factor
Variable B 95% CI B* t p
(Constant) 4.913 [3.62;6.21] 7.581 .000
Gender of character -.0057 [-0.59;0.58] -.005 -0.019 .985
Identification -.2837 [-0.52;-0.05] -.306 -2.440 .018
Note: Dependent variable: Endorsement of violence. CI = confidence interval for B.
Discussion
This experiment aimed to study the short-term effect of exposure to EE about gender roles on males’ beliefs about traditional masculinity. Six hypotheses were stated, and all six
hypotheses were rejected.
Founded in Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 2004; Bussey & Bandura, 1999), the study explored the potential learning that can derive from observation - in this case, EE
narratives supporting non-traditional masculinity with the purpose of shifting males’ beliefs on the subject. As a mechanism for the effect of EE, we hypothesised identification would be a mediator of the effect, as narratives have been found to be more persuasive when viewers see themselves in the main characters (Graaf et al., 2012). We presented four alternative
experimental conditions, with perspective on masculinity and gender of the character as the two factors that could predict the overall effect on males’ endorsement of traditional masculinity. The first hypothesis predicted that a non-traditional perspective on masculinity would lead to lower endorsement of traditional masculinity than a traditional perspective. Results were non-significant. However, findings were in the predicted direction, indicating a potential effect. This tendency might reinforce that EE formats could potentially have an impact in individuals’ beliefs and attitudes, although with no evidence in the present study. Looking at previous studies, it is possible to argue that participants might potentially learn from the narrator of EE narratives, absorbing part of their argumentation, as evidenced by Murrar and Brauer (2018), and Singhal and Rogers (1999). On the contrary, studies by Christy (2018) and Wojcieszak et al. (2020) found inconsistent results, with the direct effect of persuasive narratives being inconclusive for some of the hypotheses and conditions.
The second hypothesis stated that an EE narrative with a non-traditional perspective could have a stronger effect depending on the gender of the character. The results were non-significant; however, they do indicate a potential effect in the predicted direction. This means the gender of the character might be an important attribute when discussing traditional masculinity
with male individuals. It is possible that the observation of a male character behaviour somehow authorises the individuals to think and act the same way. This tendency was explored by Graaf et al. (2016) and Walkington et al. (2019), showing how EE can be a platform for observational learning and behaviour change.
The third hypotheses explored the mechanisms of this relationship, predicting that a male character would generate a stronger effect than a female character, to which we did not find significant results. However, similarly to H1 and H2, findings were in the expected direction, and the gender of the character did imply a potential effect in males’ beliefs about masculinity. This potential effect might be tied to the concept of observational learning and self-efficacy. Lee and Bichard (2006) successfully established that relationship, highlighting how the gender of the character can influence the effect of an EE narrative. Banerjee and Greene (2012) and Chen et. al. (2016), however, found no effect of narrator gender and POV on persuasive outcomes, showing this relationship should be further explored.
The fourth hypotheses stated that identification with the male character would be stronger than with the female character. Results were non-significant. Surprisingly, the direction of the non-significant effect was the opposite than the expected; participants expressed a stronger identification with the female character than with the male character. Based on existing studies, it is known that identification goes far beyond gender, encompassing beliefs, world views and experiences (Cohen, 2001; Graaf et al., 2012). However, in the case of a narrative that is centred around gender roles, we expected that the gender of the character could imply a stronger
identification, which was not the case. It is important, though, to highlight that the difference was not substantial, and both the identification with the male and the female character were
For the fifth hypotheses, the estimated effect was that a higher level of identification with the character would lead to a lower endorsement of traditional masculinity. Although statistically non-significant, results were in the expected direction: higher identification indicated a lower endorsement of traditional gender roles. Based on previous literature, we have seen how
identification might allow readers to empathise with the character and visualise themselves in a similar position, reinforcing the observational learning (Graaf et al., 2012; Moyer-Gusé & Nabi, 2008). However, similar to the present study, other existing literature also found non-significant or weaker effects in similar conditions, such as the study by Murphy and colleagues (2011), which found identification and involvement with the character as the least relevant mediator of the EE effect.
Finally, the sixth hypothesis explored identification as a mediator of the effect of gender of character on individuals’ endorsement of traditional masculinity. The findings were non-significant. Also, although no significant effects were found, the direct effect of gender of character on individuals’ endorsement of traditional masculinity was substantially stronger than the mediated effect through identification. This result contradicts previous literature that
reinforced identification as a key mediator of the persuasive effects of EE, such as Graaf and colleagues (2012), and Murphy et al. (2011).
Regarding the additional explorations, considering the resulting factors from the CMNI factor analysis, it is possible to obtain a few relevant results. Violence, more specifically, was significantly affected – or represented a trend effect – in some of the hypotheses. This is an important indication of the potential of EE to positively influence beliefs and opinions. By showing a first-person narrative, it was possible to provoke critical thinking, even if on only some levels of traditional masculinity. These results reinforce the study by Lapsansky and
Chatterjee (2013), that addressed only domestic violence as the focus for different EE initiatives. It is possible that better EE results can be achieved in traditional masculinity by focusing on specific traits, and this trend should be further explored.
Despite the non-significant results, the findings of the present study represent a relevant step in investigating positive effects of EE on the endorsement of traditional gender roles. While EE strategies have been applied to multiple societal issues, such as prejudice towards minorities (Christy, 2018; Murrar & Brauer, 2018; Wojcieszak et al.,2020), there are fewer examples deliberately developed to address traditional masculinity (Lapsansky and Chatterjee, 2013). Our study, therefore, reinforces the importance of the issue, and attempts to fill the gap on the literature. Through theoretical review and collected data, this study presents potential elements that should be considered in future EE strategies addressing gender roles. Especially when addressing a male audience, the empathetic approach might be important for the perception of self-efficacy, presenting men as allies and agents of change; our study also outlines the
importance of identification and the gender of the main character, which is potentially relevant for this target audience. Alternatively, other mechanisms that were not measured in the present study, such as involvement with the narrative and narrative transportation might potentially be important. Finally, the indications of the transformative potential of EE might inspire future strategies that help deconstruct traditional masculinity.
Considering the limitations of this study, there are a number of possible reasons why we were not able to find significant results. Regarding identification with the character, it is possible to argue that a short, written first-person narrative was a problematic operationalization of EE, since there is evidence of written narratives being less involving and persuasive than audio-visual narratives (Walter, Frank, & Baezconde-Garbanati, 2017). However, this choice was made
to maximise the internal validity of the experimental format, limiting the discrepancies between the conditions. Additionally, to allow for more retention on an online survey experiment, the manipulated narratives were somewhat short; the intention was to gather a larger and more representative sample and improve the population validity of the experiment. This might have been a problematic decision that impacted the levels of identification with the characters, since they contained less information about the character. Graaf and colleagues (2012) also explored identification in written narratives, and deliberately included a sequence of events experienced by the character to enable identification. In conclusion, the role of gender and identification in EE narratives about traditional masculinity should be further explored in alternative
circumstances.
Another potential limitation of the study could be the short-term characteristic of this experiment, based on one single exposure. Considering the existing literature about masculinity, as previously discussed, it is more common to find studies that address the role of entertainment in reinforcing traditional gender roles (Blackburn & Scharrer, 2019; Giaccardi et al., 2017; Morgan, 1982; Scharrer & Blackburn, 2018). Such studies are often exploring long-term effects of media, and it is possible to argue that it is challenging to find a short-term effect on the subject of gender roles, as they are cultural constructions that are deeply rooted in the individuals.
Although other experiments found significant short-term EE effects on established beliefs, such as prejudice towards minorities like homosexuals and Muslims (Christy, 2018; Murrar & Brauer, 2018), it is possible that the characteristics of gender role beliefs require alternative strategies; differently from prejudice, that is directed outwards, gender roles are relevant to the identity of the individuals (Morgan, 2009; Zysberg, 2012), and might potentially require long-term EE strategies.
Regarding future studies, it would be interesting to further investigate the potential of EE narratives in addressing traditional masculinity. One potential direction is to explore longitudinal design, evaluating if the repeated exposure to EE content that questions traditional masculinity can impact the results. As the media is still majorly contributing to a long-term, negative effect (Morgan et al., 2015; Scharrer & Blackburn, 2018), a study exploring positive effects might also require a long-term design. Another possibility is to investigate which EE formats are more effective to generate identification on this particular topic; as highlighted by Graaf and colleagues (2012), in written narratives it is important to develop the characters to reinforce identification. And looking beyond written formats, it is likely that audio visual formats, for example, can contribute to the clarity of the message and the identification with the character, as explored by Walter et al. (2017). Ultimately, whether by implementing different research designs or experimental stimulus, it is essential to apply further research to the elements in entertaining narratives that can bring men to the conversation about traditional masculinity, and purposefully use media to help deconstruct these oppressive beliefs.
Conclusion
In this study, we examined the effectiveness of EE narratives in inviting males to
critically question traditional masculinity. We compared four conditions, presenting two different perspectives on masculinity (traditional and non-traditional) and alternating the gender of the main character (male and female). After examining six hypotheses, we found non-significant results. Although previous studies successfully established the positive effect of EE strategies in influencing deeply rooted beliefs, it is likely that limitation in the design and operationalisation of the present study contributed to the non-significant results. Further research should explore
longitudinal research design and different stimuli, using more involving narratives and even audio-visual formats. Regardless, our results outline the potential effect of EE and signal the importance of investigating how to deconstruct traditional masculinity in the media.
References
Baldwin, J. & Desouza, E. (2001). Modelo de María and machismo: The social construction of gender in Brazil. Interamerican Journal of Psychology, 35(1), 9–29.
Bandura, A. (2004). Social cognitive theory for personal and social change by enabling media. In Singhal, A., Cody, M.J., Rogers, E.M. & M. Sabido (Eds.), Entertainment-education and social change: History, research, and practice (pp. 75–96). New York, NY: Routledge. Banerjee, S. C., & Greene, K. (2012). ‘I quit’ versus ‘I’m sorry I used’: A preliminary
investigation of variations in narrative ending and transportation. Psychology & Health,
27(11), 1308-1322. doi:10.1080/08870446.2012.675063
Blackburn, G., & Scharrer, E. (2019). Video game playing and beliefs about masculinity among male and female emerging adults. Sex Roles, 80(5-6), 310–324. doi:10.1007/s11199-018-0934-4
Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and
differentiation. Psychological Review, 106(4), 676–713. doi:1037/0033-295X.106.4.676 Chen, M., Bell, R. A., & Taylor, L. D. (2016). Narrator point of view and persuasion in health
narratives: The role of protagonist–reader similarity, identification, and self-referencing.
Journal of Health Communication, 21(8), 908–918. doi:10.1080/10810730.2016.1177147
Christy, K. (2018) I, You, or He: Examining the impact of point of view on narrative persuasion.
Cohen, J. (2001). Defining identification: A theoretical look at the identification of audiences with media characters. Mass Communication and Society, 4, 245-264.
Cohen, J., Weimann-Saks, D., & Mazor-Tregerman, M. (2018). Does character similarity increase identification and persuasion? Media Psychology, 21(3), 506–528. doi:10.1080/15213269.2017.1302344
Connell, R., & Messerschmidt, J. (2005). Hegemonic masculinity: Rethinking the concept. Gender & Society, 19(6), 829–859. doi:10.1177/0891243205278639 Flacso Brasil (2015). Mapa da violência 2015. Extracted from: flacso.org.br in April, 2020. Giaccardi, S., Ward, L., Seabrook, R., Manago, A., & Lippman, J. (2017). Media use and men’s
risk behaviors: Examining the role of masculinity ideology. Sex Roles, 77(9-10), 581– 592. doi:10.1007/s11199-017-0754-y
Graaf, A., Hoeken, H., Sanders, J., & Beentjes, J. (2012). Identification as a mechanism of narrative persuasion. Communication Research, 39(6), 802–823.
doi:10.1177/0093650211408594
Graaf, A., Sanders, J., & Hoeken, H. (2016). Characteristics of narrative interventions and health effects: a review of the content, form, and context of narratives in health-related narrative persuasion research. Review of Communication Research, 4, 88–131.
IPEA (2015). Atlas da violência 2015. Extracted from: repositorio.ipea.gov.br in April, 2020. Lapsansky, C., & Chatterjee, J. (2013). Masculinity matters: using entertainment education to engage men in ending violence against women in India. Critical Arts: Entertainment
Lee, M., & Bichard, S. (2006). Effective message design targeting college students for the prevention of binge-drinking: basing design on rebellious risk-taking tendency. Health
Communication, 20(3), 299–308. doi:10.1207/s15327027hc2003_9
Levant, R. F., Hall, R. J., & Rankin, T. J. (2013). Male role norms inventory-short form (MRNI-SF): Development, confirmatory factor analytic investigation of structure, and
measurement invariance across gender. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 60, 228–238. doi:10.1037/a0031545.
Levant, R. F., & Richmond, K. (2007). A review of research on masculinity ideologies using the male role norms inventory. The Journal of Men’s Studies, 15(2), 130–146.
doi:10.3149/jms.1502.130
Maloney, M., Roberts, S., & Caruso, A. (2018). ‘Mmm… I love it, bro!’: Performances of masculinity in YouTube gaming. New Media & Society, 20(5), 1697-1714.
Mar, K., & Oatley, K. (2008). The function of fiction is the abstraction and simulation of social experience. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(3), 173–192. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00073.
Morgan, M. (1982). Television and adolescents: sex role stereotypes – a longitudinal study.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 43(5), 947–955.
Morgan, M. (2009). Cultivation analysis and media effects. In R. Nabi & M. Oliver (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of media processes and effects (69–82). Los Angeles: Sage
Publications.
Morris, M., & Anderson, E. (2015). “Charlie is so cool like”: Authenticity, popularity and inclusive masculinity on YouTube. Sociology, 49(6), 1200–1217.
Morgan, M., Shanahan, J., & Signorielli, N. (2015). Yesterday’s new cultivation, tomorrow.
Mass Communication and Society: A Symposium on Mass Communication Theory, 18(5),
674–699. doi:10.1080/15205436.2015.1072725
Moyer-Gusé, E. (2008). Toward a theory of entertainment persuasion: Explaining the persuasive effects of entertainment-education messages. Communication Theory, 18.
Murphy, S. T., Frank, L. B., Moran, M. B., & Patnoe-Woodley, P. (2011). Involved, trans-ported, or emotional? Exploring the determinants of change in knowledge, attitudes, and behavior in entertainment-education. Journal of Communication, 61(3), 407–431. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2011.01554.x
Murrar, S. & Brauer, M. (2018). Entertainment-education effectively reduces prejudice. Group
Processes & Intergroup Relations 21(7), 1053–1077.
Pan American Health Organization (2019). Masculinities and Health in the Region of the Americas. Executive Summary. Washington, D.C.: PAHO; 2019.
Papa, M.J. and A. Singhal. 2010. How entertainment-education programs promote dialogue in support of social change. Journal of Creative Communication 4(3): 185–208.
Parent, M. C., & Moradi, B. (2009). Confirmatory factor analysis of the conformity to masculine norms inventory-46. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 10(3), 175–189.
doi:10.1037/a0015481.
Parker, R. (1986) Masculinity, femininity, and homosexuality. Journal of Homosexuality, 11(3-4), 155-163. doi:10.1300/J082v11n03_10
Scharrer, E., & Blackburn, G. (2018). Cultivating conceptions of masculinity: Television and perceptions of masculine gender role norms. Mass Communication and Society, 21(2), 149–177. doi:10.1080/15205436.2017.1406118
Singhal, A. and E.M. Rogers. 1999. Entertainment-education: a communication strategy for
social change. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Thompson L.J. (2015). Nothing suits me like a suit: Performing masculinity in How I Met Your Mother. The International Journal of Television Studies 10(2), 21-36.
doi:10.7227/CST.10.2.3
Walkington, Z., Wigman, S., & Bowles, D. (2019). The impact of narratives and transportation on empathic responding. Poetics. doi:10.1016/j.poetic.2019.101425
Walter, N., Murphy, S., Frank, L., & Baezconde-Garbanati, L. (2017). Each medium tells a different story: The effect of message channel on narrative persuasion. Communication
Research Reports, 34(2), 161-170, doi:10.1080/08824096.2017.1286471
WHO (2015). World Health Organization Report. Extracted from: www.who.int in April, 2020. Wojcieszak, M., Kim, N. & Igartua, J. (2020). How to enhance the effects of mediated
intergroup contact? Evidence from four countries. Mass Communication and Society, 23(1), 71-106. doi:10.1080/15205436.2019.1630444
Zhu Z. (2016). “Straight” acting: Changing image of queer-masculinity in media representation.
Journal of Arts and Humanities 5(9), 23-35.
Zysberg, L. (2012). The toll of traditional masculinity: A critical literature review. Journal of
Appendix
Experimental instruments
Condition 1: Traditional masculinity + Male character.
As a man, I believe the three most important words every man receives when he is a boy is when he is told to “be a man”.
We constructed an idea of masculinity that gives young boys a way to feel secure in their masculinity, so we make them go prove it all the time, and believe in themselves.
I don’t know if kids today still hear those things, but when I was a child, I often heard people say that men don’t cry.
And if you never cry, then you have control over your feelings.
Men, since they are little, have to create a male identity that is based on strength, not on sensitivity. And that creates a brotherhood within the male universe, as if men often grew up with their emotions under control.
I believe it is not important for men to talk to one another about feelings, for one
obvious reason: we were not raised to do it. In good times, guys are really close to each other, but when things get a little bit worse, you have to take care of yourself.
Guys like us when we go play soccer, we want to show our friends we got life figured out, a good job, and that everything is under control. It would be humiliating to ask for help. What would I say? To whom?
How many men seek therapy, talk about their feelings, seek help to handle a tough time in a relationship? We should keep our problems to ourselves, and not ask for help.
This is one of the reasons that leads men to use strength as a language. This language builds our relationship with ourselves, but also with other guys, with women, with our kids.
And this should not be an issue.
Men are meant to be strong. In Brazil, two out of three people who die are men. Men
are more exposed to work accidents, to traffic accidents, men drink more, and are more exposed to sex-related diseases. Men are more exposed to risk because we are in control. We are the
ones killing and being killed.
7 out of 10 Brazilian men say they were taught since childhood not to demonstrate weakness. 7 out of 10 men claim to have their emotions under control.
7 out of 10 men claim to avoid sharing their emotions with their friends. Most men don’t go to therapy.
I never thought about this reality until I heard my wife say: I’m pregnant. I realised I want the best for my child, I will want to be for him what my dad was for me.
As a society, we are responsible for our boys. What are the values we will teach them?
Condition 2: Traditional masculinity + Female character.
As a woman, I believe the three most important words every man receives when he is a boy is when he is told to “be a man”.
We constructed an idea of masculinity that gives young boys a way to feel secure in their masculinity, so we make them go prove it all the time, and believe in themselves.
I don’t know if kids today still hear those things, but when I was a child, even as a girl, I often heard people say that men don’t cry.
And what I observed with the men in my life is that if you never cry, then you have
control over your feelings.
Men, since they are little, have to create a male identity that is based on strength, not on sensitivity. And that creates a brotherhood within the male universe, as if men often grew up with their emotions under control.
As a woman, I believe it is not important for men to talk to one another about feelings, for one obvious reason: men were not raised to do it. In good times, guys are really close to each other, but when things get a little bit worse, you have to take care of yourself.
Guys I know when they go play soccer, they want to show their friends they got life figured out, a good job, and that everything is under control. It’s like it would be humiliating for them to ask for help. What would a man say? To whom?
How many men seek therapy, talk about their feelings, seek help to handle a tough time in a relationship? Men should keep their problems to themselves, and not ask for help. This is one of the reasons that leads men to use strength as a language. This language builds their relationship with themselves, but also with other guys, with women, with their kids.
And this should not be an issue.
Men are meant to be strong. In Brazil, two out of three people who die are men. Men
are more exposed to work accidents, to traffic accidents, men drink more, and are more exposed to sex-related diseases. Men are more exposed to risk because they are in control. Men are the
ones killing and being killed.
7 out of 10 Brazilian men say they were taught since childhood not to demonstrate weakness. 7 out of 10 men claim to have their emotions under control.
Most men don’t go to therapy.
I never thought about this reality until I found out: I’m pregnant. I realised I want the best for my child, I will want for him what the men in my life received.
As a society, we are responsible for our boys. What are the values we will teach them?
Condition 3: Non-traditional masculinity + Male character.
As a man, I believe the three most destructive words every man receives when he is a boy is when he is told to “be a man”.
We constructed an idea of masculinity that doesn’t give young boys a way to feel secure in their masculinity, so we make them go prove it all the time, and question themselves.
I don’t know if kids today still hear those things, but when I was a child, I often heard people say that men don’t cry.
And if you never cry, then you have all these feelings stacked up inside of you. Men, since they are little, have to create a male identity that is based on strength, not on sensitivity. And that creates a straitjacket within the male universe, as if men often grew up with their emotions locked inside.
I believe it is extremely important for men to talk to one another about feelings, for one obvious reason: we were not raised to do it. In good times, guys are really close to each other, but when things get a little bit worse, you’re on your own.
Guys like us when we go play soccer, we want to show our friends we got life figured out, a good job, and that everything is under control. It would be humiliating to ask for help. What would I need to say? To whom?
How many men seek therapy, talk about their feelings, seek help to handle a tough time in a relationship? We hold those problems to ourselves, and don’t ask for help.
This is one of the reasons that leads men to use violence as a language. This language builds our relationship with ourselves, but also with other guys, with women, with our kids.
And this is an important issue.
Men are not meant to be violent. In Brazil, two out of three people who die are men.
Men are more exposed to work accidents, to traffic accidents, men drink more, and are more exposed to sex-related diseases. Men are victims of wanting to be in control. We are killing
ourselves and each other.
7 out of 10 Brazilian men say they were taught since childhood not to demonstrate weakness. 7 out of 10 men claim to have some level of emotional trouble.
But only 3 out of 10 men claim to talk to friends about their biggest fears and doubts. Less than 50% of boys and men with mental health challenges seek help.
I was oppressed by this reality until I heard my wife say: I’m pregnant. I realised I want
the best for my child, I won’t want to be for him what my dad was for me.
As a society, we are failing our boys. What are the values we will teach them?
Condition 4: Non-traditional masculinity + Female character.
As a woman, I believe the three most destructive words every man receives when he is a boy is when he is told to “be a man”.
We constructed an idea of masculinity that doesn’t give young boys a way to feel secure in their masculinity, so we make them go prove it all the time, and question themselves.
I don’t know if kids today still hear those things, but when I was a child, even as a girl, I often heard people say that men don’t cry.
And what I observed with the men in my life is that if you never cry, then you have all
these feelings stacked up inside of you.
Men, since they are little, have to create a male identity that is based on strength, not on sensitivity. And that creates a straitjacket within the male universe, as if men often grew up with their emotions locked inside.
As a woman, I believe it is extremely important for men to talk to one another about feelings, for one obvious reason: men were not raised to do it. In good times, guys are really close to each other, but when things get a little bit worse, you’re on your own.
Guys I know when they go play soccer, they want to show their friends they got life figured out, a good job, and that everything is under control. It’s like it would be humiliating for them to ask for help. What would a man need to say? To whom?
How many men seek therapy, talk about their feelings, seek help to handle a tough time in a relationship? They hold those problems to themselves, and don’t ask for help.
This is one of the reasons that leads men to use violence as a language. This language builds their relationship with themselves, but also with other guys, with women, with their kids.
And this is an important issue.
Men are not meant to be violent. In Brazil, two out of three people who die are men.
Men are more exposed to work accidents, to traffic accidents, men drink more, and are more exposed to sex-related diseases. Men are victims of wanting to be in control. They are killing
themselves and each other.
