UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM
Name: Eva Ahmedova Student Number: 10375473
Supervisor: Dian de Vries
What is the influence of Facebook use on the well-being of emerging adults?
To what extent is this effect determined by social comparison and employment
status?
Master Thesis
Graduate School of Communication
Master’s Programme: Communication science: Youth and Media
1 Abstract
An online survey regarding Facebook use and life satisfaction was conducted among 238 international respondents. The results indicate that there is negative association between Facebook use intensity and life satisfaction of emerging adults. Theoretical and practical implications of the results are discussed. The findings suggest that social comparison on Facebook and the employment status of the respondents do not moderate this relationship. Finally, directions for future research are proposed.
Keywords: Facebook use, life satisfaction, social comparison, employment status.
A social networking site is an online spot where a user can create a profile and build a personal network that connects him or her to other users. In the past five years, such sites have rocketed from a niche activity into a phenomenon that engages tens of millions Internet users. Emerging adults and teenagers are among the most avid users of such websites (Lenhart & Madden, 2007). Facebook, in particular, allows them to create and explore their identity, and to develop relationships with other people they have in their networks. Research shows that Facebook use could impact their well-being (Valkenburg, Peter & Schouten, 2006).
Diener, Emmons, Larsen and Griffin (1985) identified three separable components of subjective well-being: 1) life satisfaction; 2) positive affect; and 3) negative effect. Life satisfaction is an important part of well-being and is defined as the cognitive component of subjective well-being (Martikainen, 2008). Many of the studies concerning the relationship between Facebook use and well-being are focused on adolescents (Gross, Juvonen, & Gable, 2002; Subrahmanyam, & Lin, 2007; Valkenberg & Peter, 2009; Van den Eijnden, Meerkerk, Vermulst, Spijkerman & Engels, 2008). There are also some publications on emerging adults and
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social networking sites (Kalpidou, Costin & Morris, 2011; Junco, 2011) but research on the relationships between social networking sites and well-being is scarce (Butler, 2010).
Adolescents and emerging adults may differ in the way they are using Facebook due to the specifics of these two stages of development. One main reason is that at the stage of
adolescence most children still live in their parents’ homes. Over 95% of American adolescents aged 12-17 live with at least one of their parents, over 98% are unmarried, and over 95% are enrolled in school (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1997; as cited in Arnett, 2000, p.469). In emerging adulthood, young adults tend to leave their parents’ homes. For instance, young Americans leave home by the age of 18 or 19 years (Goldscheider & Goldscheider, 1994), they may also leave their cities or even the country. Thus, they may use Facebook more than adolescents to reconnect with their families and friends (Subrahmanyam, Reich, Waechter & Espinoza, 2008). Over one third of emerging adults go off to college after high school (Goldscheider & Goldscheider, 1994). It would be interesting to investigate the effects of Facebook use on their life satisfaction which may differ in direction and / or intensity.
The first goal of this study is to investigate the relationship between Facebook use and life satisfaction of emerging adults and determine whether it is positive or negative in direction. In addition, although there are indications that social networking site use may influence well-being, it is still unclear which factors play a role in this relationship. One potential factor may be social comparison on Facebook as the network plays an important role in emerging adults’ lives and they frequently compare themselves to other users (Lee, 2014) which, in turn, could influence their life satisfaction. The social comparisons associated with Facebook may be upward or downward in direction. Thus, Facebook use may be related negatively or positively to life satisfaction. However, research regarding social comparison on Facebook as moderator for life satisfaction is scarce. Therefore, the second aim of the present study is to investigate whether the
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association between Facebook use intensity and life satisfaction of emerging adults depends on the degree of upward and downward social comparison on Facebook.
Furthermore, there are individual differences in media effects on people (Valkenburg & Peter, 2013) which are often linked to socio-demographic factors. Employment status as an individual difference is an issue of main importance. It is a well-known fact that the impact of unemployment carries not only economic but also social implications. Globally, it increases over time and work seeking has become a competitive and highly demanding process (Georgiou, Nikolaou, Tomprou & Rafailidou, 2012). The current young graduates are affected by this
phenomenon, especially in Europe (Brown, Cober, Kane, Levy & Shalhoop, 2006). As a result of the 2008 financial crisis, unemployment rates among graduates have raised substantially. At the beginning of 2014 the average unemployment rate among individuals under the age of 25 in the European Union was 23.4% (EUROSTAT, 2013). Employment status is a factor which could influence the direction of social comparison on Facebook, leading to different levels of life satisfaction among Facebook users. Theoretically, unemployed people would tend to make more upward social comparisons due to their desire to improve their status, while employed individuals would make more downward comparisons, being satisfied with their achievements. However, research regarding employment status as predictor of the degree of upward and downward social comparison on Facebook is scarce. Therefore, the third aim of the present study is to investigate whether employment status may predict the direction of social comparison on Facebook, and, as a result, influence the association between emerging adults’ life satisfaction and Facebook use.
The established effects will contribute to the application of the theory of social
comparison and its relevance to well-being in social media, highlighting potential moderators of the effect of Facebook use on life satisfaction. The results could be used to caution young users
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on possible unwanted implications and to analyze the effectiveness of networking sites as vehicles for enhancing well-being.
Facebook use and well-being
As emerging adults become the most numerous group of Internet users and engage in social networking sites like Facebook, there are questions as to whether this affects their well-being and, if so, in what direction. There is evidence that links Facebook use to low life satisfaction. Kross, et al. (2013) found that the more people used Facebook, the worse their subjective well-being was. Interacting with other people directly was not linked to these negative subjective feelings. On the other hand Ellison, Steinfield and Lampe (2007) concluded that Facebook could be useful because it can create and maintain 'social capital' (networks of
relationships) and thus contribute to psychological well-being. In addition, Valenzuela, Park, and Kee (2009) found that the intensity of Facebook use was related to civic participation, life
satisfaction, and social trust. These findings suggest that there is an association between the intensity of Facebook use and life satisfaction. There is a continuous debate as to whether this association is positive or negative. Therefore, the research question of the present study is formulated as follows:
RQ: Is the association between intensity of Facebook use and life satisfaction of emerging adults positive or negative?
Theory of social comparison
Facebook, as a social network, is a likely medium for interpersonal comparison which may, in turn, have an effect on life satisfaction. The theory of social comparison initially formulated by Festinger (1954) explains how individuals evaluate themselves by comparing to other people. It postulates that people are engaged in social comparisons because they desire to know themselves and have a need to maintain a stable and accurate self-view. They initially
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compare themselves to everyone and later on decide how appropriate this comparison is (Gilbert, Giesler & Morris, 1995). The literature highlights three main motives for social comparison. The first one is the need for precise self-evaluation (Taylor, Wayment & Carrillo, 1996). The second is the desire to create and maintain a positive self-image (Corcoran, Crusius, & Mussweiler, 2011). The third motive is the need to self-improve (Taylor & Lobel, 1989). On the other hand, three types of social comparison are identified: (1) upward comparison with other individuals perceived as better than oneself (Wheeler, 1966); (2) downward comparison with other
individuals who are considered worse off than oneself (Wills, 1981); and (3) lateral comparisons with similarly-achieving individuals (Festinger, 1954). The direction is determined by the goal of the individual making the comparison. (1) Upward social comparisons could be threatening to the self (Brickman & Bulman 1977). After comparing their performance with a superior standard, participants feel worse than after comparing it with an inferior standard (Gilbert et al., 1995). However, among victimized population also upward comparison may play an important role for coping by providing the individual with positive role models and by giving impulse and hope (Collins, 1996). According to the literature, upward comparison is described as a “double-edged sword” (Suls & Wheeler, 2000). (2) The concept of downward comparison as an active
motivation process aimed in self enhancement was developed by Wills (1981) and Taylor, Wood and Lichtment (1983). White, Langer, Yariv and Welch (2006) stated that people who
spontaneously make frequent social comparisons experience more destructive emotions and behaviors. The authors continued that these people tend to be unhappy, more vulnerable to the affective consequences of such comparisons, and more likely to get caught in a cycle of constantly comparing themselves to others, and consequently being unhappy. More social comparisons serve to reinforce the cycle of social comparisons and to diminishing well-being (White et al., 2006). However, in situations that produce a decrease in well-being, people will
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often compare themselves with others, who are thought to be worse off, in the effort to improve their well–being (Wills, 1981; Wilson & Benner, 1971). Although previous studies support the idea that threat prompts downward comparisons, Wood and Taylor (1991) suggests that threat may not be necessary perquisite for people may engage in self-enhancing downward
comparisons. The downward comparison theory emphasizes the positive effects of comparisons in increasing one’s subjective well-being (Wills, 1981). In conclusion, downward comparisons make individuals feel better about themselves, whereas upward comparisons often result in individuals feeling worse about themselves (Collins, 1996; Wood, 1989).
Social comparison on Facebook
At present, it is normal that social comparisons on Facebook occur more frequently than in offline contexts. Studies regarding offline context and social comparison found that on average individuals report comparing themselves to other about once per day (Wheeler & Miyake, 1992). Given the popularity of Facebook in everyday life, this number would be much greater in online context due to the bulk of readily available information on the lives of friends, acquaintances and even random connections added upon friend recommendations. Thus, networking increases the level of social interaction that people would have had without it (Sawyer, 2011). It is to be expected that this increased interaction would lead to more active social comparison of users and, depending on the character of the comparison, may ultimately lead to changes in well-being.
Chou and Edge (2012) found out that that undergraduate students who spent more hours on Facebook and those who included more unknown people as their Facebook “friends” believed more that others were happier than themselves, and agreed less that life is fair. However those who spent more time with their friends off-line, were less persuaded that others are happier than themselves. Chou and Edge (2012) stated that Facebook “provides a platform for people to
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manage others’ impressions of them.” The explanation of this is that people tend to present themselves in a favorable way on their Facebook profile and reading these profiles may have an impact on others’ perceptions of their own lives. As mentioned earlier, Facebook plays a great role in emerging adults’ lives and therefore it is likely that they frequently compare themselves to other people in their networks (Lee, 2014). People who engage more in social networking site use are thus expected to also engage in social comparison more frequently and these social
comparisons may be either upward or downward in direction. A study by Midgley (2013) shows that most individuals make social comparisons on a regular basis while using Facebook, and the majority of these comparisons are upward. Furthermore, as with social comparisons in offline contexts, people report feeling worse about themselves after making upward rather than
downward comparisons on Facebook. In addition, a study on MySpace users found that engaging in social comparisons while using the social networking site is related to more negative feelings about the self (Manago, Graham, Greenfield & Salimkhan, 2008). Another study by Feinstein, Hershenberg, Bhatia, Latack, Meuwly and Davila (2013) suggests that making upward
comparisons while using Facebook leads to an increase in depressive symptoms. These findings provide statistical evidence that both upward and downward social comparisons occur in online contexts. In case the social comparisons are mainly upward, more intensive Facebook use will have a negative association with life satisfaction. On the other hand when the comparison is downward, more intensive Facebook use will have a positive association with life satisfaction. Therefore, the first two hypotheses of the present study are formulated as follows:
H1: The more negatively emerging adults compare themselves with others on Facebook, the more negative the relationship is between intensive Facebook use and life satisfaction. H2: The more positively emerging adults compare themselves with others on Facebook, the more positive the relationship is between intensive Facebook use and life satisfaction.
8 Employment status and social comparison
To help scientists address the narrow attention given to individual differences,
Valkenburg and Peter (2013) established the Differential Susceptibility to Media Effects Model (DSMM). The DSMM is an integrative model created to illuminate why some individuals are more vulnerable to media effects than others. Employment status as an individual difference is an issue of great importance for emerging adults. In this period, work experience becomes more focused on preparation for adult work roles. Emerging adults begin to consider how their work experiences will lay the groundwork for the jobs they may have through adulthood. In exploring various work possibilities, they tend to wonder what kind of work they are good at, what kind of work would they find satisfying, what their chances are of getting a job in the field that seems to suit them best (Arnett, 2000).
Sheeran, Abrams and Orbell (1995) found that employment status affected the salience of intrapersonal comparisons. In addition, the findings of their study suggest that social comparisons with unemployed people were related to reduction in depression levels among employed
respondents. Unemployed people had more negative social comparison scores relative to their employed complements. Due to the present economic situation it is interesting to investigate the link between employment status of users, the direction of the social comparison they make while on Facebook and their life satisfaction. The effect would likely differ among employed and unemployed people leading to different influence of social comparison through networking on well-being. Based on this, employment status is expected to be associated with social comparison in two directions. Therefore, the third and the fourth hypotheses are formulated as follows:
H3: Unemployment is expected to be associated with more upward and less downward social comparison on Facebook.
9 H4: Employment is expected to be associated with more downward and less upward social comparison on Facebook.
Thus, it is expected that the direction of social comparison on Facebook moderates the effects of Facebook use intensity and the fifth hypothesis is formulated as follows:
H5: Among unemployed people, more negative association between Facebook use and life satisfaction is expected than among employed individuals.
Method Sample and procedure
In April and May 2014, an online survey was conducted among 238 mainly Bulgarian and Dutch emerging adults. The age of the respondents ranged between 18 and 25. This age range falls into that of major Facebook users, which is between 18 and 29 (Lee, 2014). Out of the 238 participants, 232 were Facebook users and 6 were non-users.
After receiving approval from the ethical committee of the University of Amsterdam, the participants were recruited. The recruitment occurred through a snowball sample via Facebook, Twitter, Google + and other social networking sites. An online survey was sent to the participants (see Appendix). They were informed that the survey would take approximately 15 minutes, that they could quit the survey whenever they wanted to and that no personally identifiable
information would be collected. To increase the validity of the responses, efforts were made to guarantee complete anonymity. After completing the online questionnaire, respondents were thanked for their participation and were provided with the contact details of the principal investigator in case of any questions. The survey was conducted at the following link:
(https://jfe.qualtrics.com/form/SV_82M8MbkwYIz9G8R), programmed with the survey tool Qualtrics.
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The measures used in this study were designed to evaluate Facebook use intensity, life satisfaction, upward and downward social comparison on Facebook, and employment status. The independent variable is Facebook use intensity, the moderators are upward, downward social comparison on Facebook and employment status and the dependent variable is life satisfaction.
Facebook use intensity. Facebook use intensity serves as an independent variable in the
present study. To assess a person’s Facebook use intensity, 8 items developed by Ellison et al., (2007) were used. The scale was developed to obtain a better measure of Facebook use than frequency or duration indices (Ellison et al., 2007) and was modified for the present study. Seven items were used to measure the intensity of the use of the friend networking site: 1) “About how many Facebook friends do you have in total?”, 2) “Facebook is a part of my everyday activity”, 3) “I am proud to tell people that I am on Facebook”, 4) “Facebook has become a part of my daily routine”, 5) “I feel out of touch when I haven’t logged into Facebook for a day”, 6) “I feel I am a part of the Facebook community”, 7) “I would be sorry if Facebook shut down”. The
answers were coded using a Likert scale. The reliability analysis for the scale was Cronbach’s α =
.834, which is comparable to Cronbach’s α of .83 reported by Ellison et al., (2007). The answer
options varied from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) (M = 18.41; SD = 5.65). The minimum possible score is 6 and the maximum is 30. The higher the score, the greater the Facebook use intensity is.
Life satisfaction. Life satisfaction serves as a dependent variable in this study. It was
operationalized as the degree to which emerging adults are satisfied with their own lives. A five-item satisfaction with life scale developed by Diener, Emmons, Larsen, and Griffin (1985) was used. It has been applied successfully in a host of research studies (Valkenburg et al., 2006), mainly for adolescents. Responses were coded using a Likert scale with response categories ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). In total, 5 items measured the
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being of emerging adults: 1) “In most ways my life is close to my ideal”, 2) “The conditions of my life are excellent”, 3) “I am satisfied with my life”, 4) “So far I have gotten the important things I want in life”, 5) “If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing”. The reliability analysis for the scale was Cronbach’s α = .779. (M = 16.65; SD = 4.03), which is lower than the alpha of .87 reported by Diener et al. (1985). The minimum possible score is 5 and the maximum is 25. The higher the score is, the greater the respondent’s satisfaction with life is.
Downward social comparison on Facebook. Downward social comparison on Facebook
serves as a moderator in the present study. It was measured by the following two questions: 1) “When I read news feeds (or see photos of others) I often think that others are doing worse than me”, 2) “When I read news feeds (or see photos of others) I often think that others are having worst lives than me”. These questions are modified versions of the ones used by Buunk, Zurriaga, Peiro, Nauta, & Gosalvez, (2005). The response categories range from 1 (completely disagree) to 5 (completely agree). The reliability analysis for the scale was Cronbach’s α = .919. (M = 4.97;
SD = 2.08). The minimum possible score is 2 and the maximum is 10. The higher the score is, the
higher the degree of the respondent’s downward comparison is.
Upward social comparison on Facebook. Upward social comparison serves as a
moderator in this study. It was measured by two items: 1) “When I read news feeds (or see photos of others) I often think that others have better lives than me”, 2) “When I read news feeds (or see photos of others) I often think that others are doing better than me”. These questions are modified versions of the ones used by Buunk et al. (2005). The reliability analysis for the scale was
Cronbach’s α = .932. The response categories range from 1 (completely disagree) to 5
(completely agree). (M = 4.71; SD = 2.41). The minimum possible score is 2 and the maximum is 10. The higher the score is, the higher the degree of the respondent’s upward comparison is.
12 Employment status. Employment status serves as the moderator variable in this study. It
was measured by one yes / no question: “Are you employed?” (M =1.42; SD = .5).
Socio-demographics. In order to describe the participants in this study,
socio-demographic information was evaluated. The following variables were assessed: gender, nationality and education.
Data analysis
After reaching the necessary number of responses, the data were analyzed using the SPSS Statistics program (v. 19). Descriptive statistics were conducted to describe the sample. Multiple regression analyses, a moderation analyses and two independent sample t-tests were used to answer the research question and to test the hypotheses.
Results
The output of the frequency test shows that the sample (n=238) consists of 31.1% male and 68.9 % female respondents. The mean is (M = 1.69, SD = .5). The age of the respondents varies between 18 and 25 years with M = 22. 29 and SD = 2.15, so that all respondents fall in the category of emerging adults and in the range of major Facebook users. The descriptive statistical analysis shows that 187 (78.5 %) of the respondents are from Bulgaria and 38 (15.1%) are from The Netherlands, resulting in an international sample. With respect to the level of education, 35.6% of the respondents have a Bachelor’s degree, 31.8% have graduated high school and 26.3% have a Master’s degree. Finally, 57.6 % respondents are employed and 42.4 % are not. Initailly the sample consisted of 258 respondents (n=258) but 20 participants were excluded from the data as they were older than 25 years.
At this stage, four new variables were created. The first one represents the sum of the six items measuring Facebook use intensity. The second variable expresses the sum of the five items used to measure life satisfaction. The third variable represents the sum of the two items used to
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measure upward social comparison on Facebook and the fourth applies to downward social comparison in the same manner.
In order to answer the research question of the present study, or whether the association between Facebook intensity use and life satisfaction of emerging adults is positive or negative, a multiple linear regression analysis was conducted. The regression model with life satisfaction as the dependent variable and Facebook use intensity as an independent variable is significant at
p<.05, F (1, 231) = 6.425, p = .012. The regression model can therefore be used to predict the
influence of Facebook use intensity on life satisfaction, but the strength of the prediction is very weak: 2.3% of the variation in life satisfaction can be accounted for by Facebook use intensity (adjusted R2 = .023). Facebook use intensity, b* = -.116, t = -2.535, p = .012, has a significant negative association with life satisfaction.
In order to address the first hypothesis that the more negatively emerging adults compare themselves with others on Facebook, the more negative the relationship is between intensive Facebook use and life satisfaction, a moderation analysis was conducted. First, an interaction term between Facebook use intensity and upward social comparison was created. Then a multiple linear regression analysis was conducted with life satisfaction as the dependent variable and the interaction term, Facebook use intensity and upward social comparison on Facebook as
predictors. The regression model is significant with F (3, 231) = 13,479, p = .000 and therefore it could be used to predict life satisfaction. 15.1% of the variation in life satisfaction can be
accounted for by Facebook use intensity, upward social comparison and the interaction term (adjusted R2= .151). The interaction term, b* = -.032, t = -1.809, p = .072, does not have а significant association with life satisfaction. Therefore, the effect of intensive Facebook use on life satisfaction for people scoring low on upward social comparison is not significantly different
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from the effect observed for those who score high. No moderation effect was found, thus the first hypothesis was not supported.
In order to establish the general effect of Facebook use intensity on life satisfaction at the mean level of the moderator upward social comparison, a new regression analysis was conducted with Facebook use intensity and upward social comparison as independent variables and life satisfaction as the dependent variable. The regression model is significant with F (2, 231) = 18,401, p = .000 and therefore it can be used to predict the effect of Facebook use intensity and upward social comparison on life satisfaction. 13.8% of the variation in the life satisfaction can be accounted for by these two independent variables (adjusted R2 = .138). Facebook use intensity,
b* = -.015, t=-.319, p = .750 does not have a significant association with life satisfaction, while
upward social comparison, b* = -.598, t= -5,439, p = .000 has a significant negative association with life satisfaction.
In order to test the second hypothesis that the more positively emerging adults compare themselves with others on Facebook, the more positive the relationship is between intensive Facebook use and life satisfaction, a moderation analysis was conducted. An interaction term was created between Facebook use intensity and downward social comparison. Then a multiple linear regression analysis was conducted with life satisfaction as the dependent variable, the interaction term, Facebook use intensity and downward social comparison on Facebook as predictors. The regression model is not significant with F (3, 231) = 13,479, p=. 075 and therefore it cannot be used to predict life satisfaction. The interaction term is also not significant at p = .595, thus it can be concluded that there is no moderation effect and the second hypothesis is not supported.
In order define the general effect of Facebook use intensity on life satisfaction at the mean level of downward social comparison the regression analysis was repeated without the interaction term. The regression model is significant with F (2, 231) = 3.373, p=. 036 and can be used to
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predict the effect of Facebook use intensity and downward social comparison on life satisfaction with very low strength of the prediction: 2.9% of the variation in the life satisfaction can be accounted for by the independent variables (adjusted R2= .029). Facebook use intensity, b* = -.122, t=-2,597, p = .010 has a significant negative association with life satisfaction. Downward social comparison, b* = .074, t= .582, p = .561 does not have a significant association with life satisfaction.
In order to test the third hypothesis of the present study that unemployment is associated with more upward and less downward social comparison on Facebook and the fourth hypothesis that employment is associated with more downward and less upward social comparison on Facebook, two independent sample t-tests were conducted with grouping variable employment status: one for upward and one for downward social comparison on Facebook.
For upward social comparison, there was no significant difference between employed (M=4.71, SD=2.27) and unemployed individuals (M=4.71, SD=2.59); t (231) = -.010, p = .992. Therefore, the third hypothesis of the study is not supported.
Regarding downward social comparison on Facebook, again there was no significant difference between employed (M=5.01, SD=2.04) and unemployed individuals (M=4.91,
SD=2.16) conditions; t (231) = .38, p =. 701. Therefore, the fourth hypothesis of the present study
was not supported.
In order to address the fifth hypothesis of the present study that among unemployed people more negative association between Facebook use and life satisfaction is expected than among employed individuals, a moderation analysis was conducted. First, an interaction term between Facebook use intensity and employment status was created. Then a multiple linear regression analysis was carried out with life satisfaction as the dependent variable, and the interaction term, Facebook use intensity and employment status as predictors. The regression
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model is not significant with F (3, 231) = 2.63, p=. 051 and therefore cannot be used to predict life satisfaction. The interaction term is not significant at p = .260. Thus, the effect of intensive Facebook use on life satisfaction for unemployed people is not significantly different from the effect observed among employed individuals and the fifth hypothesis of the study is rejected. In order define the general effect of Facebook use intensity on life satisfaction at the mean level of employment status the regression analysis was repeated without the interaction term. The regression model is significant with F (2, 231) = 3.30, p=. 038 and can be used to predict the effect of Facebook use intensity and employment status on life satisfaction with very low strength of the prediction; 2.8% of the variation in the life satisfaction can be accounted for by the
independent variables (adjusted R2= .028). Facebook use intensity, b* = -.117, t=-2.55, p = .011 has a significant negative association with life satisfaction.
Discussion
Many studies provide evidence that there is a relationship between Facebook use and well-being. The present study is one of the first to investigate whether this relationship is determined by social comparison on Facebook. In addition it is also one of the first to explore whether the employment status determines the direction of this social comparison.
It was established that there is a negative association between Facebook intensity and life satisfaction of emerging adults. However, contrary to the predictions of the first two hypotheses, this relationship is not moderated neither by upward nor by downward social comparison.
Study shows that by comparing themselves to others who are better than them individuals tend to engage in an unfavorable comparison that will make them feel more dissatisfied with their own lives (Diener & Fujita, 1997). However, regarding the online context, the present study established that upward social comparison on Facebook does not affect the direction and/or
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strength of the relationship between Faecbook use intensity and life satisfaction of emerging adults.
On the other hand, a study demonstrates that by comparing themselves to others who are worse than them, individuals often create a lower base point to evaluate their own life, which can make them feel better and more satisfied with their lives (Buunk, Oldersma & De Dreu, 2001). However, findings from the present study indicate that downward social comparison on Facebook does not have an influence on the relationship between Faecbook use intensity and life
satisfaction of emerging adults.
Interestingly, the regression analysis at the mean level of the moderator upward social comparison (without the interaction term) showed a negative association with life satisfaction, as established in the first analysis, but in this case the association is with upward social comparison insted of Facebook use intensity. Therefore, there is a link between upward social comparison on Facebook and life satisfaction, but it is probably obscured by other factors which have not been taken into account in the present investigation.
Regarding hypotheses three and four, the present study established that there is no difference among unemployed and employed people in terms of the social comparisons (both upward and downward) they tend to make while on Facebook, contrary to what was expected. It appears that even though employment is an important demographic individual characteristic, it plays no direct role in the relationship between social comparison on Facebook and life
satisfaction.
Finally, there is no moderation effect of employment status on the relationship between Facebook use and life satisfaction. In other words, employment status does not play a role in determining the effect of Facebook use on well-being.
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In conclusion, even though there is an established negative association between Facebook use and well-being, this is not directly related neither to social comparison, nor to employment status. It is conceivable that there would be no negative implications of Facebook use as regards these factors. The theory of social comparison is clearly applicable to broader, offline contexts, but the increased interaction through the friend network is not associated to life satisfaction through such comparisons. Similarly, employment status may have a general effect on well-being but Facebook use does not increase its significance as a factor.
Limitations and future directions
Several limitations should be considered when interpreting the findings of the present study. One of the main problems in social comparison research is that people are usually not willing to admit that they have engaged in social comparison (Bunk & Gibbson, 2006). In this case it is possible that the actual comparison is higher than the reported. In addition, in terms of education the sample is not representative. Furthermore, although 238 respondents participated the survey, this number of is relatively small for social comparison research. The survey was conducted in English and we should take into account that this could lead to misunderstanding among respondents who are not fluent in the language.
Further research may elucidate the factors, leading to the established negative association between Facebook use and life satisfaction. It appears that the process is complex and likely includes numerous moderators, while the isolated effect of social comparison and employment status does not lead to significant results. A longitudinal experiment may give directions in the investigations of the relationship between Facebook use and life satisfaction, and its long term development.
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25 Appendix
Questionnaire
Thank you for your interest in this online study conducted by Eva Ahmedova and Marije Mulders, Master students at the University of Amsterdam (supervised by Dian de Vries, postdoctoral researcher at the University of Amsterdam). This online study partially fulfills the requirements for a Master’s degree at the University of Amsterdam. This survey investigates social networking site use, life satisfaction and self-esteem. The entire study will take around 10 to 15 minutes. Please answer the questions honestly. Any information that you provide will remain completely anonymous. We will not collect your name or any other personally identifiable information and you are free to stop at any time. If you have any questions, you may contact the supervisor of this project – Dian de Vries – via email at D.A.deVries@uva.nl. The questionnaire will be conducted in English. So please only participate if you master the English language. Also, to participate, you must be over 18 and no older than 25. Thank you for your time and interest.
By ticking this box I agree to participate in this study I agree (1)
By ticking this box I declare that I am 18 or older I am over 18 (1)
26 To what extent do you agree with the following statements: In general I have the feeling that …
Totally disagree (1) Somewhat disagree (2) Do not agree, Do not disagree (3) Somewhat agree (4) Totally agree (5) …other people do not like me (1)
…it is hard for me to make new
friends (2)
...I have a lot of
friends (3)
...I am accepted
by others (4)
...I am popular
27 To what extent do you agree with the following statements: In general I have the feeling that …
Totally disagree (1) Somewhat disagree (2) Do not agree, Do not disagree (3) Somewhat agree (4) Totally agree (5) … other people easily fall in love with me (1) …I am interesting and fun on a date (2)
…I can easily get a date with a
nice person (3)
…the person that I like and
think is attractive, likes
me too (4)
To what extent do you agree with the following statements: In general I have the feeling that…
Totally disagree (1) Somewhat disagree (2) Do not agree, Do not disagree (3) Somewhat agree (4) Totally agree (5)
…I want to look
different (1) …I want my body to be different (2) …I am satisfied with my appearance (3) …I am satisfied with the way I
look (4)
28 To what extent do you agree with the following statements: In general I have the feeling that …
Totally disagree (1) Somewhat disagree (2) Do not agree, Do not disagree (3) Somewhat agree (4) Totally agree (5)
...in most ways my life is close to my ideal (1) ...the conditions of my life are excellent (2) ...I am satisfied with my life (3)
...so far I have gotten the important things I want in life (4)
...if I could live my life over again, I would change almost nothing (5)
Are you a member of Facebook? Yes (1)
No (2)
Are you a member of Instagram? Yes (1)
No (2)
29 Answer If Are you a member of Facebook? Yes Is Selected
Please answer the following questions:
less than 10 minutes (1) 10–30 minutes (2) 31–60 minutes (3)
1–2 hours (6) 2–3 hours (4) more than 3 hours (5) In a week, on average, approximately how many minutes per day do you spent on Facebook? (1) On a day, on average, approximately how many minutes do you spent on Facebook? (2) If you visit this social networking site how many minutes or hours do you usually stay on Facebook? (3)
30 Answer If Are you a member of Instagram? Yes Is Selected
Please answer the following questions:
less than 10 minutes (1) 10–30 minutes (2) 31–60 minutes (3)
1–2 hours (4) 2–3 hours (5) more than 3 hours (6) In a week, on average, approximately how many minutes per day do you spent on Instagram? (1) On a day, on average, approximately how many minutes do you spent on Instagram? (2) If you visit this social networking site how many minutes or hours do you usually stay on Instagram? (3)
Answer If Are you a member of Facebook? Yes Is Selected
31 Answer If Are you a member of Facebook? Yes Is Selected
To what extent do you agree with the following statements:
Totally disagree (1) Somewhat disagree (2) Do not agree, Do not disagree (3) Somewhat agree (4) Totally agree (5) Facebook is a part of my everyday activity (1) I am proud to tell people that I am on Facebook (2) Facebook has become a part of my daily routine (3) I feel out of touch when I haven’t logged onto Facebook for a day (4) I feel I am a part of the Facebook community (5) I would be sorry if Facebook shut down (6)
Answer If Are you a member of Facebook? Yes Is Selected Or Are you a member of Instagram? Yes Is Selected
Do you ever upload a new photo to Facebook, Instagram or another social networking site? Yes (1)
No (2)
Answer If Are you a member of Facebook? Yes Is Selected And Do you ever upload a new photo to Facebook, Instagram or another social networking site? Yes Is Selected
32 Answer If Are you a member of Instagram? Yes Is Selected And Do you ever upload a new photo to Facebook, Instagram or another social networking site? Yes Is Selected
On a day, on average, approximately how many photos do you upload on Instagram?
Answer If Are you a member of Facebook? Yes Is Selected And Do you ever upload a new photo to Facebook, Instagram or another social networking site? Yes Is Selected
Approximately how many photos have you upload on Facebook so far? (including albums, wall posts etc).
Answer If Are you a member of Instagram? Yes Is Selected And Do you ever upload a new photo to Facebook, Instagram or another social networking site? Yes Is Selected
Approximately how many photos have you upload on Instagram so far?
Answer If Are you a member of Facebook? Yes Is Selected And Do you ever upload a new photo to Facebook, Instagram or another social networking site? Yes Is Selected
Please answer the following questions:
Never (1) Rarely (2) Sometimes (3) Often (4) Very often (5)
How often do you change your
profile picture on Facebook?
(1)
How often do you add new photos to your
Facebook albums? (2)
How often do you post new photos on your Facebook wall?
(3)
How often do you post photos
on Facebook? (4)
33 Answer If Are you a member of Instagram? Yes Is Selected And Do you ever upload a new photo to Facebook, Instagram or another social networking site? Yes Is Selected
Please answer the following question:
Never (1) Rarely (2) Sometimes (3) Often (4) Very Often (5)
How often do you post photos
on Instagram? (1)
Answer If Are you a member of Facebook? Yes Is Selected And Do you ever upload a new photo to Facebook, Instagram or another social networking site? Yes Is Selected Or Are you a member of
Instagram? Yes Is Selected And Do you ever upload a new photo to Facebook, Instagram or another social networking site? Yes Is Selected
To what extent do you agree with the following statements for both - Facebook and Instagram
Totally disagree (1)
Somewhat disagree (2)
Neutral (3) Somewhat agree (4) Totally agree (5) I carefully select the photo’s before sharing them online (1) I often use picture enhancement (photo editing techniques) before posting a photo (2)
34 Answer If Are you a member of Facebook? Yes Is Selected And Do you ever upload a new photo to Facebook, Instagram or another social networking site? Yes Is Selected
Concerning the following 3 statements please estimate the percentage of photo’s on your Facebook profile that include:
______ Photos of (me and) my friends (1) ______ Photos of myself (2)
______ Photos of (me and) my partner (3) ______ Doing interesting things (4)
35 Answer If Are you a member of Facebook? Yes Is Selected Or Are you a member of Instagram? Yes Is Selected
To what extent do you agree with the following statements regarding Facebook use:
Totally disagree (1) Somewhat disagree (2) Do not agree, Do not disagree (3) Somewhat agree (4) Totally agree (5) When I read news feeds (or
see photos of others) I often think that others have better lives
than me (2)
When I read news feeds (or
see photos of others) I often think that others are doing better
than me (3)
When I read news feeds (or
see photos of others) I often think that others
have worst lives than me (4)
When I read news feeds (or
see photos of others) I often think that others
are doing worst than me (5)
36 Are you employed?
Yes (1) No (2)
Please answer the following question:
Completely satisfied (1) Somewhat satisfied (2) Neutral (3) Somewhat unsatisfied (4) Completely unsatisfied (5) To what extent are you satisfied with your job occupation? (1)
What is your age?
Are you employed? Yes (1)
No (2)
What is your gender? Male (1)
Female (2)
What is your nationality?
37 What is your education level?
None (1) High school (2) MBO (3)
Bachelor (HBO/WO) (4) Master (5)
What is your relationship status? Single (1)
