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Dealing with the fluctuations of sustainable energy in the
Netherlands.
An interdisciplinary study into spatial, technical and ecological solutions
Future Planet Studies
Interdisciplinary project UvA 2014-2015
Charlotte Vagevuur
6049974
Arthur Luikink
10411151
Hidde de Haan 10418962
Serge Mooyman 10448489
Supervisors: Jaap Rothuizen & Crelis Rammelt
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Index
Abstract ... 3 Introduction ... 4 Approach ... 5 Consumer level ... 7 National level ... 10Dutch interests on international level ... 13
Import of hydropower ... 13
Pumped storage hydropower ... 14
Pumped Storage Hydropower and ecology in Norway ... 14
International Smart Grid Systems ... 15
Balancing fluctuations of Dutch stochastic RES using Norwegian PSH: feasibility and quantification ... 16
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Abstract
With an EU target to implement 20% of renewable energies by 2020 in the Netherlands, a new challenge has arisen. The stochastic nature of wind – and solar power can cause fluctuations on the electricity grid. These power fluctuations are problematic due to the fact that the European grid is designed to run at 50Hz. Under normal circumstances the frequency will deviate from 49.5Hz to 50.5 Hz. If the grid receives more or less input, and these boundaries are crossed, a power out can be the result. This research report considers how can be dealt with the power fluctuations that can be expected on the Dutch grid that result from implementation of more stochastic renewable energy sources. One way to deal with the power fluctuations that can be expected on the Dutch grid after implementing more stochastic renewable energy sources, is by using smart grid technology. Smart grids can be applied at local,
national and international level. The effectivity of smart grids as a technical solution is explored on these scale levels. Smart grids can mitigate power fluctuations by using microgrids that enablebackward electricity flow on the consumers level. Besides, consumers can adapt their energy use to residual fluctuations. By changing their energy consumption patterns consumers can protect themselves from power shortages. Implementation of smart grid technology on national level thoroughly affects the energy system, and requires a political shift towards a more bottom-up approach. A shift towards local governments should make implementation easier to carry out. On the level of city planning,
implementation of more zero energy buildings decreases electricity demand and thereby power shortages. Measures on local and national level could however be insufficient to deal with fluctuations that result from implementation of higher shares of stochastic renewable energy sources. One way to deal with this is by connecting a smart grid to Norwegian pumped storage hydro power. Norway possesses sufficient pumped storage hydropower to supply the North Sea countries with backup power to respond to acute power demands caused by fluctuations until at least 2030, without creating new reservoirs. Therefore ecological consequences, however sometimes unmistakably present, can remain limited. The considered techniques can deal with power fluctuations resulting from increased
implementation of stochastic renewable energy sources on the Dutch grid until at least 2030, but require national and international investments, regulation and cooperation in order to be effective.
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Introduction
Worldwide there are several projects to increase the amount of energy powered by renewable energy sources. The European Union for example came up with several targets to increase the supply of
renewable energy and decrease the total amount of energy consumption (European Commission, 2011). The first targets are defined for 2020 as a twenty per cent decrease of greenhouse gas levels and energy consumption and a twenty per cent increase of renewable energy. However, the increased
implementation and use of renewable energy sources will come at a price. The reliability of electricity generation being able to meet the demand of energy is lower than the conventional way of using fossil fuels (Lei, Shiyan, Chuanwen, Hongling, & Yan, 2009).
This brings the additional challenge of dealing with power fluctuations, since wind currents and solar activity are stochastic renewable energy sources, meaning the amount of energy they produce can vary on a daily basis (Sutor, 2013; Claessen & La Poutré, 2014). This makes it very hard to provide a
predictable power output from these energy sources (Lei, Shiyan, Chuanwen, Hongling, & Yan, 2009). Besides that, there are fluctuations in demand in addition to the reasonably predictable day to day demand variation. These demand pickups occur, for example, after popular television programmes and in brakes, as the viewers then switch their kettles and lights on to get something to drink (University of Glasgow, 2012).
These fluctuations could be considered problematic. Most of the European grid is designed to run at a 50Hz. Fluctuations in this number suggest too much or too little power on the grid. Under normal circumstances the frequency will deviate from 49.5Hz to 50.5Hz. This range is implemented in order not to damage electrical equipment plugged into the grid and to let them function in a regular order. If the grid receives more or less input, and thereby cross these boundaries, it will result in a power out
(National Grid, 2015). Overproduction can be stopped by leaking or storing the power. Underproduction however, is a more difficult problem to tackle, because producing more energy with the same resources is not possible.
Although the Netherlands has ambitions to shift towards a sustainable energy system, which is
depending on renewable energy resources, the implementation of these renewables is falling far behind compared to other European countries (Verbong & Geels, 2007). With the current amount of wind and solar power, the impact is limited, but as the part of renewable energy will increase, so will these fluctuations (Koot, 2015). The current ways for mitigating power fluctuations are based on peaking power plants, fast start generators based on fossil fuel to meet short term spikes in demand. In addition, the Netherlands are purchasing power from surrounding countries like France and Germany. This, however is not in line with the ambition to change the energy regime.
Because of the fluctuations in supply as well as in demand, it is necessary to evolve ideas in order to cope with these. As said before, the Netherlands will increase the amount of renewable energy sources and their dependence on them. Therefore the process of energy distribution has to be evolved in order to distribute the energy gained from renewables to the places of consumption, so to successfully mitigate the fluctuations. Besides that the total amount of energy consumption has to decline, so that
5 the peaking in energy consumption will decline as well, in order to better adapt to the existing
fluctuations.
This paper will focus on the question on how to deal with the power fluctuations that can be expected on the Dutch grid after implementing more stochastic renewable energy sources.
One of the most promising instruments in the mitigation to these power fluctuations is the smart grid. The smart grid is basically a power grid that uses a two-way flow over the grid, namely electricity and information. This is used to create a distributed automated energy network (Fang, Misra, Xue, & Yang, 2012). Scientist believe this is one of the most promising technical solutions that could mitigate the upcoming energy fluctuations (Fang, Misra, Xue, & Yang, 2012; Lund, Anderson, Ostergaard, Mathiesen, & Connolly, 2012; Potter, Archambaul, & Westrick, 2009).
This paper will therefore look into the possibilities of this smart grid (mitigation), together with some other energy saving solutions (adaptation), on different scale levels. On a local level, it will provide an insight in what options consumers have to mitigate and adapt to the power fluctuations, using smart grids on a small scale. On a more regional and national scale, possibilities for policy makers
(implementation) and planners(adaptation) are being presented. Finally, on the international level, the possibility to import hydropower from Norway, in order to fill up the power supply gaps, is shown. Together this multi-layered perspective provides answers into how the Netherlands can mitigate and adapt to the upcoming power fluctuations.
Due to the complexity of the question, however, a multidisciplinary approach is necessary. The several disciplines, concepts and theories and their cohesion will be explained in the next chapter. This chapter will also elaborate on the approach used in this report in order to give an answer to this question.
Approach
This research will focus on the question how the Netherlands can deal with the power fluctuations on the Dutch grid as a result from a shift towards stochastic sustainable energy resources. These energy fluctuations are worsen by the fact that the demand for energy is not steady either.
In order to answer this main question this research will theoretically explore the options on how to mitigate the pikes in energy demand and supply. This will be done by using secondary literature and an interview with an expert on power fluctuations from stochastic resources. It will be a qualitative analyses on the casus of the Netherlands.
This will happen at a multi-levelled basis, shifting from a consumers level towards a national and international level. The local level will look in to how consumers can make use of smart grids and how social acceptance plays a part. Their behaviour is a crucial part in mitigating the energy fluctuations but also in lowering the energy demand, since they are considered one of the main actors in this energy transition (Spaargaren & Van Vliet, 2000). In order for consumers to use a smart grids system, it is important to take a look on implementing the smart grid on a national level. On this scale the paper will
6 discuss national policy and planning in order to create a basic understanding of the national vision regarding renewable energy resources. One of the major points in the national vision is the
implementation of renewable energy resources in order to produce more energy in a sustainable way and mitigate the fluctuations by implementing a smart grid system (Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland, 2014). Since there is mutual agreement on the smart grid concept, this report will investigate the consequences of such a grid.
The common ground in these three levels is that smart grid is the technical solution that connects all levels together. By combining smart grids with consumers and national level it creates a clear image on how it can mitigate these fluctuations, however there will be also looked at what the Netherlands can benefit from on international level.
Figure 1: Connection of different concepts, dealing with the mitigation of energy fluctuations in the Netherlands
This will all be done from a multidisciplinary point, in which the relevant concepts and theories from the academic disciplines earth-science and spatial planning are integrated to produce the results and insights to answer the main research question (Rutting et al., 2014). The objective is to advance in the fundamental understanding of the solutions that are beyond the scope of one discipline (Rutting et al., 2014). The mitigation of energy fluctuations is complex and addressing this is a wicked problem, for it lacks a definitive solution (Rutting et al., 2014). With the integration of the disciplines and using their knowledge, it creates a more around answer to the main research question. Major issues in society and dealing with these power fluctuations due to increase of stochastic RES requires the collective effort by different disciplines. These complex issues are not bounded within a single discipline (Bililign, 2013). As can be seen in the figure above, several theories and concepts will influence others.
7 The knowledge about smart grids by itself will not provide an answer to the main question. The
implementation and therefore spatial planning will play a major part. Spatial planning on its hand will influence the way people use their city, and therefore time-spatial behaviour. In order to create sustainable development, the consumers have to be involved, they will make the implementation to a success or a failure. This would probably not be noticed by a mono-disciplinary study.
The following chapter will elaborate on the smart grid system and consumers. After that the
implementation in the Netherlands. This will combine spatial planning, policy and the technical part of smart grids. Subsequently, considerations will be taken to an international level, involving the import of base power and an international smart grid. Potential negative side effects on ecology will be considered in the discussion.
Consumer level
For consumers a smart grid provides functionalities that can be used among themselves. The most important function is the microgrid, which is part of the smart grid (Fang, Misra, Xue, & Yang, 2012). A localization group of electricity generation, energy storages and load is called a microgrid. This grid creates the possibility of backward flow, which is allows the user to send power surplus back into the grid when the demand is high (Fang, Misra, Xue, & Yang, 2012).
The consumers generate low voltage electricity using their distributed generation such as wind turbines and solar panels. This microgrid can be disconnect from the macro grid and function autonomously, this results into an islanded microgrid. The advantages of this is when there is a failure in the macro grid, which disconnects a certain area, the distributed generates of consumers can continue powering the users of the island without obtaining electricity from the main electric utility of the macro grid. (Fang, Misra, Xue, & Yang, 2012).
For the implementation of transitions like this, however, social acceptance is an necessary element (Spaargaren, Martens, & Beckers, 2006). It is important to get the people’s support, in order for them to cooperate and invest in the new system, for the role that consumers will play is a more active one, since they simultaneously consume, produce and invest. Multiple studies have been done about changing people’s behaviour and excite them for new possibilities (Trandis, 1977; Wüsterhagen, Wolsink, & Bürer, 2007; Wolsink, 2012).
Wüstenhagen et al. (2007) state that there are three types of dimensions to be distinguished in social acceptance; socio-political acceptance, community acceptance and market acceptance (see Figure 2).
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Figure 2: The triangle of social acceptance of renewable energy innovation (Wüsterhagen, Wolsink, & Bürer, 2007)
Socio-political concerns public acceptance and acceptance on a governmental level. Generally this acceptance is high in many countries. However, this has caused an over-optimistic view by policy makers concerning social acceptance. Since, locally there appears to be a lack of social acceptance among key stakeholders and policy actors. One of the most prominent obstacles on this scale level is the so-called ‘not in my backyard (NIMBY)’ way of thinking. Although general acceptance may be high, people’s motives change when the issue comes closer to them. Important factors for achieving social acceptance on this local scale are distributional justice, procedural justice and trust. The authors suggest that frameworks have to be institutionalized, establishing ‘spatial planning systems that stimulate collaborative decision making.’
Finally, market acceptance has to be reached. There is quite some potential in micro-generation technologies (Wüstenhagen, 2007). Three different employment models for these micro-generation technologies are presented by Sauter and Watson (2007) (figure 3).
9 These models have different degrees of independence (company back-up versus company driven) and different consumer roles (co-producer versus passive producer). The ‘Plug & Play’ is a reward-driven scenario and possibilities for becoming a co-producer. There can be anticipated on this model by providing energy export systems and clear information. The ‘Company Control’-model implies that companies can use a large amount of various micro-generators to substitute power plants. The drivers are autonomy and profit. The ‘Community Microgrid’ model is an option that mainly involve consumers. It describes the ability for consumers and institutions in a community to combine their resources to form a local smart grid (Sauter, 2007). It allows this group of consumers to use their own micro-generators and distribute their energy, dealing with shortages and surpluses, using small-scale smart grids .
Overall, when it comes to involving consumers in new systems and innovations, it is important to take into account attitudes, investments in micro-generation technologies and induced behavioural changes. In general people feel a low level of responsibility for the energy efficiency of their homes, since surveys show consumers have a ‘general attitude of disempowerment’. However, increasing energy autonomy can make people more aware and change the overall attitude. By providing sufficient information, institutionalizing the energy trade market and by stimulating cooperation and discussion between companies and consumers, investments in micro-generating technologies can increase and behavioural changes can be induced. (Sauter & Watson, 2007)
Besides the options for the mitigation of the energy fluctuations, there are options for consumers to adapt to the residual fluctuations. Energy storage devices and a different energy consumption pattern (by for instance doing laundry at night time) may protect people from occurring power shortages (Spaargaren et al., 2006). Also, more and more initiatives that are useful for consumers arise from the market.
One of these initiatives is the Zero Energy Building (ZEB). There are a rising number of supporters for building this way. A project qualifies as a zero energy building if ‘there is no need to import fossil or nuclear energy from outside the system in order to establish, use or break down the project’ (Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland, 2014). The requirements that significantly can influence the quality of zero energy buildings are energy efficiency requirements and indoor climate requirements and in the case of grid connected zero energy buildings, building-grid interaction requirements (Marszal, et al., 2011). This can happen on the local level smart grid. When there is an excess of electricity generation by the consumers, this can be put back into the system due to the backward flow capabilities and with this prevent power failures by supplying areas with electricity shortage, using the microgrid (Fang, et al., 2012). As a result of the decline in energy use ZEBs can increase the overall share of renewable energy. So, with the multiple distributed generators and ability to maintain their own island of power consumers can improve the reliability of electricity supply and thus can help with the mitigation of disturbances in the smart grid on macro scale (Fang, Misra, Xue, & Yang, 2012).Not only protects it from their own power failure, but can also help prevent power failure in different places where there is a shortage of
10 electricity generation due to circumstances. However the implementation of a smart grid on national level and with that have microgrids, the legal system in the Netherlands should allow it.
National level
When a smart grid gets implemented on a national level for the Netherlands, measuring nodes will be installed all over the grid. These nodes are called 'smart meters' in that these measure all information that goes over the grid. It monitors distribution, balance supply and demand and storage (Wolsink, 2012). These major nodes monitor the second flow over the smart grid, which is information. With electricity this is the two way flow over the smart grid that creates the distributed automated energy network (Fang, Misra, Xue, & Yang, 2012).
With this information and the automation of a smart grid it improves the reliability, availability and efficiency of the electric system (El-Hawary, 2015). The distribution grid will be using more of the Distributed Energy Resources (DER) in the Netherlands, such as windmill parks or large solar energy generation which range from 3 kW to 10.000 kW (Fang, Misra, Xue, & Yang, 2012). With the usage of these DERS it can improve the reliability by not only on small scale with microgrids, but also on national level. By using more distributed generation over the entire grid instead of large energy generation at power plants, it becomes decentralized and thus less dependent and more flexible. The grid can divide more easily the energy over the grid and provide where energy is needed during fluctuations over the day (Fang, Misra, Xue, & Yang, 2012). The information monitoring, disturbances in the macro grid can be isolated and supply from different areas can be provided to improve the electric power supply quality. The information that is measured creates an intelligent power router on national level. All the information is saved into electric energy packets (Fang, Misra, Xue, & Yang, 2012). These electric energy packets contain information of supplied electricity and are divided into several units of payload. When the packets are received by the router, the router sorts them according to the information in the headers and sent them to the corresponding loads over the grid (Fang, Misra, Xue, & Yang, 2012). This system makes the distribution more efficient and easier to control since it only provides that the demand asks for.
The implementation of DERS however is not an easy proposition. They are subject to wide fluctuations that result in less reliability (Fang, Misra, Xue, & Yang, 2012). The implementation of any technical solution, such as the DERS or smart grid systems in order to meet up with the demand in the
Netherlands is complicated. The implementation of smart grids will affect the total energy system. Use of DERS will lead to new sources of risk, which will affect the external safety and spatial planning within the country (Netbeheer Nederland, 2009).
Over the years the bottom-up approach has gained in popularity. This means that there is a shift from national government towards local government. In the Netherlands there are spatial plans on three levels. There is a national plan (Structuurvisie) which provides a guideline for counties and towns in order to create good spatial planning (Cammen & Klerk, 2010). The national plan provides for example the spatial structure to create wind farms, coastal as well as on land (Ministerie van Infrastructuur en
11 Milieu & Ministerie van Economische Zaken, 2014). Even though the national plan is leading, towns can make their own spatial plans, as long as they can be implemented in the national vision.
Due to the Dutch process of spatial planning it is one of the most difficult countries to gain a permit to build or to apply changes outside the consisting plans (Reiche & Bechberger, 2004). This makes the Netherlands one of the most difficult countries to gain a permit to build or to apply changes outside these plans, for consumers, companies as well as for local governments (Reiche & Bechberger, 2004). In case of wind energy permits are always needed, in case of a wind farm that produces over 100
megawatts a national permit is needed, otherwise a county and town permits qualifies (Rijksoverheid, 2013). Solar energy is a bit easier, if you want to place them on the roof under certain conditions. In any other case permits are necessary (Ministerie van Binnenlandse Zaken en Koninkrijksrelaties, 2012). This makes it hard to implement new technologies or make change happen in a short amount of time. If change is required, the spatial plans for urban development should be changed. Within the Netherlands there is a shift towards a more bottom-up approach concerning planning. This should lead to an easier way to implement technical solutions, and local governments are free to run trials. Nevertheless studies show that the current situation within the Netherlands makes it impossible to create a smart grid system for the 2020 deadline. The Dutch goal now is to have at least 80 per cent of all households connected to a smart meter in 2020 in order to eventually create a national smart grid that can mitigate the fluctuations on supply side (Ten Heuvelhof, et al., 2010).
In order to mitigate the fluctuations on the demand side, the local plans regarding land use can be used. Transport is using about 25% of the total amount of energy used by consumers. Heating the house takes over half the energy used in homes (Brand New Energy, 2015). In reducing energy demand these are important factors.
The spatial plans can be seen as a blueprint for the knowledge and time it is developed in. Due to technological progress and an increasing amount of knowledge, plans should be dynamic in order to adapt new solutions. However, with solving a problem, a new problem will rise. That makes an ultimate plan utopia. However, there are several design concepts for cities. The term compact city was first introduced in 1974 by two mathematicians who were driven by a desire to see more efficient use of resources (Dantzig & Saaty, 1974).This article changed the idea about an ideal city in urban planning starting at the 1990s in order to create sustainable, energy sufficient cities (Newman, 1992; Breheny, 1992; Goodchild, 1994). The compact city is an urban design which promotes relatively high residential density with mixed land uses. Transportation is based on an efficient public transport system and encourages low energy transportation like walking and cycling (Dempsey, 2010), this means there should be a decline of car-use. The compact city is considered to be one of the most energy efficient city plans (Table 1) that are likely capable to cope with the energy fluctuations by reducing the amount of energy used.
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Table 1: Sustainable urban form matrix: assessing the sustainability of urban form (scores of the urban forms are highlighted in bold) (Jabareen, 2006).
Within the Dutch spatial planning, compact urban planning is used since the late seventies. In 2002 the national government decided that they should drop city design from their structure visions. This choice was based on the assumption that a bottom-up approach could lead towards ‘good spatial
planning’. This means that towns are deciding about the city designs within their boundaries (Nabielek, The compact city: planning strategies, recent developments and future prospects in the Netherlands, 2013). Since that time the number of inhabitants and the amount of dwellings in cities has declined. This could be the result of a lack of money (VROM, 2005). Figures show an increase in dwellings and
inhabitants in suburban areas, which are less energy efficient and more pressing on the environment (Nabielek, Boschman, Harbers, Piek, & Vlonk, 2012). This affects the mobility as well. Private car-use has inclined to 2, 3 per cent between 2008 and 2013 (CBS, 2014) between 2000 and 2008 the total amount of driven kilometres has increased by almost fifty five per cent (Jeekel, 2011). Jeekel states that almost 40 per cent of these car rides a substitute is almost never optional unless the city is designed in a way that public transportation and slow transport are sufficient.
Besides lowering the energy consumption, a compact city design could lower the energy consumption in homes as well. Detached houses use about twice as much of gas (2.200m3) compared to apartments (900m3) and terraced houses (1.350m3) in the Netherlands (PowerWise, 2013). If warming houses is using half of the energy in homes, it could decrease the demand for energy in houses significantly. But when gas is replaced by renewable energy sources in order to warm houses, new heating systems should be implemented as well. This loops back to the social acceptance of consumers to lower the energy demand and transit to a renewable energy regime.
Besides a national plan, the government stimulates certain initiatives. One of these initiatives is the Zero Energy Building (ZEB). There should be a shift towards building this way. A project qualifies as a zero
13 energy building if there is no need to import fossil or nuclear energy from outside the system in order to establish, use or break down the project’ (Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland, 2014). The
requirements that significantly can influence the quality of zero energy buildings are energy efficiency requirements and indoor climate requirements and in the case of grid connected zero energy buildings, building-grid interaction requirements (Marszal, et al., 2011). This can happen on the local level smart grid. When there is an excess of electricity generation by the consumers, this can be put back into the system due to the backward flow capabilities and with this prevent power failures by supplying areas with electricity shortage (Fang, et al., 2012). As a result of the decline in energy use, ZEBs can increase the overall share of renewable energy.
Dutch interests on international level
As mentioned before the usage of DERS can improve reliability, but cannot rule out fluctuations completely (Fang, Misra, Xue, & Yang, 2012). The way smart grids can mitigate power fluctuations is with the use of backup power storage (Moslehi & Kumer 2010). With storage, this power is used to respond to the net demand profile and as a results the demand becomes flatter. A smart grid can decide and respond in sub second time to use this backup storage and deal with certain arising circumstances and this improves the reliability again (Fang, Misra, Xue, & Yang, 2012). At an international level additional measures could be taken to further mitigate power fluctuations with the import of back up storage.
Import of hydropower
In this report solutions to power fluctuations as a result of increased implementation of stochastic RES have been considered at a national level. However, the higher the share of stochastic RES implemented, the more likely additional measures will be required. Of all traditional means of power generation only gas plants are flexible enough to respond to a fluctuating power generation demand (Rondeel, n.d.),but gas generated electricity is still based on a limited fossil fuel and produces CO2. Possibly a sustainable alternative could be provided by in the form of import of hydropower.
European hydropower supplies ten per cent of the electricity demand. Seven per cent is provided by reservoirs (European Commission, 2015). Most countries bordering the North Sea possess little hydropower (Korpas et al., 2012). Balancing power fluctuations in these countries will become an increasing challenge(Korpas et al., 2012). Advantages of hydropower include low GHG emissions, low maintenance costs of hydropower plants and high generation efficiency (>90 per cent, European Commission, 2015). Disadvantages include high construction costs, social and ecological consequences, including loss of habitat for some species, changes in erosion basis and sedimentation regimes (Patocka, 2014). Establishment of large reservoirs can change water availability and quality downstream affecting agriculture, require relocation of human populations and inundate valuable ecosystems. Large dams can cause geological problems (Patocka, 2014). Fish migration can be complicated, ecosystems can be affected and delta systems can lose land as a result of changed sedimentation regimes and water velocities (i.e. Ebro delta, Spain).
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Pumped storage hydropower
There are two main types of hydropower generation. Run-of-the-river systems generate powercontinuously from running rivers. Reservoirs created with dams in elevated valleys can be used to generate hydropower too. The latter can be complemented with pumped storage hydropower (PSH), a reversed action system. A second lower or higher reservoir is required. A turbine is externally powered in order to pump water back up into the reservoir, storing electricity as potential hydropower. This can be done at times of overcapacity of wind and solar power that is generated hundreds of kilometres from the actual hydro power plant. Thus energy that is primarily generated by stochastic renewables can be stored. PSH is suitable for mitigation of power fluctuations on a grid, because it can provide the required capacities fast (European Commission, 2015; Söder & Amelin, 2011). Additionally, the capacity of PSH is significantly less dependent on seasonal influences on runoff. This makes PSH the most viable
hydropower type to combine with stochastic RES (Korpas et al., 2012).
Figure 4: operating principle of a pumped storage hydropower plant (source: Eurelectric.org, 2012)
Figure 4 depicts theoperating principle of a pumped storage hydropower plant. Where the green arrows represent the water direction in the generation mode, the direction of the water in the reversed action-storage mode is represented by the red arrows. The reversed turbine action can be externally powered by any power source, including stochastic RES, in case of overcapacity.
PSH and ecology in Norway
Norway generates 98,5 per cent of its electricity by hydropower from over 900 plants, corresponding with almost half of European hydropower (Patocka, 2014).
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Figure 5: the ten countries with the highest share of global hydropower generation (Earth Policy Institute, 2012)
Various ecological effects have been linked to PSH (Patocka, 2014). A limited number of these effects have substantial impact (Patocka, 2014; Klemetsen et al., 2011). Due to the number of existing reservoirs suitable for PSH, no new reservoirs will have to be created in order to supply countries like the Netherlands with the required back-up power until at least 2030 (Patocka, 2014). Therefore ecological impacts of enhanced hydropower generation can be limited. However there are still factors that deserve attention. These will be considered in the discussion section.
International Smart Grid Systems
Transport and regulation of PSH
High Voltage Direct Current cable (HVDC) transport is required to utilize the potential of PSH to mitigatepower fluctuations on a grid. Current HVDC cable technology accounts for a 4.75 % yield loss over 1000 kilometre. This will decrease with implementation of market ready 800KV HVDC technology (Trieb et al., 2011). Subsequently, practical application of the use of PSH to mitigate fluctuations of stochastic RES stands or falls with the availability of smart grid technology to swiftly manage demand and delivery issues.
Connectivity and mutual benefits
A 580 kilometres long undersea HVDC cable connection with a capacity of 700 MW and a voltage of 450kVolt has been established between the Netherlands (Eemshaven) and Norway (Feda) since 2008 in order to exchange electricity. The Netherlands generate overcapacity during the night, but have
16 increased demand during peak hours at day time. Norway has a high electricity demand during night times, due to extensive use for heating. Norwegian hydropower during peak daytimes is exchanged for Dutch overcapacity during night times. Construction costs were 600 million euro (European Commission, 2015). The same established technique can internationally mitigate power fluctuations caused by stochastic RES (Harby, 2014;Söder & Amelin, 2011). Additionally (international) overcapacity of stochastic RES can refill PSH reservoirs in Norway that can subsequently be applied to answer international demand, thus converting Norwegian PSH reservoirs into gigantic sustainable power storages (Korpas et al., 2013; Midthun et al., 2013; Rondeel, n.d). This allows countries like the Netherlands to decrease fossil fuelled (base) power (Söder & Amelin, 2011; Solvang et al., 2012).
Figure 6: The High Voltage Direct Current cable connection between Norway and the Netherlands (geobronnen.com/2014/09)
Balancing fluctuations of Dutch stochastic RES using Norwegian PSH: feasibility
and quantification
The EU project Trade wind expects nearly 100 TW of wind power (2030 projection North Sea) to require balancing back-up of 5 TW by 2030. Due to the wide distribution of wind plants many generation fluctuations balance each other out on a larger grid, as a lack of wind availability is often local (Patocka, 2014). Balancing stochastic RES power for countries like the Netherlands could be done within the existing Norwegian reservoirs and their operational limits (Patocka, 2014). Due to 85 TWh reservoir storage with most of the time at least 10-20 TWh free capacity (Figure7), Norwegian PSH could deal with power fluctuations of neighbouring countries until at least 2030 (Midthun et al., 2013). 20-35 TW of potential capacity increase is identified in the Norwegian system through capacity increase or
implementation of PSH, without creating new reservoirs (Midthun et al., 2013; Rondeel, n.d.). A case of balancing wind power fluctuations in North Denmark using Norwegian PSH (Figure 8) illustrates that large fluctuations can be effectively mitigated (Söder & Amelin, 2011). However, more HVDC cable capacity is needed to transmit required amounts of energy (Midthun et al., 2013) internationally. EU-wide collaboration and long term contracts between stakeholders could reduce (financial) risks (Midthun et al., 2013).
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Figure 7: Energy content (in % of maximum capacity) in Norwegian hydropower reservoirs (Midthun et al., 2013)
Figure 8: balancing wind power fluctuations in Denmark with PSH from Norway. During a storm at 8 January 2005 all wind power in Denmark was shut down, creating a gap of 1800 MW in 6 hours. A Swedish study (Elforsk report) suggests that a wind power capacity loss of 50% averagely happens once in 6 years (Söder & Amelin, 2011).
For the future there are currently nine European countries, including Norway and the Netherlands that have agreed to build a North Sea power grid of high voltage cables (Blau, 2010). This will be a
multinational smart grid that is designed to address these energy fluctuations. The grid is to be used for the transportation of wind, solar and hydro energy. This plan allows the usage of and pumped hydro storage from Norway as a backup power storage for the Netherlands.
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Discussion
Quantitative comparison of back-up power needed to balance expected power fluctuations on the grid in the Netherlands as a result of implementation of more stochastic RES by 2020 brings about
uncertainties. The impacts of many variables depend on developments on various fields including politics, economy, grid enlargement and innovative technology like smart grids. These can vary so much that reliable outcomes of integrations would require more research on several fields and disciplines than is allowed by the scope of this literature assessment.
Norwegian PSH offers the North Sea countries a viable tool to mitigate power fluctuations of stochastic RES (Midthun et al., 2013; Patocka, 2014; Solvang et al., 2012; Söder & Amelin, 2011). As existing Norwegian PSH plants together with the estimated potential increase are assumed to be capable to mitigate power fluctuations from stochastic RES in the North Sea countries until at least 2030 without creating new reservoirs, ecological considerations are limited to those of transition from existing hydro electrical plants to PSH (Midthun et al., 2013; Patocka, 2014). Ecological effects can include increased strain on reservoirs bank stability, visible shoreline erosion and accumulation of material as a result of more frequently fluctuating water levels with larger volumes. Biological impacts include increased risk of transferring potentially invasive species into new ecosystems by the reversed pumping action of PSH (Patocka, 2014). Invasive species can have deep impacts on ecosystems and biodiversity (Simberloff, 2010). In reservoirs without bypass structure, migration for many higher species can be complicated (Wuest, 2011). Increased translocation of water volumes can endanger especially trout and salmon. Turbines blades (cavitation) and habitat changes can affects higher species (Patocka, 2014). Additionally, PSH can significantly impact algae and invertebrates (Wüest, 2011; Patocka, 2014). Macro invertebrates are the most important food organisms for salmons in running water. Hydropower is responsible for a reduction of 10 – 20% of smolt populations in Norwegian rivers (Klemetsen et al., 2011). However effects are not uniform. Whereas in some rivers salmon have disappeared due to hydropower, in others populations have increased, mostly as a result of increased water levels during winters (Klemetsen et al., 2011). Enhanced turbulence and sediment inflow under PSH can increase sediment content, degrading water quality and visibility. This can impact biotic factors and ecology (Andersen, 2010). Light
penetration impacts photosynthesis and primary production, while changed concentrations or a more uniform distribution of nutrients can impact habitat suitability, changing biodiversity and occurrence (Patocka, 2014). Increased mixing counteracts natural stratification of water temperatures. This can significantly impact flora and fauna in different water layers through habitat change. However the design of the water work is co-determinative (Andersen, 2010). During the winter, higher, more
frequent discharges of PSH can delay or inhibit ice formation and destroy formed ice covers, increasing light penetration and thus photosynthesis. Because a thinner ice cover disappears earlier in the spring, water temperatures increase earlier. An extended active season results in increased primary production, creating better conditions for fisheries (Patocka, 2014).
Generally ecological impacts of PSH are sometimes unmistakable, however limited and mostly not unequivocal (Patocka, 2014; Rondeel, n.d.). Countermeasures include spillways for safe passage of excessive water. Fish migration pathways (Wüest, 2011), nylon barrier nets and ultrasonic and light
19 systems that keep the fish away from inlets limit the mortality related of PSH. Electrical barriers can prevent the passage of fish. Cavitation of fish can be avoided by plant design (Patocka, 2014). Respecting maximum withdrawal rates minimizes mortality of (juvenile) fish (Wüest, 2011). The withdrawal rate should not exceed 13 centimetres per hour in order to minimize environmental impacts (Patocka, 2014). Regulations for improvement of fish habitats are followed by Norway’s Starkraft Hydropower.
Additionally Starkraft actively monitors and promotes fish populations. In many reservoirs reproduction of fish is greater than extraction. However, periods can be identified in which power demand and fish protection have contrary interests. In these cases protection regulations should be followed and restrictions maintained. Consequences in these occasions can be reduced power storage and
generation. These however could be obviated by dividing power demand by implementing more PSH in existing reservoirs (Patocka, 2014).
Conclusion
Implementation of smart grids in the Netherlands has significant potential to mitigate the electricity fluctuations of 2020 on the national grid. From consumers on a local level to the international level, with Norwegian PSH, smart grids can have a facilitating role that is crucial for the application of other
solutions.
On consumer levels various options to adapt to the power fluctuations have be identified. Community smart grids and smart energy meters can provide viable tools, and microgrids can be used to prevent power failure. Also the (software matic) application of timed events for electricity use can contribute to adaptation to electricity fluctuations on the Dutch grid. However, this transition requires time, and, moreover, social acceptance. On governmental level a shift towards a more bottom-up approach can be identified in the Netherlands, indicating that more of the executive functions of the national
government are shifting towards local governments. This should make it easier for governments to meet the demands of the people.
The communication and information flow over a smart grid allows to respond to varying conditions and events over the day. Forecasts of wind- and solar conditions can be applied to estimate the expected fluctuations. With these estimations the smart grid system can anticipate to the expected conditions in order to mitigate electricity fluctuations in time. On an international level PSH power could be
transported and regulated with smart grid technology over a North Sea smart grid including the Netherlands. The possibility of fast start up from zero to full capacity power generation makes PSH a good combination with smart grid technology to respond to acute international power demand. Existing PSH plants in Norway already generate a considerable amount of electricity that could be used to supply neighbouring countries like the Netherlands fast with significant quantities of PSH back up power. Norway has sufficient potential capacity to supply North sea countries with PSH in order to mitigate their stochastic RES fluctuations until at least 2030. Moreover, this can be achieved without constructing new reservoirs. Therefore environmental effects, while sometimes unmistakably present, can remain relatively limited. Environmental impacts increase or decrease with volume transfers. Withdrawal rate is the main driver of ecological impact. The maximum withdrawal rate of 13 centimetres / hour should be
20 respected in order to minimize environmental consequences. Therefore it is advisable to utilize more of Norway’s potential available for PSH, albeit at a lesser intensity. Furthermore, additional techniques like fish migration pathways can mitigate ecological impacts. Considering the possibility of balancing
fluctuations of stochastic renewable on the Dutch grid by PSH from Norway, it can be postulated that potential, technique and ecology do not have to be a limiting factor until at least 2030. However, implementation of smart grid technology is necessary to be able to utilize this potential, and more investments in HVDC cables to Europe are needed to transmit required amounts of energy. EU-wide collaboration and long term contracts between stakeholders could reduce (financial) development risks.
21
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