! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
Gender,!Ethnicity!and!
Education!
!A!critique!of!the!Burmese!formal!
education!system!
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !Masters!of!Science!Thesis!
International!Development!Studies!
August!16,!2015!
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! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! William!Jones! 10862390! ! Supervisor:!Dr!Esther!Miedema! Second!Reader:!Sean!Higgins! Graduate!School!of!Social!Sciences! Universiteit!van!Amsterdam!Abstract(
(
The$civil$war$in$Burma$is$one$of$the$world’s$longest$running,$starting$in$1948.$Since$ this$time$the$Burmese$government$has$been$embroiled$in$ethnic$conflicts$against$ various$different$groups$and$factions,$representing$different$ethnic$minorities.$This$ ethnic$conflict$has$also$been$rife$with$widespread$reports$of$gender@based$violence$ committed$by$the$Tatmadaw,$the$Burmese$military,$against$minority$women.$In$this$ context$of$ethnic$and$gender@based$violence$I$have$chosen$to$study$the$role$of$ education$in$shaping$people’s$perceptions$on$gender$and$ethnicity.$( ( The$role$of$education$in$shaping$somebody’s$perceptions$has$been$ highlighted$to$be$crucial$by$various$different$authors$that$I$have$used$in$my$thesis.$By$ studying$the$education$environment$that$Burmese$people$experienced,$it$can$give$ good$insight$into$how$perceptions$have$been$developed,$which$should$hopefully$ give$a$wider$understanding$to$the$larger$context$of$the$problem$of$ethnic$and$ gender@based$violence$that$has$been$present$throughout$the$various$different$ conflicts$the$country$has$endured.$Using$education$theorists$such$as$Paulo$Freire,$ this$paper$will$look$at$whether$the$formal$education$system$in$Burma$is$having$a$ positive$impact$on$shaping$people’s$perceptions,$or$whether$it$is$exacerbating$the$ problem$and$making$it$worse.$( ( The$approach$I$used$to$attempt$to$come$up$with$an$answer$to$my$research$ questions$was$a$qualitative$research$one.$I$set$out$study$people’s$experiences$of$ formal$education$in$Burma$and$to$collect$in@depth$descriptions$of$how$the$formal$ education$system$might$have$shaped$their$perceptions$on$gender$and$ethnicity.$To$ gather$this$information$I$used$interviews$and$focus$groups$with$people$who$had$ gone$through$the$Burmese$education$system$and$were$now$residing$in$Thailand.$The$ one$on$one$in@depth$interviews$and$focus$group$discussions$with$people$found$ important$information$on$people’s$perceptions,$and$helped$to$create$a$picture$that$ highlighter$what$the$issues$where$within$the$Burmese$education$system,$that$were$ having$an$effect$on$the$shaping$and$development$of$people’s$perceptions.$( ( The$research$conducted$for$this$paper$highlighted$the$factors$of$the$Burmese$ formal$education$system$that$seem$to$be$having$an$effect$on$the$development$and$ shaping$of$people’s$perceptions.$The$strict,$teacher@centric$style$of$the$classroom,$! has$seemed$to$stymie$the$development$of$student’s$ability$to$apply$critical$thinking,$ which$in$turn$limits$their$ability$to$challenge$pre@existing$perceptions$on$gender$and$ ethnicity$that$they$might$have$had.$It$also$seems$that$the$actual$education$system$ itself,$does$not$seem$to$create$people’s$perceptions,$but$rather$perpetuates$the$ perceptions$that$students$bring$with$them$to$the$classroom,$that$they$have$gained$ from$their$experiences$in$the$broader$society.$However$their$lack$of$critical$thinking$ capabilities$has$perpetuated$these$perceptions$by$hindering$their$ability$to$challenge$ them.$$This$paper$concludes$that$the$impact$of$the$Burmese$education$system$on$ shaping$people’s$perceptions$appears$to$be$negative,$and$is$perpetuating$the$ negative$perceptions$that$have$been$learned$in$a$country$that$is$no$stranger$to$ ethnic$and$gender@based$violence.( !
!
!
Acknowledgements(
First$and$foremost$I$would$like$to$thank$my$supervisor$Dr.$Esther$Miedema.$She$ provided$me$with$invaluable$help$and$support,$and$assisted$me$every$step$of$the$ way$with$this$thesis.$None$of$this$would$have$been$possible$if$it$was$not$for$her$ support.$I$would$also$like$to$thank$all$of$the$people$that$I$met$on$the$Thai@Burmese$ border.$The$organisations$and$schools$there$aided$me$greatly$in$finding$research$ participants,$and$I$am$incredibly$grateful.$I$have$had$to$omit$the$names$of$these$ organisations$and$the$people$I$met$from$my$thesis$for$anonymity$reasons.$I$would$ also$like$to$thank$Sean$Higgins$for$agreeing$to$be$my$second$reader.$A$big$thank$you$ to$everyone!$ $ $Dedications(
I$would$like$to$dedicate$this$thesis$to$my$friend$Tom.$I’m$sorry$we$never$got$a$chance$ to$catch$up.$(1991@2014).$Table(of(Contents(
Chapter(1.(Introduction ... 1! 1.1.$Introduction ...1$ 1.2.$Background$and$Rationale ...1$ 1.3.$Research$Question: ...4$ 1.4.$Thesis$structure...5$ 1.5.$Concluding$remarks ...6$ Chapter(2.(Theoretical(Framework: ... 7! 2.1.$Introduction ...7$ 2.2.$Education ...8$ 2.3.$Connecting$ethnicity$and$gender ...13$ 2.4.$Culture$of$silence ...16$ 2.5.$Concluding$remarks ...18$ Chapter(3.(Methodology: ... 21! 3.1.$Introduction ...21$ 3.2.$Conceptual$Scheme...22$ 3.3$Operationalisation$table ...23$ 3.4.$Unit$of$Analysis ...29$ 3.5.$Methods...29$ 3.6.$Limitations ...32$ 3.7.$Ethical$considerations ...33$ 3.8.$Research$Location ...33$ 3.9.$Concluding$remarks ...35$ Chapter(4.(Data(Analysis:(Development(of(Perceptions ... 37! 4.1.$Introduction ...37$ 4.2.$Bias$in$the$classroom ...37$ 4.3.$Influence$of$the$wider$society...40$ 4.4.$Concluding$remarks ...52$ Chapter(5.(Data(Analysis:(Fostering(a(Culture(of(Silence ... 53! 5.1.$Introduction ...53$ 5.2.$Development$and$hindering$of$critical$consciousness$through$pedagogy ...53$ 5.3.$Student@Teacher$Dynamics ...55$ 5.4.$Topics$studied$in$the$classroom...61$ 5.5.$Concluding$remarks ...65$ Chapter(6.(Discussion ... 67! 6.1.$Introduction ...67$ 6.2.$Participant’s$experiences$of$formal$education ...67$ 6.3.$Silence$in$the$classroom...69$ 6.4.$Pedagogy$of$the$classroom ...72$ 6.5.$Concluding$remarks ...73$ Chapter(7.(Conclusion... 75! 7.1.$Introduction ...75$ 7.2.$Key$points...75$ 7.3.$Limitations$of$the$study ...76$ 7.4.$Implications$for$policy,$practice$and$research ...77$ 8.(Bibliography ... 79!!
7.(Appendix... 82!
7.1.$Transparency$document ...82$
7.2.$Interview$guide ...85$
Chapter(1.(Introduction(
(
1.1.(Introduction(
In$this$chapter$I$shall$introduce$this$thesis$and$discuss$the$context$of$the$subject$of$ the$Burmese$formal$education$system,$as$well$as$setting$out$how$the$rest$of$the$ thesis$shall$unfold.$In$section$1.2$I$will$discuss$the$background$of$the$thesis,$and$ discuss$the$ethnic$and$gender$issues$that$are$present$in$Burma.$I$shall$also$talk$about$ how$education$can$have$an$important$impact$on$the$development$of$one’s$ perceptions$on$gender$and$ethnicity.$I$shall$also$talk$about$the$rationale$for$this$ thesis,$and$why$I$think$looking$at$the$gender$and$ethnic$issues$in$Burma$through$the$ lens$of$education$is$important.$In$section$1.3$I$shall$present$my$research$question,$ along$with$its$sub@questions.$In$section$1.4$I$shall$provide$an$outline$for$the$structure$ of$my$thesis,$and$present$the$chapters.$((
1.2.(Background(and(Rationale(
Conflicts$have$been$a$blight$upon$the$world$throughout$history,$and$have$caused$ untold$damage$to$the$development$and$welfare$of$countries$and$their$citizens.$ Burma$is$one$such$country$that$has$struggled$with$internal$conflict$for$almost$the$ entirety$of$its$post@independence$history$(South,$2008).$The$conflict$in$Burma,$has$ had$a$strong$ethnic$dimension.$This$conflict$has$seen$the$Burmese$government$wage$ campaigns$against$various$ethnic$rebel$groups$and$insurgencies,$for$example$the$ Karen$National$Union$(KNU)$and$the$Kachin$Independence$Army$(KIA).$Many$of$the$ groups$fighting$against$the$Burmese$government$are$ethnic$minorities$seeking$ independence$or$improved$rights$for$their$particular$ethnic$group$(South,$2008).$ Some$of$the$grievances$held$by$minority$groups$towards$the$government$can$be$ justified$as$Burma$has$a$very$poor$human$rights$record,$especially$towards$its$ treatment$of$minority$groups.$$ $ Despite$the$dissolution$of$the$military$junta$in$2011$and$the$democratic$ reforms$that$followed,$human$rights$abuses$against$minority$groups$are$still$being$ reported.$The$NGO$Burma$Link$has$reported$that$grave$human$rights$abuses$ predominantly$occur$in$ethnic$areas,$and$that$government$forces$deliberately$target$! minority$civilians$in$their$campaigns$(Burma$Link$2014).$The$Rohingya$minority$group$ have$also$officially$been$denied$citizenship$since$1982,$due$to$the$1982$citizenship$ law$(Human$Rights$Watch,$2014).$Given$the$situation$in$Burma$with$the$ethnic$ conflict$and$injustices,$the$issue$of$ethnicity$is$a$very$pressing$matter$in$Burmese$ politics$and$society.$$ $ As$well$as$ethnicity,$gender$is$also$a$very$relevant$issue$in$Burma.$The$conflict$ in$Burma$has$become$infamous$for$the$widespread$reports$of$gender@based$ violence,$often$perpetrated$by$Burmese$government$forces$against$ethnic$minority$ women,$and$in$some$cases$men.$Burma$Link$has$reported$that$rape$is$commonly$ used$as$a$weapon$of$war,$and$Burmese$military$officials$very$rarely$punish$culprits$ (Burma$Link$2014).$The$widespread$human$rights$abuses$directed$towards$ethnic$ minorities$in$the$conflict$in$Burma,$along$with$the$proliferation$of$gender@based$ violence$as$a$weapon$of$war,$has$led$me$to$want$to$study$the$perceptions$of$ Burmese$people$on$the$issues$of$gender$and$ethnicity,$to$help$understand$the$ context$of$the$conflict.$$ $ As$this$conflict$has$seen$the$proliferation$of$gender@based$violence$(GBV)$on$ a$large$scale,$and$the$fact$that$there$is$a$disparity$between$rights$for$men$and$ women$(Tofani$2012),$it$is$crucial$that$the$conceptualisation$of$gender$within$the$ Burmese$context$is$explored.$This$research$will$be$guided$by$the$definition$of$gender$ given$by$the$UN$Entity$for$Gender$Equality$and$the$Empowerment$of$Women’s$ website,$which$states$that$gender:$$ $ $ ! “refers!to!the!social!attributes!and!opportunities!associated!with!being!male!and! female!and!the!relationships!between!women!and!man!and!girls!and!boys,!as!well!as!the! relations!between!women!and!those!between!men.!These!attributes,!opportunities!and! relationships!are!socially!constructed!and!are!learned!through!socialisation!processes.”(UN$ Entity$for$Gender$Equality$and$the$Empowerment$of$Women$(n.d.))$ ! $ It$is$important$to$note$that$this$definition$points$out$that$the$‘attributes,$ opportunities$and$relationships’$are$social$constructs,$so$have$therefore$been$ created$by$people’s$views$and$perceptions.$The$European$Institute$for$Gender$ Equality$(EIGE)$defines$gender$based$violence,$rather$simplistically,$as$“violence$that$
is$directed$against$a$person$on$the$basis$of$gender.”$(EIGE$(n.d.)).$Gender$based$ violence$can$therefore$be$defined$as$violence$that$is$directed$against$a$person$on$the$ basis$of$the$socially$constructed$social$attributes$and$opportunities$associated$with$ being$male$or$female.$If$this$is$the$case,$then$developing$an$understanding$of$ people’s$perceptions$of$gender$can$help$us$to$better$understand$the$wider$context$ of$the$gender@based$violence$present$in$the$Burmese$conflict,$as$we$can$look$at$the$ ‘socially$constructed$social$attributes$and$opportunities$associated$with$being$male$ or$female’,$that$may$have$been$the$basis$for$violence.$ $ To$understand$people’s$perceptions$I$have$chosen$to$study$their$experiences$ of$formal$education$to$see$how$it$may$have$shaped$their$perceptions$on$gender$and$ ethnicity.$Olaiya$Aina$and$Petronella$Cameron’s$paper$Why!Does!Gender!Matter?! Counteracting!Stereotypes!with!Young!Children$(2011)$claims$that$people’s$views$and$ perceptions$are$often$formed$early$on$in$their$childhood$during$education.$They$ argue$that$teachers$have$“tremendous$influence”(p13)$on$their$students’$ development$of$ideas$on$gender$and$its$significance.$Teachers$are$not$the$only$ actors$within$formal$education$to$exert$influence$on$students’$perceptions,$but$other$ pupils$also$have$an$important$effect.$Aina$and$Cameron$(2011)$argue$that$children’s$ interactions$with$friends$can$also$have$an$impact$on$how$they$shape$their$ perceptions.$Peer$pressure$can$help$to$reinforce$gender$stereotypes,$for$example$ students$may$be$ridiculed$by$their$peers$for$displaying$traits$normally$associated$ with$the$opposite$sex.$$ $ Education$can$also$be$used$as$an$indicator$to$show$what$the$cultural$norms$ of$gender$and$ethnicity$are$in$the$larger$society.$Sara$Humphreys$argues$in$her$paper$ ‘Doing!identity’!in!the!Botswana!classroom:!negotiating!gendered!institutional! identities$(2013),$that$students$and$teachers$bring$views$and$perceptions$developed$ outside$of$formal$education$into$the$classroom.$Humphreys$argues$that$students’$ and$teachers’$gender$identities$make$classroom$teaching$and$learning$inseparable$ from$the$identities$and$perceptions$of$students$and$teachers.$ $ By$studying$people’s$perceptions$of$gender$and$ethnicity,$we$can$see$ whether$people$are$harbouring$negative$perceptions$of$other$ethnicities$and$gender,$ which$may$prove$problematic$given$the$context$of$ethnic$and$gender$based$violence.$ Analysing$people’s$reflections$of$Burmese$formal$education,$along$with$using$
! educational$theories,$can$pinpoint$the$ways$how$the$education$system$is$shaping$ and$perpetuating$negative$perceptions,$and$help$us$understand$what$needs$to$ change$about$the$style$of$education$to$challenge$negative$perceptions$and$try$and$ remove$them$from$the$socialisation$processes$present$in$education.$$ $ There$have$been$a$number$of$studies$and$papers$written$on$the$issues$of$ ethnicity$or$gender$in$Burma.$These$include$articles$like$Ashley$South’s$book$Ethnic! politics!in!Burma:!States!of!conflict$(2008),$which$focuses$on$the$politics$of$ethnicity$ in$Burma,$and$Tinzar$Lwyn’s$Stories!of!Gender!and!Ethnicity:!Discourse!of!Colonialism$ and!resistance!in!Burma$(1994),$which$tackles$the$concepts$of$gender$and$ethnicity.$ However$Lwyn$only$focuses$on$the$context$of$colonialism$and$resistance$towards$it,$ and$she$does$not$put$any$focus$on$the$recent$conflicts$as$it$was$written$two$decades$ ago.$There$are$very$few$studies$however$on$how$formal$Burmese$education$can$ shape$perceptions$on$gender$and$ethnicity.$Arguably,$this$is$important$if$we$are$to$ understand$the$context$as$it$has$such$strong$ethnic$and$gender$dimensions.$To$ address$this$gap$in$existing$literature,$I$will$explore$the$connections$between$ Burmese$refugees$and$migrants$perceptions$of$gender$and$ethnicity$and$the$effects$ education$has$on$shaping$these$perceptions.$$ $ Throughout$this$thesis$I$have$referred$to$the$country$as$Burma$not$Myanmar.$ The$reason$for$this$is$simple.$During$my$fieldwork$everybody$I$met$from$the$country$ still$called$it$Burma.$They$saw$the$renaming$of$the$country$to$Myanmar$as$a$ transparent$attempt$by$the$government$to$be$more$inclusive$of$minorities$while$ failing$to$actually$have$any$substance$to$it$or$better$the$lives$of$minorities$in$the$ country,$and$many$people$in$the$country$are$critical$of$this.$While$the$government$ may$have$renamed$the$country$to$be$more$inclusive$it$has$also$processed$a$ campaign$of$forced$cultural$assimilation$of$Burman$culture$(Walton$2013).$
(
(
1.3.(Research(Question:(
Against$the$backdrop$of$the$ethnic$conflict$in$Burma$that$is$marked$by$serious$forms$ of$gender$based$violence,$how$do$Burmese$refugees$and$migrants$from$different$ethnic$groups$and$genders$residing$in$Thailand$reflect$on$their$experience$of$formal$ education?1 1.3.1.(SubPQuestions:( 1:$How$do$Burmese$refugees$and$migrants$reflect$on$their$experience$of$formal$ education$in$Burma?$ $ 1.a):$Do$these$experiences$differ$along$ethnic$lines?$ $ 1.b):$Do$these$experiences$differ$for$men$and$women? $ 2:$How$may$formal$education$in$Burma$have$contributed$to$shaping$perceptions$of$ gender$and$ethnicity$or$perpetuating$current$perceptions$among$research$ participants?$ $ 2.a):$Do$these$experiences$differ$along$ethnic$lines?$ $ 2.b):$Do$these$experiences$differ$for$men$and$women? $
1.4.(Thesis(structure(
The$first$chapter$of$my$thesis$was$an$introduction$of$the$themes$that$I$will$be$ examining$in$my$thesis,$along$with$my$rationale$for$writing$this$thesis.$Chapter$2$ shall$present$my$theoretical$framework.$It$will$explain$the$existing$literature$that$I$ am$using$to$underpin$my$research,$and$explain$the$concepts$that$I$am$studying$in$ greater$detail.$I$shall$lay$out$my$methodology$in$Chapter$3.$I$will$discuss$the$methods$ I$shall$be$using$in$my$research$and$why$I$am$using$these$methods.$I$shall$also$discuss$ my$research$location,$along$with$the$limitations$and$ethical$issues$that$I$will$need$to$ address.$Chapters$4$and$5$shall$be$my$empirical$chapters.$Here$I$shall$present$the$ data$that$is$relevant$in$helping$to$answer$my$research$question.$I$have$divided$these$ two$chapters,$so$chapter$4$shall$discuss$my$data$relating$to$my$participants’$ development$of$perceptions.$Meanwhile$chapter$5$will$show$the$data$that$will$point$ to$whether$the$formal$education$system$in$Burma$has$fostered$a$culture$of$silence$ or$not,$and$the$effects$this$had$on$my$participants.$In$chapter$6$I$shall$discuss$my$ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1$N.B.$It$is$important$to$note$that$when$I$use$the$term$“Burmese$refugees$and$migrants”$in$ this$paper,$I$mean$refugees$and$migrants$from$the$country$of$Burma,$who$will$include$many$ different$ethnicities.$I$do$not$mean$people$who$are$of$the$specific$Burman$ethnic$group.$$! findings$with$the$concepts$outlined$in$chapter$2,$my$theoretical$framework,$to$see$ how$my$data$can$help$to$answer$my$research$question.$$ $
1.5.(Concluding(remarks(
Given$that$the$conflict$that$has$existed$in$Burma$since$1949$is$both$an$ethnic$conflict$ which$also$has$a$reputation$for$widespread$gender@based$violence,$it$could$prove$to$ be$important$to$study$participant’s$views$on$gender$and$ethnicity.$Formal$education$ can$have$a$crucial$part$to$play$in$the$development$of$people’s$perceptions.$ Therefore$it$could$be$useful$to$study$the$Burmese$formal$education$system$to$see$ what$effects$it$may$have$on$the$development$of$perceptions.$In$the$next$chapter$I$ shall$present$my$theoretical$framework$and$discuss$some$of$the$existing$literature$ that$underpins$the$issues$of$gender$and$ethnicity,$as$well$as$the$role$that$education$ can$have$in$shaping$people’s$mindsets.$(
Chapter(2.(Theoretical(Framework:(
(
2.1.(Introduction(
In$this$chapter,$I$will$present$the$main$concepts$that$I$am$going$to$engage$with$in$my$ research,$that$is;$gender,$ethnicity,$formal$education$and$cultures$of$silence.$Drawing$ on$existing$literature,$I$will$then$discuss$in$which$ways$these$notions$can$effect$and$ influence$each$other.$$ $ In$section$2.2,$I$will$look$at$educational$theories,$particularly$those$laid$down$ by$Paulo$Freire,$to$help$explain$how$people’s$experiences$of$formal$education$can$ contribute$to$shaping$their$perceptions$of$gender$and$ethnicity.$I$will$use$Freirean$ theories$to$try$and$explain$how$different$styles$of$education$can$affect$people’s$ mindsets,$and$how$education$can$sometimes$reinforce$current$social$norms$when$ regarding$gender$and$ethnicity.$ $ In$section$2.3,$I$will$look$at$the$theoretical$ideas$of$how$gender$and$ethnicity$ can$be$intertwined,$especially$given$the$specific$context$of$my$research.$I$will$draw$ on$scholarly$work$that$helps$explain$how$people’s$attitudes$towards$other$ ethnicities,$as$well$as$their$own,$can$influence$animosity$held$towards$other$ethnic$ groups.$Also$in$this$section$I$shall$explain$how$views$on$gender$can$be$associated$ with$views$on$ethnicity,$and$how$these$perceptions$can$be$understood$within$the$ context$of$my$research.$With$a$better$understanding$of$how$perceptions$of$gender$ and$ethnicity$can$be$linked,$especially$within$the$context$of$conflict,$I$will$be$able$to$ study$current$gender$norms$and$notions$in$Burma$to$determine$which$of$them$ underpin$the$conflict.$ ( In$section$2.4$I$will$introduce$the$third$concept$that$I$will$study,$the$culture$of$ silence$around$issues$such$as$ethnicity$in$the$Burmese$education$system,$and$also$in$ broader$Burmese$society.$Much$like$the$educational$theories$that$I$shall$be$using$to$ study$the$styles$of$education$that$can$affect$people’s$perceptions,$I$will$be$looking$at$ how$the$culture$of$silence$can$have$an$effect$on$the$development$of$students’$views$ on$issues$such$as$ethnicity$and$gender.$I$want$to$see$how$not$talking$about$these$ issues,$it$can$actually$help$to$reinforce$the$status$quo$and$reaffirm$the$position$of$ those$who$hold$the$most$power$in$society.$Finally$in$section$2.5$I$will$provide$a$brief$! overview$of$the$main$points$discussed$in$the$chapter$and$clarify$the$focus$of$the$ subsequent$chapter$ (
2.2.(Education(
Schools$can$form$a$key$site$for$the$development$of$perceptions$of$gender$and$ ethnicity.$As$Aina$and$Cameron$(2011)$argue,$for$example,$people’s$perceptions$of$ gender$are$developed$early$on$in$their$life,$and$formal$education$has$a$big$influence.$ Formal$education$can$constitute$a$critical$time$in$the$development$of$a$person’s$ mindset,$therefore.$This$gives$teachers$and$the$curriculum$a$great$deal$of$influence$ over$the$perceptions$that$students’$will$develop$and$carry$with$them$into$adulthood.$ A$student’s$classmates$can$also$exert$influence$over$the$development$of$her/his$ attitudes$towards$gender$or$ethnicity,$as$they$bring$with$them$cultural$ideas$and$ views$that$they$have$picked$up$outside$of$school,$at$home$and$in$the$wider$ community$(Humphreys$2013).$Given$that$students$will$interact$and$socialise$at$ school,$the$perceptions$and$experiences$they$bring$from$outside$of$school$can$ influence$each$other,$and$therefore$be$very$useful$to$help$understand$and$explore$ perceptions$on$gender$and$ethnicity$(Aina$and$Cameron$2011).$$ $ The$UN$Entity$for$Gender$Equality$and$the$Empowerment$of$Women’s$ definition$of$gender$states$“these$attributes,$opportunities$and$relationships$(that$ are$associated$with$being$male$or$female)$are$socially$constructed$and$are$learned$ through$socialisation$processes”(UN$Women$(n.d.)).$This$definition$shows$that$the$ socialisation$that$occurs$in$formal$education$can$be$very$important$to$help$ understand$how$perceptions$of$gender$have$been$developed.$$ $ The$issue$of$ethnicity$in$Burma$is$a$very$relevant$one.$The$Burmese$conflict$is$ an$ethnic$one,$after$all,$as$the$Burman$majority$government$is$fighting$against$ various$groups$who$claim$to$represent$some$of$the$many$ethnic$minorities$in$Burma$ who$have$grievances$towards$the$government.$Burma$has$faced$criticism$from$both$ internal$and$external$sources$about$its$human$rights$records,$especially$regarding$its$ treatment$of$minority$groups$(FIDH$2009).$Some$of$these$groups,$such$as$the$ Rohingya$people$for$example,$have$been$denied$rights$and$citizenship$by$the$ government$on$the$basis$of$their$ethnicity$(IISS$2013).$The$treatment$of$minority$groups$has$created$an$oppressive$system$where$the$dominant$elite$is$the$Burmese$ majority$and$many$minority$groups$face$some$form$of$oppression.$$ $ One$educational$theorist$whose$writings$and$theories$often$talk$about$ ‘oppressive$systems’$and$‘dominant$elites’$is$the$Brazilian$philosopher$and$educator$ Paulo$Freire$(1921@1997).$According$to$Freire,$education$should$be$liberating,$and$ that$traditional$methods$of$education$would$perpetuate$oppressive$systems$(Shor$ 1993).$Freire$saw$traditional$methods$of$education$as$‘banking’$methods,$in$that$ teachers$merely$deposited$information$on$to$the$students$to$memorise$and$repeat,$ harming$the$development$of$the$students’$critical$consciousness$(Shor$1993).$ Gadotti$and$Torres$(2009)!state$that$instead$of$traditional$teaching$methods,$Freire$ advocated$a$move$away$from$teacher@centric$pedagogies$and$a$rejection$of$the$ current$teacher@student$dichotomy$present$in$traditional$education.$Gadotti$and$ Torres$(2009)$claim$that$Freire$preferred$more$flexible$arrangements$and$that$he$ rejected$the$idea$of$the$teacher$being$the$absolute$power$in$the$classroom.$Instead$ Freire$believed$a$teacher’s$role$should$be$more$of$that$of$a$coordinator$amongst$the$ students,$who$would$guide$students’$learning$but$not$control$it.$The$development$of$ a$critical$consciousness$is$what$Freire$believed$educational$methods$should$strive$ for.$By$this,$he$means$that$students$should$be$encouraged$to$question$things$and$to$ think$critically$about$the$subject$matter.$Critical$consciousness$in$turn,$he$believed,$ would$lead$students$to$do$the$same$outside$of$the$classroom,$and$to$think$critically$ about$the$very$society$they$live$in.$$ $ According$to$Freire,$traditional$methods$of$education,$like$the$example$of$ ‘banking$education’,$can$contribute$to$the$creation$and$perpetuation$of$oppressive$ systems$(Shor$1993).$If$an$oppressive$society$exists,$traditional$methods$of$education$ will$not$do$much$to$alleviate$the$situation.$Freire’s$pedagogy$encourages$curiosity$ and$activism,$which$can$challenge$societal$norms$and$perceptions,$and$encourage$ the$cultivation$of$a$culture$that$challenges$injustice.$As$Keester$and$Booth$(2010)$ clarify,$in$contrast$to$a$‘banking$education’,$Freire$believed$that$a$problem@posing$ education$should$be$adopted.$Problem@posing$education,$in$Freire’s$view,$entails$ presenting$students$with$problems,$which$they$can$solve$by$devising$with$their$own$ solutions,$in$contrast$to$banking$education$where$facts$were$simply$deposited$to$the$ students$to$memorise$(Keester$&$Booth$2010).$Friere$argues$that$if$a$mindset$of$
! curiosity$and$activism$is$not$encouraged$in$education,$then$it$is$less$likely$that$people$ will$challenge$injustices$and$oppression$in$society,$which$can$lead$to$the$ perpetuation$of$an$oppressive$system$and$the$continued$dominance$of$the$elite.$$ $ Freire$argued$that$praxis,$the$action$and$reflection$of$people$upon$their$ world$in$order$to$transform$it,$would$lead$to$liberation$(Keester$&$Booth$2010).$He$ believed$that$his$problem@posing$education$was$the$key$to$achieving$praxis.$Freire’s$ problem@posing$education’s$main$aim$is$to$strive$for$what$he$called$ ‘conscientização’.$Conscientização$is$a$concept$Freire$used$to$refer$to$the$emergence$ of$critical$consciousness$and$critical$intervention$in$reality$(Keester$&$Booth$2010).$ $ In$Freirean$education,$the$development$of$a$critical$consciousness$or$ conscientização$is$essential$to$challenge$oppression$by$making$students$realise$ oppression$exists$and$realise$that$people$have$the$power$to$change$it.$Building$on$ Friere,$Shor$(1993)$outlines$the$four$qualities$that$he$believes$jointly$constitute$a$ critical$consciousness.$The$first$quality$is$that$of$‘power$awareness’.$This$is$the$ awareness$that$society$is$created$by$human$action,$who$is$the$dominant$power$in$ society,$and$how$power$is$used$and$organised.$The$second$quality$is$‘critical$literacy’.$ This$is$the$development$of$analytic$habits$of$thinking,$reading,$speaking,$writing$or$ discussing,$and$going$beneath$surface$impressions$and$traditional$beliefs.$Critical$ literacy$also$involves$being$able$to$understand$the$social$contexts$and$consequences$ of$subject$matter.$The$third$quality$is$‘desocialisation’:$the$ability$to$recognise$and$ challenge$beliefs,$values$and$behaviours$that$are$propagated$by$society,$and$to$ critically$examine$regressive$values$within$society,$such$as$racism,$sexism$or$ homophobia.$The$fourth$and$final$quality$is$‘self@organisation/self@education’.$This$ grants$students$the$initiative$to$try$and$change$school$and$society$away$from$ authoritarianism$and$undemocratic,$unequal$distribution$of$power$(Shor$1993).$ These$qualities$that$Shor$breaks$critical$consciousness$down$into,$helps$to$show$the$ benefits$of$a$Freirean$pedagogy,$and$how$it$can$achieve$its$aim$of$liberating$society.$$ $ Aina$and$Cameron’s$(2011)$arguments$about$the$influence$and$impact$ education$can$have$on$the$development$of$a$student’s$perceptions,$can$be$used$with$ Freire’s$views$on$an$‘oppressive$education’$to$explain$how$perceptions$can$be$ shaped$and$perpetuated.$Freire’s$view$that$traditional$methods$of$education$ perpetuate$current$systems$and$do$little$if$anything$to$change$them,$explains$how$
current$views$and$attitudes$are$reinforced$and$perpetuated.$Students$are$given$little$ opportunity$to$question$them,$and$the$lack$of$a$critical$consciousness$means$they$ will$also$have$little$initiative$themselves$to$question$perceptions$(Keester$&$Booth$ 2010).$People’s$attitudes$towards$gender$and$ethnicity$stem$from$their$experience$ in$the$broader$society,$and$the$views$and$attitudes$towards$gender$and$ethnicity$ that$are$present$there.$Therefore$if$traditional$methods$of$education$perpetuate$the$ current$status$quo$within$society,$then$the$perceptions$and$attitudes$found$in$ society$will$also$be$perpetuated.$The$perpetuation$of$these$perceptions$in$the$ classroom$will$have$a$significant$impact$on$the$shaping$of$students’$views$of$gender$ and$ethnicity.$$ $ The$development$of$a$critical$consciousness$can$have$important$effects$on$ people’s$views$of$gender$and$ethnicity$as$it$can$give$students$the$ability$to$think$ critically$about$current$norms$amongst$society’s$attitudes$towards$gender$and$ ethnicity$(Keester$&$Booth$2010).$This$means$that$it$is$more$likely$with$Freirean$ pedagogy$that$these$views$will$be$challenged$and$people$can$breakaway$from$the$ perpetuation$of$current$perceptions$of$gender$and$ethnic$norms$and$identities.$An$ oppressive$system$on$the$other$hand$will$continue$to$maintain$and$reinforce$current$ perceptions,$as$without$the$development$of$a$critical$consciousness$it$is$less$likely$ that$people$will$think$critically$about$and$challenge$stereotypes$of$gender$and$ ethnicity.$$ $ Freirean$pedagogy’s$main$aim$is$to$be$a$force$for$liberation,$and$to$challenge$ authoritarian$and$oppressive$social$structures$(Shor$1993).$The$social$structure$in$ Burma$was$certainly$oppressive$and$authoritarian$during$its$long$military$rule,$and$ despite$recent$democratic$reforms,$these$elements$still$remain.$The$social$structure$ is$especially$oppressive$for$those$of$ethnic$minorities,$who$are$not$part$of$the$ Burmese$majority$elite.$Therefore$the$oppressive$nature$of$the$society$in$Burma$has$ an$ethnic$dimension.$If$traditional$methods$of$education$are$being$used$then$the$ system$present$in$society$that$oppresses$ethnic$minorities,$will$be$perpetuated$and$ shall$continue,$along$with$any$negative$perceptions$of$minority$groups$that$the$ oppressive$system$might$create.$Therefore$according$to$Freirean$theory,$ encouraging$a$critical$consciousness$amongst$students$will$lead$to$more$people$ realising$and$challenging$the$oppression$towards$ethnic$minorities$and$the$
! regressive$values$and$in$society,$like$racism,$as$people$start$to$question$the$societal$ norms$and$perceptions$that$may$be$inimical$to$liberation.$$ $ It$is$not$only$oppressive$ethnic$structures$that$Freire’s$pedagogy$can$ challenge.$Burma$certainly$does$not$have$a$good$human$rights$record,$including$in$ relation$to$women.$A$report$by$the$Swedish$Burma$Committee$in$2013$claimed$that$ women$had$been$effectively$excluded$from$local$and$national$decision$making$ processes$since$the$military$takeover$(Hedstrom$2013).$The$military,$which$is$almost$ all$male$as$women$are$largely$barred,$still$dominates$most$branches$of$government,$ effectively$excluding$women$from$positions$of$power$(Hedstrom$2013).$Part$of$the$ constitution$states$that$“nothing$shall$prevent$appointment$of$men$to$the$positions$ that$are$suitable$for$men$only”$(Tofani$2012$p1).$The$widespread$gender$based$ violence$committed$by$government$forces$against$ethnic$minority$women$is$also$a$ gross$abuse$of$women’s$rights$in$Burma.$Despite$the$dissolution$of$the$military$junta$ in$2011$women’s$rights$are$still$abused$in$this$way.$According$to$a$report$by$the$ Palaung$Women’s$Organisation$(PWO),$gender$based$violence$was$committed$ during$an$offensive$in$2013$in$the$Palaung$region$of$Burma$(PWO$2013).$$ $ In$her$essay$Rereading!Paulo!Freire$(2001),$Kathleen$Weiler$discusses$how$ Freire’s$theories$can$be$examined$in$relation$to$gender,$and$how$feminism$can$ incorporate$Freirean$ideas.$Weiler$(2001)$argues$that$Freirean$pedagogy$and$ feminism$can$be$linked,$as$they$both$see$an$oppressive$social$structure$and$the$need$ to$change$it,$and$that$creating$consciousness$is$imperative.$In$a$patriarchal$society$ such$as$Burma,$there$is$oppression$based$on$gender$inherent$in$society.$Questioning$ the$societal$norms,$traditions$and$beliefs$that$have$created$oppression$towards$ gender$is$important$to$try$and$challenge$and$change$the$oppressive$system,$just$like$ it$is$in$the$case$of$ethnic$oppression.$Therefore$Freire’s$theories$can$be$used$to$ explain$the$perpetuation$of$a$system$that$is$oppressive$towards$both$ethnic$ minorities,$outside$of$the$dominant$elite,$and$is$also$oppressive$on$the$basis$of$ gender,$through$traditional$methods$of$teaching,$and$not$using$liberating$ pedagogies.$ $ Freire’s$theories$can$be$used$to$help$explain$the$presence$of$oppressive$ systems$and$how$they$are$being$prolonged.$By$exploring$people’s$perceptions$and$ recollections$of$their$experiences$within$formal$education,$using$Freirean$theory,$
could$help$to$explain$people’s$attitudes$towards$other$ethnicities,$whether$they$be$ part$of$the$‘oppressed’$or$the$‘dominant$elite’.$Weiler’s$argument$that$Freire’s$ theories$can$be$used$to$examine$oppressive$patriarchal$systems,$can$also$help$us$to$ explore$people’s$perceptions$of$gender,$according$to$their$perception$and$ recollection$of$their$formal$education.$$ (
2.3.(Connecting(ethnicity(and(gender(
The$conflict$in$Burma$is$broadly$recognised$to$have$an$ethnic$character,$so$it$is$ important$that$we$look$at$ethnicity$and$the$idea$of$nationhood$to$help$us$gain$ further$insight$into$the$conflict.$Since$1989,$the$government$has$attempted$to$create$ a$more$inclusive$‘Myanmar’$national$culture$(Walton$2013).$However$according$to$ Walton$(2013)$these$processes$have$just$strengthened$Burmese$nationalism$and$ culture.$Walton$argues$that$ethnic$minorities$have$been$coerced$into$adopting$ various$aspects$of$Burmese$culture,$leading$to$their$forced$assimilation$into$the$ “cultural$nation”.$$ $ The$government’s$policy$of$‘Burmanisation’$is$one$of$the$ways$it$is$trying$to$ assimilate$other$ethnic$cultures$into$one$‘Burmese’$culture.$The$government$ describes$these$policies$as$“development$efforts$for$border$region$national$ races”(Walton$2013$p11),$while$critics$see$it$as$“clumsy$attempts$to$impose$lowland$ Burman$culture”$(Walton$2013$p12).$This$suggests$that$the$Burmese$government’s$ idea$of$Myanman$‘nationhood’$is$a$one$that$predominantly$reflects$Burmese$culture,$ and$pays$little$regard$to$the$culture$of$the$ethnic$minority$groups$that$it$is$trying$to$ assimilate.$This$means$that$the$‘nationhood’$that$the$government$is$trying$to$create,$ is$one$that$seeks$to$negate$ethnic$differences.$The$policy$of$burmanisation$has$ outlawed$the$teaching$of$ethnic$minority$languages,$history$and$customs,$and$has$ restricted$the$printing$of$texts$written$in$anything$other$than$Burmese$(Hedstrom$ 2013).$This$has$directly$involved$education$with$the$government’s$attempt$to$create$ a$‘cultural$nation’$as$Walton$(2013)$puts$it,$highlighting$the$importance$of$education$ in$regards$to$ethnic$relations$and$perceptions$in$Burma.$ $ Joane$Nagel$(1998)$examines$the$linkages$between$gender$and$nationalism$in$ her$article$Masculinity!and!Nationalism:!Gender!and!Sexuality!in!the!Making!of!! Nations.$She$argues$that$previous$studies$of$nationalism$and$nation$building$have$ neglected$to$take$gender$into$account,$and$that$many$who$did$try$and$incorporate$ gender$into$their$studies,$confused$the$terms$‘gender’$with$‘women’,$and$resulted$in$ an$almost$exclusive$focus$on$women.$Nagel’s$argument$is$that$many$nationalist$ projects,$such$as$citizenship,$nationalism,$militarism,$revolution,$can$be$interpreted$ as$masculinist$projects,$and$that$the$ideas$of$‘nations’$and$‘states’$have$become$very$ gendered$in$this$way$(Nagel$1998).$Her$argument$is$relevant$to$this$research$given$ the$Burmese$state$is$fighting$against$separatist$groups$to$try$and$keep$the$‘nation’$ together,$which$arguably$constitutes$a$form$of$nation@building.$$ $ Nagel$discusses$the$different$roles$and$places$that$have$been$associated$to$ men$or$women$in$the$nation.$Men$are$given$a$dominant$role$in$the$process$of$nation$ building$and$are$typically$perceived$as$central$participants$to$the$struggle$for$ ‘nationhood’.$Men$are$supposed$to$be$the$protectors$of$the$nation,$which$includes$ the$protection$of$the$nations$women$and$children,$who$are$often$not$seen$as$ capable$of$defending$themselves.$Terms$such$as$bravery,$duty,$patriotism,$honour,$ are$often$seen$as$nationalist$and$militarist$as$well$as$being$regarded$as$masculine$ qualities.$According$to$Nagel$women$tend$to$have$been$assigned$a$much$different$ role$in$the$processes$of$nationhood.$Nira$Yuval@Davis$and$Floya$Anthias$(1998)$have$ similarly$engaged$with$the$roles$of$women$in$the$process$of$nation$building.$ According$to$the$authors$these$roles$are:$as$biological$producers$of$members$of$ ethnic$collectives;$as$reproducers$of$the$boundaries$of$ethnic/national$groups$(by$ enacting$proper$feminine$behaviour);$as$participating$centrally$in$the$ideological$ reproduction$of$the$collectivity$and$as$transmitters$of$its$culture;$as$signifiers$of$ ethnic/national$differences;$and$as$participants$in$national,$economic,$political$and$ military$struggles.$The$majority$of$these$roles$do$not$include$action$or$participating$ in$the$struggle$(Nagel$1998).$Nationalism$tends$to$place$women$in$more$supportive$ or$symbolic$roles,$such$as$supporting$their$husbands$and$raising$the$nation’s$ children.$It$is$interesting$that$Yuval@Davis$and$Anthias$linked$the$concepts$of$gender$ and$ethnicity$as$they$often$mentioned$ethnicity$in$their$list$of$women’s$roles$for$ nation$building.$$ $ The$view$of$women$being$the$‘biological$producers’$of$their$ethnicity$and$ nation,$and$men$as$the$protectors$of$the$nation,$including$its$women$and$children,$
shows$how$nationalist$language$and$concepts$can$intertwine$with$gendered$ language$and$concepts.$An$attack$against$a$nation’s$or$ethnic$group’s$women$ therefore$has$very$strong$nationalistic$and$gendered$connotations.$Such$an$attack$ can$be$harmful$to$both$a$country’s$or$ethnicity’s$sense$of$‘nationhood’$and$their$ ‘masculinity’$having$failed$to$protect$the$biological$producers$of$their$nation$and$the$ ‘transmitters’$of$their$culture$(Nagel$1998).$If$an$attack$harms$a$country’s$or$ ethnicity’s$‘masculinity’$in$the$way$I$described$above,$it$can$be$argued$that$it$is$a$ case$of$gender@based$violence.$Animosity$towards$a$rival$ethnic$group,$could$lead$to$ a$belligerent’s$perceptions$of$the$enemy’s$women$being$far$more$derogatory$or$ misogynist,$than$their$perceptions$of$women$from$their$own$ethnicity,$as$they$are$ looking$to$harm$their$rivals$sense$of$nationhood$as$well$as$their$masculinity.$Nagel$ argues$that$the$language$used$to$describe$enemy$men$and$women$is$very$gendered,$ as$men$are$often$called$rapists$and$wimps,$while$women$can$often$been$called$sluts$ and$whores.$These$are$examples$of$how$by$verbally$attacking$an$opponent’s$ nationhood$by$creating$or$enforcing$these$negative$perceptions;$they$are$also$ attacking$their$gender.$$ $ Cynthia$Enloe,$in$her$book$Bananas,!Beaches!and!Bases$(1990)$looks$at$how$ nationalist$movements$have$been$dominated$by$masculinities.$Enloe$argues$that$ many$nationalist$movements$have$come$out$of$masculinist$humiliation$and$ grievances$of$emasculation$from$being$dominated$by$an$opposing$force.$She$argues$ that$nationalist$movements$have$been$dominated$by$men$and$that$women$are$ encouraged$to$take$side$roles,$such$as$the$‘stoic$wife’$or$‘nurturing$mother’.$In$her$ book$she$claims$that$nationalist$movements$become$vehicles$for$masculinist$ identity,$to$fight$against$the$‘masculinist$humiliation’$that$may$have$been$suffered$in$ the$past.$Connecting$with$Nagel’s$argument$that$an$attack$against$an$ethnicity’s$ women$harms$the$masculinity$of$the$men,$as$they$have$failed$to$do$their$‘masculine$ duty’$to$protect$their$women,$Enloe$argues$that$when$a$community’s$women$are$ raped$or$even$sexualised$in$a$non@violent$way$by$foreign$men,$the$major$issue$to$the$ community$is$not$that$its$women$have$been$assaulted,$but$rather$the$honour$of$its$ men.$ $$ Building$on$these$authors$could$help$us$understand$the$nature$of$ethnic$ tensions$in$the$context$of$the$Burmese$conflict.$These$authors$could$help$to$see$how$
! possible$ethnic$tensions$can$shape$people’s$views$on$gender$when$regarding$both$ men$and$women$of$rival$ethnic$groups,$in$comparison$to$their$perceptions$of$gender$ when$it$comes$to$people$of$their$own$ethnicity.$It$would$also$be$relevant,$therefore,$ to$use$these$theories$to$study$people’s$attitude$regarding$gender$to$see$how$it$ affects$the$level$of$animosity$they$hold$for$different$ethnic$groups.$This$study$will,$ therefore,$draw$on$critical$feminist$scholars$to$understand$perceptions$of$gender,$ and$to$examine$how$perceptions$of$gender$can$affect$levels$of$animosity$for$ different$ethnic$groups.$$ $ By$combing$Freire’s$theories,$along$with$Weiler’s$amendments$in$relation$to$ gender,$with$Nagel’s$theories$on$the$link$between$gender$and$ethnicity,$we$can$ explore$how$people’s$experience$of$formal$education$shaped$their$perceptions$on$ gender$and$ethnicity,$which$can$help$us$to$use$people’s$reflections$of$their$education$ to$understand$the$context$of$the$ethnic$and$gender$based$violence$present$in$the$ Burmese$conflict.$
2.4.(Culture(of(silence(
Another$factor$that$can$also$help$to$perpetuate$negative$or$harmful$attitudes$is$if$ there$is$a$‘culture$of$silence’$present.$By$not$talking$about$issues$such$as$ethnicity$or$ gender,$and$avoiding$the$subject$completely,$then$no$new$arguments$against$the$ status$quo$will$be$formed,$and$people$will$simply$not$think$about$these$issues$(Polite$ &$Saenger$2003).$Also$if$a$person$has$already$developed$a$mindset$on$gender$or$ ethnicity,$and$they$never$talk$about$them,$then$no$one$will$ever$challenge$this$ mindset.$By$not$challenging$perceptions,$it$is$almost$inevitable$that$there$will$be$ little$or$no$change$to$them.$Looking$at$the$theories$underpinning$the$issue$of$silence$ can$help$to$explain$how$silence$can$be$harmful.$Ignoring$issues$such$as$ethnicity$and$ pretending$they$don’t$exist$can$give$people$the$idea$that$there$are$no$problems,$ instead$of$confronting$the$issues$directly$(Polite$&$Saenger$2003).$$ $ Angelina$Castagno$studied$the$issues$that$surround$silence$and$ethnicity$in$ her$paper$“I!Don’t!Want!to!Hear!That!”:!Legitimating!Whiteness!through!Silence!in! Schools$(2008).$In$this$article$Castagno$examined$how$silence$in$school$can$help$to$ perpetuate$the$status$quo$and$maintain$‘Whiteness’$in$US$schools.$What$is$ whiteness?$She$explains$it$with$this$quote:$$ $ “Even!though!no!one!at!this!point!really!knows!exactly!what!whiteness!is,!most! observers!agree!that!it!is!intimately!involved!with!issues!of!power!and!power!differences! between!white!and!nonwhite!people”$(Kincheloe$&$Steinberg$1998,$p4).$$ $ This$shows$that$when$Castagno$talks$about$‘whiteness’$she$is$talking$about$the$ balance$of$power$between$white$and$non@white$people,$and$how$silence$can$help$to$ maintain$the$position$of$power$held$by$whites$in$US$society.$As$she$believes$that$ examining$the$effects$of$silence$can$help$to$explain$the$maintenance$of$the$current$ balance$of$power$between$white$and$non@white$people,$then$I$believe$it$could$also$ be$used$to$explain$the$maintenance$of$the$status$quo$in$Burma,$where$the$Burman$ ethnic$majority$enjoy$a$far$greater$share$of$power$than$the$various$ethnic$minorities$ in$the$country.$$ $ Lillian$Polite$and$Elizabeth$Saenger$argue$in$their$article$A!Pernicious!Silence:! Confronting!Race!in!the!Elementary!Classroom!(2003)$that$by$not$confronting$the$ issues$that$surround$ethnicity$or$gender,$then$it$gives$the$impression$that,$as$nobody$ is$talking$about$it$or$challenging$it,$then$the$status$quo$must$be$acceptable$and$that$ the$current$situation$in$society$is$fine.$In$a$situation$where$the$current$situation$is$ most$certainly$not$‘fine’$and$minority$groups$are$struggling$against$the$hegemony$of$ the$majority,$then$silence$can$be$harmful.$This$is$similar$to$Freire’s$ideas$of$how$not$ developing$critical$consciousness,$leads$to$the$perpetuation$of$oppressive$systems.$ As$Polite$and$Saenger$(2003)$put$it$“Communities!of!silence!cannot!be!moral! communities”$(p275).$Mica$Pollock$makes$the$point$in$her$book$Colormute:!Race!Talk! Dilemmas!in!an!American!School$(2004)$that$students$will$develop$their$own$ideas$ and$perceptions$about$ethnicity$and$gender$even$if$the$topic$of$gender$and$ethnicity$ is$avoided$in$schools,$as$they$are$influenced$by$society,$and$will$pick$up$and$reinforce$ pre@existing$views$and$distinctions.$However$if$they$are$not$spoken$about$then$ people$will$assume$that$there$is$nothing$to$talk$about$and$that$nothing$needs$ changing$(Castagno$2008).$Not$only$this,$but$if$teachers$actively$silence$students$who$ try$to$talk$about$these$issues,$then$it$creates$the$impression$that$not$only$is$it$not$ necessary$to$discuss$them,$but$it$is$also$not$acceptable$to$do$so$(Castagno$2008).$ This$is$even$more$harmful$as$it$imposes$a$sense$of$restriction$onto$what$students$
! think$is$acceptable$to$talk$about,$and$can$put$people$off$from$wanting$to$discuss$ these$issues.$In$a$country$such$as$Burma,$this$can$be$especially$harmful,$as$the$strict$ authoritative$government$has$already$made$it$very$hard$to$speak$out$against$it,$and$ has$already$created$a$sense$of$fear$around$criticisms$of$the$government,$as$many$ journalists$have$been$killed$in$the$country$(Buncombe$2014).$$ $ Using$the$theories$around$silence$that$have$been$outlined$in$the$articles$I$ previously$mentioned,$I$can$study$my$research$findings$to$see$if$there$was$a$ presence$of$silence$in$the$classroom$and$outside$it,$as$well$as$if$silence$was$actively$ used,$when$a$teacher$or$other$authority$figure$deliberately$prevents$someone$from$ talking$about$the$issue,$rather$than$just$passively$not$bringing$it$up.$Drawing$on$the$ sensitising$notions$outlined$in$this$chapter,$I$will$explain$how$the$actions$of$the$ teachers$and$other$authority$figures$can$help$to$create$a$culture$of$silence$or$create$ an$environment$where$open$discussion$is$welcomed,$and$the$effects$that$this$can$ have$on$the$development$of$people’s$perceptions$on$the$issues$of$gender$and$ ethnicity.$$
2.5.(Concluding(remarks(
I$can$use$the$theories$from$the$literature$to$help$answer$my$research$question.$The$ work$of$Freire,$and$the$other$authors$who$studied$him,$can$help$to$point$to$whether$ or$not$my$participants$have$developed$a$critical$consciousness,$which$can$help$them$ develop$their$ability$to$inquire$and$challenge$the$status$quo$and$existing$ perceptions.$$ $ The$authors$whose$work$I$outlined$in$section$2.3$could$help$to$explain$my$ participants$views$on$gender$and$ethnicity,$especially$given$the$ethnic$conflict$ between$armed$Karen$groups$and$the$majority$Burman$government.$Using$the$ theories$around$silence$that$have$been$outlined$in$the$articles$I$previously$ mentioned$in$section$2.4,$I$can$study$my$research$findings$to$see$if$there$was$a$ presence$of$silence$in$the$classroom$and$outside$it,$as$well$as$if$silence$was$actively$ used,$when$a$teacher$or$other$authority$figure$deliberately$prevents$someone$from$ talking$about$the$issue,$rather$than$just$passively$not$bringing$it$up.$$ $ In$the$next$chapter$I$will$talk$about$the$methodology$of$my$research.$I$shall$ discuss$the$methods$I$used$and$why$it$was$relevant$to$use$them.$I$shall$also$discuss$the$limitations$and$ethical$considerations$of$my$research,$as$well$as$the$location$I$ used.$$
! !
Chapter(3.(Methodology:(
$3.1.(Introduction(
My$research$focused$on$people’s$perceptions$of$different$factors,$such$as$gender$ and$ethnicity.$I$also$studied$people’s$reflections$on$their$own$past$experiences$of$ formal$education$in$Burma.$The$aim$of$the$research$was$to$collect$in@depth$ descriptions$regarding$different$people’s$own$perceptions$of$the$concepts$I$studied,$ and$descriptions$of$their$personal$experience$in$formal$education$in$Burma.$Due$to$ the$nature$of$the$information$I$wished$to$collect,$I$used$a$qualitative$approach$to$ research,$as$quantitative$methods$can$lose$the$richness$of$the$information,$and$ cannot$go$as$in$depth$as$qualitative$methods$can$(Cresswell$2009).$$ $ In$section$3.2$I$shall$present$my$conceptual$scheme.$This$shall$help$to$explain$ how$I$will$link$my$concepts$together$for$the$purpose$of$answering$my$research$ question.$I$shall$follow$this$in$section$3.3$with$my$operationalisation$table.$This$table$ breaks$down$the$key$concepts$that$I$am$using$into$different$dimensions$and$ variables,$to$aid$me$in$knowing$what$indicators$to$look$for$when$I$conducted$my$ research.$In$section$3.4$I$will$say$what$unit$of$analysis$I$shall$be$using$to$analyse$my$ research$data.$In$the$next$section,$3.5,$I$will$present$the$methods$that$I$used$when$ undertaking$my$fieldwork,$namely,$interviews$and$focus$groups.$I$will$discuss$the$ advantages$and$disadvantages$of$the$methods$that$I$used,$as$well$as$the$rationale$ for$why$I$chose$to$use$such$methods.$$ $ Section$3.6$shall$discuss$the$limitations$that$I$faced$when$carrying$out$my$ research.$These$include$such$obstacles$as$the$sensitivity$of$the$concepts$that$I$was$ researching,$the$reliance$on$my$participants’$memories,$possible$language$barriers,$ and$the$simple$logistics$of$carrying$out$research.$The$issue$of$the$language$barrier$ also$brings$up$possible$limitations$that$might$come$up$when$picking$a$translator.$In$ section$3.7$I$will$bring$up$the$ethical$considerations$of$my$research.$I$will$discuss$the$ issues$of$anonymity$and$the$need$to$acquire$consent$from$my$participants$before$I$ could$interview$them$and$digitally$record$the$interaction.$Finally$in$3.8,$I$will$discuss$ the$research$location.$I$shall$give$some$background$to$the$area$that$I$carried$out$my$ fieldwork$in,$and$present$my$rationale$for$choosing$said$area.$$!
3.2.(Conceptual(Scheme(
(
(
(
(
(
$ $ My$conceptual$scheme$outlines$how$I$am$going$to$link$together$the$concepts$of$my$ research$to$help$answer$my$research$question$and$sub@questions.$As$discussed$in$my$ theoretical$framework$in$chapter$2,$I$shall$explore$people’s$reflections$on$the$ Burmese$formal$education$system.$I$have$designed$my$conceptual$scheme$to$reflect$ the$path$that$my$participants$took$through$formal$education,$in$regards$to$their$ experiences$and$perceptions.$The$first$stage$of$this$path$is$the$experiences$and$ perceptions$that$my$participants$gained$from$outside$the$classroom,$in$the$home$ and$in$the$wider$community.$My$research$gathered$data$from$my$participants$about$ their$experiences$outside$the$classroom$and$the$perceptions$that$they$had$or$ encountered.$As$I$mentioned$earlier,$students$bring$their$experiences$and$ perceptions$into$the$classroom$with$them$(Humphreys$2013).$$ $ The$next$stage$of$my$conceptual$scheme$is$the$formal$education$system$ itself,$and$the$effects$it$can$have$the$experiences$and$perceptions$brought$by$ students$into$the$classroom.$I$will$be$looking$at$the$two$concepts$that$exist$within$ the$education$system.$The$first$of$these$concepts$is$the$pedagogy$of$the$classroom.$I$ will$use$Freirean$theories$on$education$to$look$at$how$the$teaching$style$being$ utilised$in$the$classroom$can$have$an$effect$on$participants’$perceptions.$The$second$ concept$I$will$study$is$the$culture$of$silence$that$exists$within$the$classroom.$I$will$see$ to$what$extent$a$culture$of$silence$has$been$fostered$within$the$Burmese$classroom,$and$the$effects$this$could$have$on$my$participants’$perceptions$on$the$sensitive$ issues$such$as$gender$and$ethnicity.$$ $ Finally$I$shall$use$the$literature$that$underpins$my$theoretical$framework$with$ the$data$that$I$gathered$from$my$research$to$explain$how$formal$education$system$ might$be$affecting$my$participants’$views$on$gender$and$ethnicity,$by$looking$at$what$ could$happen$when$students’$perceptions$and$experiences$are$exposed$to$the$ pedagogy$and$culture$of$silence$within$the$classroom.$I$will$use$my$findings$to$ attempt$to$explain$my$participants’$experiences$in$the$context$of$the$ethnic$and$ gender@based$violence$in$Burma.$$ $
(
3.3(Operationalisation(table(
!Concept$ Dimensions$ Variables$ Questions/Indicators$ Roles$in$the$
household$ Who$should$be$the$main$authority$at$home?$ $ What$should$a$man’s$duties$at$ home$be?$ What$should$a$woman’s$be?$ $ In$your$household,$who$spends$ the$most$time$on$chores?$ $ Who$is$more$important$for$ raising$children?$ Gender$ Gender$Roles$ Roles$in$the$
community$ Who$is$more$suited$for$a$role$of$authority,$men$or$women?$ $ What$roles,$if$any,$should$a$ woman$have$outside$of$the$ home?$ $ In$your$community,$what$was$ the$role$with$the$highest$ authority?$ Would$you$find$it$acceptable$if$ a$woman$fulfilled$that$role?$
! $ Jobs$ Who$should$be$the$main$ breadwinner$for$a$family?$ $ Should$women$focus$more$on$ their$household$duties$or$on$ their$job?$ $ What$jobs$do$you$associate$ with$men,$and$what$jobs$do$ you$associate$with$women?$ $ Are$there$any$jobs$that$you$ think$should$only$be$done$by$ men,$or$vice$versa$by$women?$ $ Who$is$the$best$suited$for$a$ managerial$role,$men$or$ women?$ ‘Masculine’$
attributes$ What$qualities$should$a$man$possess?$ $ What$should$a$man’s$duties$ towards$women$be?$ $ What$is$the$worst$insult$you$ could$say$to$a$man?$ $ (To$a$woman)$What$qualities$do$ you$look$for$in$a$husband?$ Gender$Identity$ ‘Feminine’$
attributes$ What$qualities$should$a$woman$possess?$ $ What$should$a$woman’s$duties$ towards$men$be?$ $ What$is$the$worst$insult$you$ could$say$to$a$woman?$ $ (To$a$man)$What$qualities$do$ you$look$for$in$a$wife?$ $ Gender$
Relationships$ Attitude$towards$opposite$gender$ Should$men$and$women$be$equal?$ Are$there$any$specific$cases$ when$they$should/should$not$ be?$
Do$you$feel$that$society$treats$ men$and$women$fairly?$ $ What$is$the$greatest$ achievement$a$man$could$ aspire$to?$ $ What$is$the$greatest$ achievement$a$woman$could$ aspire$to?$ $ Gender$dynamics$
within$a$household$ Who$has$the$final$decision$between$a$husband$and$wife?$ $ When/if$you/your$wife$ was/were$pregnant,$did/would$ you$wish$for$a$boy$or$a$girl?$ $ Is$it$more$important$to$educate$ a$son$or$a$daughter?$ $ Should$there$be$a$hierarchy$ amongst$siblings?$If$so,$should$ it$be$based$on$gender$or$age?$ $ Is$there$any$time$that$a$son$has$ authority$over$their$mother?$ Attributes$of$ different$ ethnicities$ What$stereotypes$are$there$for$ some$of$the$ethnic$groups$in$ Burma?$ $ Do$you$agree$with$these$ stereotypes?$ Ethnic$Identity$ Perceptions$of$own$
ethnicity$ Do$you$associate$yourself$with$a$specific$ethnicity$or$as$ Burmese$in$general?$ $ Do$you$have$a$stereotype$of$ your$own$ethnicity?$ $ Are$you$proud$to$be$(your$ ethnicity)?$ Ethnicity$ Ethnic$Relations$ Attitude$towards$ different$ ethnicities$ Would$you$feel$comfortable$ living$nearby$people$of$a$ different$ethnicity?$ Is$there$a$group$in$particular$ that$would$make$you$feel$most$ uncomfortable?$
! $ Would$you$prefer$to$marry$ someone$from$the$same$ethnic$ background$of$you?$ $ Would$you$marry$someone$ from$a$different$ethnic$ background?$ $ If$you$did,$what$would$be$the$ reaction$from$your$parents$and$ the$community?$ $ Would$you$be$comfortable$if$ your$son$or$daughter$married$ someone$from$a$different$ ethnic$background?$ $ Do$men/women$of$different$ ethnicities$fulfil$the$qualities$ that$men/women$should$ possess?$ $ Social$standing$of$ different$ ethnicities$ Do$you$think$that$all$ethnicities$ should$have$equal$standing$in$ society?$ Do$you$feel$that$this$is$the$ case?$ $ Are$there$any$ethnicities$that$ you$feel$are$unfairly$treated$by$ society?$ $ Should$multiculturalism$be$ encouraged?$ $ Would$you$feel$comfortable$if$a$ person$of$a$different$ethnicity$ was$in$a$place$of$authority?$ $ Are$there$any$ethnicities$that$ you$would$not$associate$ yourself$with?$ Pedagogy$of$ formal$ education$ Development$of$ critical$ consciousness$ Participation$ Were$you$encouraged$to$speak$ in$class?$ $ Were$there$many$opportunities$ for$open$discussion?$
$ Did$the$teacher$ask$the$class$ many$questions?$ $ How$much$time$was$spent$on$ note$taking$compared$to$ discussing$lesson$content?$ Encouragement$of$
critical$thinking$ Were$you$encouraged$to$question$what$you$had$ learned?$ $ Was$your$own$opinion$and$ views$appreciated$in$class?$ $ Was$the$authority$of$the$ teacher$clear?$ $ Did$you$feel$that$there$was$ mutual$respect$between$ teacher$and$student?$ Attitudes$towards$ gender$and$other$ ethnicities$within$ the$classroom$ Do$you$believe$that$women’s$ education$is$as$important$as$ men’s?$ $ Was$boys’$education$ encouraged$more$than$girls’$ education?$ $ Were$boy’s$opinions$valued$ more$than$girls?$ $ Do$you$feel$that$your$education$ fairly$included$your$ethnicities$ culture$and$history?$ $ Did$you$feel$that$there$was$an$ emphasis$on$a$particular$ ethnicity’s$culture$and$history$ in$your$education?$ $ Do$you$think$that$there$is$a$ particular$ethnicity$that$does$ better$in$school$than$others?$ $ Do$you$think$that$there$is$a$ particular$ethnicity$that$ struggles$in$school$more$than$
! $ $ others?$ Discussion$of$ gender$and$ ethnicity$ Was$gender$discrimination$ever$ discussed$in$class?$ $ Did$adults$punish$gender$ discrimination?$ $ How$would$a$teacher$respond$if$ a$student$discussed$gender$ issues?$ $ Was$ethnic$discrimination$ever$ discussed$in$class?$ $ Did$adults$punish$ethnic$ discrimination?$ $ How$would$a$teacher$respond$if$ a$student$discussed$ethnic$ issues?$ Discussion$in$the$ classroom$ Discussion$of$
topics$ Were$current$events$or$politics$ever$discussed$in$class?$ $ How$would$a$teacher$respond$if$ a$student$discussed$current$ events$or$politics?$ Culture$of$ silence$ Student@teacher$
dynamics$ Hierarchy$within$the$school$ Were$there$any$decisions$within$the$classroom$that$the$ students$could$make,$or$at$least$ be$consulted?$ $ Were$there$any$positions$ available$for$students?$ $ What$did$these$positions$ entail?$
$ $ Treatment$of$ students$ How$strict$were$the$teachers?$$ Were$students$afraid$of$the$ teachers?$ $ Did$the$teachers$use$fear$as$a$ method?$ $ Did$the$teachers$treat$students$ with$respect?$ (
3.4.(Unit(of(Analysis(
As$I$am$looking$into$the$link$between$people’s$perceptions$on$gender$and$ethnicity$ and$education,$my$unit$of$analysis$is$people’s$perceptions,$and$their$memories$of$ formal$Burmese$education.$I$gathered$a$collection$of$different$people’s$perceptions$ and$memories$of$education,$by$using$methods$interviews$and$focus$groups.$((
3.5.(Methods(
! 3.5.1.(Interviews( To$collect$information$to$help$construct$a$detailed$description$of$people’s$ perceptions$of$gender$and$ethnicity,$as$well$as$a$description$of$their$reflections$on$ formal$education,$I$conducted$in@depth$one@on@one$semi@structured$interviews$with$ Burmese$migrants$and$refugees$living$in$Mae$Sot$and$the$surrounding$area.$I$aimed$ to$interview$a$roughly$equally$number$of$men$and$women$to$try$and$give$me$a$ balance$of$men$and$women’s$views.$I$aimed$to$interview$a$mix$of$people$from$both$ Burman$and$Karen$ethnicities$to$create$a$comprehensive$database$of$the$ perceptions$and$reflections$on$the$experiences$of$both$the$dominant$majority$group$ and$a$minority$group.$ $ Electing$to$use$semi@structured$interviews$meant$that$I$had$an$interview$ guide$that$helped$to$steer$my$interviews$and$make$sure$that$my$participant$focused$ on$the$relevant$topics.$However$at$the$same$time,$with$the$inclusion$of$open@ended$ questions,$it$meant$that$there$was$still$the$opportunity$for$my$interviewees$to$raise$ points$that$I$may$not$have$considered$while$constructing$my$guide.$It$allows$for$! more$open$discussion$between$interviewer$and$interviewee,$instead$of$having$one$ party$just$direct$questions$at$the$other$(Cohen$&$Crabtree$2006).$However$a$ limitation$of$semi@structured$interviews$is$that$it$becomes$harder$to$compare$data$ found$in$different$interviews,$as$they$will$not$follow$the$exact$same$line$of$ questioning,$due$to$the$relaxed$nature$of$the$semi@structured$interview$guide$ (Horton,$Macve$&$Struyven$2004).$ $ I$aimed$to$conduct$interviews$that$would$last$around$forty@five$minutes$to$an$ hour.$In$reality$they$ranged$from$thirty$minutes$to$an$hour$and$a$half.$Each$interview$ was$conducted$at$a$place$agreed$upon$and$chosen$by$the$interviewee,$so$to$make$ sure$that$it$would$be$in$a$familiar$location$that$they$felt$comfortable$in.$My$aim$was$ to$try$and$conduct$around$twenty$interviews,$with$an$even$mix$between$Karen$and$ Burman$participants,$and$male$and$female$participants.$All$of$my$interviews$were$ audio$recorded$with$the$oral$permission$of$the$interviewee,$all$of$whom$concurred.$I$ transcribed$my$interviews$and$focus$group$both$in$the$field,$and$when$I$returned$to$ Amsterdam$where$I$transcribed$the$majority$of$them.$$ $ My$research$focused$on$Burmese$migrants$and$refugees$living$in$the$border$ town$of$Mae$Sot$and$the$surrounding$area.$As$I$am$looking$into$people’s$reflections$ of$their$experiences$of$education$in$Burma,$my$sampling$only$targeted$those$who$ met$the$following$criteria.$They$must$have$grown$up$in$Burma$long$enough$for$them$ to$have$been$educated$there.$Second@generation$migrants,$or$those$who$left$Burma$ too$young$will$not$be$able$to$provide$me$with$the$relevant$information.$As$I$based$ my$research$on$people’s$personal$reflections,$there$were$limitations$regarding$their$ ability$to$recollect$their$memories$and$experiences.$Therefore$I$avoided$targeting$ people$who$had$been$out$of$education$for$a$considerable$period$of$time,$as$their$ memories$of$their$education$will$not$be$as$fresh$as$others$who$are$younger$than$ them,$so$I$focused$my$research$on$those$under$the$age$of$thirty.$$ ( 3.5.2.(Focus(Groups( Like$with$interviews,$I$used$focus$groups$to$elicit$descriptions$of$people’s$ perceptions$and$their$experiences$of$formal$education$in$Burma.$I$aimed$to$conduct$ two$focus$groups,$each$one$specific$to$an$ethnic$group$native$to$Burma.$The$ethnic$
groups$I$studied$are$the$two$largest$ones$in$Burma:$Burman$and$Karen.2$These$ groups$have$also$all$been$involved$in$the$conflict$in$Burma.$These$focus$groups$will$ consist$of$groups$of$four$to$five$participants,$who$will$discuss$their$experiences$of$ Burmese$education$with$each$other,$allowing$me$to$analyse$any$differences$or$ similarities$between$their$experiences.$$ $ It$will$also$give$me$the$chance$to$observe$group$dynamics$between$the$ participants.$I$will$especially$be$looking$out$for$gender$dynamics,$to$see$how$men$ and$women$interact$with$each$other$in$a$focus$group$situation.$I$will$compare$these$ observations$between$the$different$ethnic$groups,$to$see$what$comparisons$I$can$ make.$Interviews$can$create$a$power$relationship$between$researcher$and$ participant,$which$can$affect$the$research$(Bryman$2012).$A$focus$group$reduces$the$ risk$of$such$a$relationship$from$being$formed,$as$participants$can$take$over$more$of$ the$direction$of$the$session$(Bryman$2012).$Another$bonus$is$that$some$participants$ might$feel$uncomfortable$or$reluctant$in$a$one@on@one$interview$due$to$the$formality$ or$the$isolation$of$it.$A$focus$group$can$help$to$remove$these$factors$and$encourage$ participation$from$participants$who$may$have$felt$intimidated$by$these$factors$ (Kitzinger$1995).$$ $ However$focus$groups$can$be$even$more$open@ended$than$semi@structured$ interviews.$While$this$does$produce$a$variety$of$data,$that$a$more$structured$method$ might$not$be$able$to,$it$does$mean$that$the$moderator$has$less$control$over$what$ data$is$produced$(Gibbs$1997).$Another$limitation$is$the$practical$organisation$of$a$ focus$group,$as$it$can$be$tricky$to$gather$participants$at$a$venue$all$at$the$same$time,$ something$which$I$unfortunately$encountered$in$my$research$(Gibbs$1997).$$ $ My$focus$groups$were$intended$to$last$as$long$as$my$interviews,$one$hour.$I$ originally$intended$to$conduct$four$focus$groups,$however$due$to$complications$in$ the$field$I$was$unable$to$find$enough$suitable$participants$who$could$be$in$the$same$ place$at$the$same$time$for$me$to$conduct$my$focus$groups,$so$I$was$only$able$to$ conduct$one.$My$focus$group$was$audio$recorded$with$the$oral$permission$of$all$ those$involved.$I$used$the$same$sampling$strategy$that$I$used$for$my$interviews.$$ ( !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 2$https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the@world@factbook/geos/bm.html$
!
3.6.(Limitations(
There$are$some$limitations$to$the$research$I$conducted$which$must$be$reflected$ upon.$A$large$part$of$my$research$is$looking$into$people’s$reflections$of$their$ experiences$from$when$they$lived$in$another$country.$This$means$I$asked$people$a$ lot$of$questions$about$their$experiences$from$years$ago.$Obviously$people’s$ memories$fade$over$time,$which$could$hinder$the$amount$of$data$and$the$accuracy$ of$said$data,$that$I$am$able$to$collect$from$my$target$population.$Another$issue$is$the$ language$barrier.$A$variety$of$languages$are$spoken$in$Burma,$with$many$ethnic$ groups$having$their$own$specific$language.$This$means$that$translation$could$be$ tricky.$While$a$translator$who$is$proficient$in$Burmese$should$be$sufficient$in$most$ cases,$there$is$always$a$possibility$that$some$people$that$I$am$focusing$my$research$ upon,$especially$those$from$minority$groups$may$speak$their$own$language,$ requiring$a$translator$with$knowledge$of$the$specific$language.$Another$issue$with$ using$a$translator$during$interviews$is$that$there$is$a$possibility$that$certain$subtle$ key$words$or$phrases$could$be$lost$in$translation,$which$could$mean$that$a$specific$ point$or$emphasis$that$I$or$the$interviewee$is$trying$to$make$could$be$lost.$$ $ I$am$looking$into$the$topic$of$gender,$and$I$therefore$interviewed$both$male$ and$female$participants.$When$it$comes$to$interviewing$female$participants$about$ this$topic,$it$is$important$that$I$used$a$female$translator.$Two$men$interviewing$a$ woman$could$be$intimidating,$and$will$result$in$altering$the$data$that$I$collect.$It$ would$have$been$more$beneficial$for$me$to$use$a$female$translator$when$ interviewing$female$participants.$Fortunately$many$of$the$refugees$and$migrants$on$ the$border$have$learnt$English,$as$they$have$had$access$to$migrant$schools$run$by$ western$NGOs,$meaning$that$during$my$research$the$language$barrier$did$not$prove$ to$be$an$issue.$ $ Another$limitation$is$some$of$the$other$concepts$I$am$studying.$I$am$looking$ into$people’s$perceptions$of$gender$and$ethnicity,$which$can$be$quite$sensitive$ topics.$There$is$a$chance$that$some$people$did$not$wish$to$fully$divulge$their$own$ perceptions$of$people$from$a$different$ethnicity$or$gender,$as$they$may$not$have$ wanted$to$come$across$as$offensive.$Obtaining$people’s$perceptions$may$require$a$ certain$degree$of$tact$and$indirect$questions$to$create$a$picture$of$their$true$ perceptions.$$ I$did$come$across$a$major$limitation$when$it$came$to$my$focus$groups.$ Unfortunately$I$could$not$find$enough$willing$participants$to$be$in$the$same$place$at$ the$same$time,$so$organising$these$focus$groups$proved$difficult.$While$I$managed$to$ have$a$focus$group$of$Karen$participants,$I$could$not$find$enough$Burman$ participants$who$were$available$all$at$the$same$time,$and$in$the$same$location,$so$I$ was$unsuccessful$in$organising$this.$$ $
3.7.(Ethical(considerations(
Informed$consent$was$always$sought$orally$from$participants$before$every$interview.$ This$included$seeking$the$interviewee’s$permission$to$have$the$audio$of$the$ interview$recorded$for$future$reference.$Not$only$did$I$ask$for$consent$before$each$ interview,$I$also$always$assured$the$interviewee$they$would$remain$anonymous$ before$the$interview$begins.$This$way$their$name$was$not$recorded,$or$any$other$ details$that$they$would$rather$be$omitted$from$my$final$paper.$As$I$researched$some$ sensitive$topics,$such$as$gender$and$ethnicity,$this$was$be$important$as$if$a$ participant$made$a$remark$that$could$be$perceived$as$offensive$by$someone$from$ another$ethnicity$or$gender,$than$they$may$want$to$keep$their$identity$a$secret.$$ $ $3.8.(Research(Location(
I$conducted$my$research$in$Northwest$Thailand,$near$the$border$with$Burma.$The$ conflict$in$Burma$has$become$infamous$for$the$widespread$occurrences$of$GBSV,$ especially$by$the$use$of$it$by$the$Burmese$military$as$military$tactic$against$ communities$linked$to$rebel$groups$from$ethnic$minorities.$As$access$to$Burma$is$ difficult,$I$conducted$my$research$in$Thailand$instead.$There$is$a$very$large$number$ of$refugees$from$the$Burmese$conflict$who$have$fled$to$Thailand$seeking$refuge$from$ the$conflict.$The$town$of$Mae$Sot$on$the$border$of$Burma$has$a$very$high$refugee$ population$and$is$close$to$the$Mae$La$refugee$camp.$Researching$there$was$useful$as$ There$was$a$large$population$of$refugees$and$migrants$giving$me$wide$selection$for$ my$sample$who$could$give$me$an$understanding$from$the$refugees$of$what$ education$was$like$in$Burma,$and$to$see$if$any$of$the$theories$that$I$want$to$use$are$ relevant.$$! $ Burma$has$been$troubled$by$internal$conflict$since$it$gained$independence$ from$the$United$Kingdom$in$1948$(Winn$2012).$The$conflict$has$been$fought$by$ various$belligerents$from$the$many$different$ethnic$groups$in$the$country.$The$ Burmese$military$has$been$almost$constantly$trying$to$put$down$insurgencies$from$ anti@government$factions$who$represent$the$country’s$ethnic$minorities.$The$ government$has$often$been$accused$of$favouring$the$rights$of$the$Burmese$majority$ over$those$of$minority$groups,$and$has$faced$heavy$criticism$for$its$poor$human$ rights$record$from$both$internal$sources$and$abroad$(FIDH$2009).$In$2009$the$UN$ General$Assembly$adopted$a$resolution$“strongly$condemning$the$ongoing$ systematic$violations$of$human$rights”$and$calling$for$the$government$“to$take$ urgent$measures$to$put$an$end$to$violations$of$international$human$rights”(FIDH$ 2009).$The$government$has$even$been$accused$of$attempting$to$remove$certain$ minority$groups$through$extermination$or$‘Burmisation’$(Guardia$2005).$ $ One$of$the$most$sinister$accusations$the$Burmese$government$has$faced$is$ that$the$Burmese$military$has$used$systematised$sexual$violence$against$separatist$ groups$and$civilians$in$its$campaign$against$various$insurgencies$from$groups$who$ claim$to$represent$certain$ethnic$minorities.$In$June$2012$fighting$broke$out$between$ the$Burmese$army$and$the$Kachin$Independence$Army$(KIA)$after$an$eighteen@year$ ceasefire.$Local$women’s$rights$groups$reported$high$levels$of$sexual$violence,$with$ over$35$women$raped$in$first$two$months$of$fighting$(Human$Rights$Watch$2012).$ The$government’s$military$campaigns$have$spread$fear$throughout$much$of$the$ population,$leading$to$large$amounts$of$people$fleeing$their$homes$and$becoming$ refugees.$About$500,000$people$are$internally$displaced$while$another$140,000$ refugees$have$fled$to$neighbouring$Thailand.$$ $ The$repressive$nature$of$the$Burmese$government$has$meant$that$many$ human$rights$organisations$have$had$to$leave$the$country,$as$they$are$far$too$ restricted$in$Burma.$The$government$has$made$talking$about$human$rights$abuses$ unwise$and$difficult,$meaning$that$conducting$the$research$to$answer$my$research$ question$would$not$be$feasible.$Instead$I$conducted$my$research$in$Northwest$ Thailand,$near$the$Thai@Burma$border.$As$I$mentioned$earlier,$thousands$of$refugees$ have$fled$Burma$to$Thailand$to$escape$the$conflict,$including$many$people$from$ ethnic$minorities.$$
$ The$town$of$Mae$Sot$is$very$close$to$the$border$with$Burma,$and$thus$has$a$ sizeable$population$of$Burmese$refugees,$migrant$workers$and$asylum$seekers.$It$has$ a$population$of$120,000$with$60@70%$of$the$population$coming$from$Burma.3$It$is$ also$within$an$hour’s$drive$of$the$Mae$La$refugee$camp.$Unfortunately$access$to$the$ camp$was$almost$impossible$to$get,$so$I$was$unable$to$go$there.$One$complication$ with$this$location$however,$is$that$I$was$not$able$to$observe$lessons$within$the$ Burmese$education$system,$as$I$was$not$in$Burma.$Instead$I$interviewed$people$from$ Burma$living$in$the$area,$about$their$experiences$in$the$Burmese$school$system,$to$ help$me$get$a$good$picture$of$how$education$is$carried$out$in$Burma,$and$see$if$it$ correlates$with$any$of$the$education$theories$I$am$using$to$explain$the$context$of$ ethnic$and$gender$based$violence$in$the$country.$$ !
