University of Groningen
Environmental values and identities at the personal and group level
Bouman, Thijs; van der Werff, Ellen; Perlaviciute, Goda; Steg, Linda
Published in:Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences DOI:
10.1016/j.cobeha.2021.02.022
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Bouman, T., van der Werff, E., Perlaviciute, G., & Steg, L. (2021). Environmental values and identities at the personal and group level. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 42, 47-53.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2021.02.022
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Environmental
values
and
identities
at
the
personal
and
group
level
Thijs
Bouman,
Ellen
van
der
Werff,
Goda
Perlaviciute
and
Linda
Steg
Environmentalvaluesandidentities,atthepersonalandgroup
level,motivateindividuals’climateactions.Manyindividuals
reporthavingstrongenvironmentalvaluesandself-identities,
andthusappearpersonallymotivatedtosupportandtake
climateaction.Toachievesociety-wideclimateaction,we
arguethatitiscriticaltofullyusethispersonalmotivational
baseforclimateactionby,forinstance,emphasizingthe
environmentalbenefitsofclimateactionsandremindingpeople
oftheirpastpro-environmentalactions.Individuals’
perceptionsofothers’endorsementofenvironmentalvalues
are,however,morenegative,whichmayinhibitconsistent
climateaction.Makingpeopleawarethatothersalsostrongly
valuetheenvironmentcouldbeacriticalstrategytomotivate
climateaction,particularlyforindividualsthatarenotstrongly
personallymotivated.
Address
UniversityofGroningen,FacultyofBehaviouralandSocialSciences, DepartmentofPsychology,GroteKruisstraat2/1,9712TSGroningen, TheNetherlands
Correspondingauthor:Bouman,Thijs(t.bouman@rug.nl)
CurrentOpinioninBehavioralSciences2021,42:47–53 ThisreviewcomesfromathemedissueonHumanresponseto climatechange
EditedbySandervan-der-LindenandElkeWeber
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2021.02.022
2352-1546/ã2021TheAuthor(s).PublishedbyElsevierLtd.Thisisan openaccessarticleundertheCCBYlicense(http://creativecommons. org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Thereisastrongscientificconsensusthatanthropogenic climate changeis having severenegative consequences for ecosystems and societies worldwide [1]. Although mostpeopleacknowledgeanthropogenicclimatechange ishappening[2,3]andworryaboutit[4,5],climateactions are still insufficient to reach theset climate targets [1]. Accordingly,moreclimateactionisurgentlyneededatall levels of society. To achieve this, it is important to understand whatgeneralfactorsmotivateindividualsto take andsupportawiderangeof climateactions. Research indicates that values and identities are key motivational factors that underlie individuals’ climate
actions [5–8]. The influence of values and identities is typically studied at the personal level. Personal values reflect an individual’s general lifegoals [9,10] and self-identities reflect how individuals describe themselves [11,12].More recently, research started to examine the influence of group values and identities. Group values reflect general and desirable lifegoals that individuals perceive their groups to endorse [13,14,15,16] and group identities reflect how individuals describe their groups [17,18,19].
Inthispaper,wediscussrecentresearchonwhichvalues andidentitiesdriveindividuals’climateactionsandhow. Inaddition,wepresentnewtheorizingonhowthevalues and identities of individuals and groups may work together.More specifically,we discusshow individuals’ perceptions of their own and others’ values differ,how this may influence self identities and group identities, and—inturn—individuals’climateactions.Thereby,we extend thecurrentunderstandingonvalues and identi-ties,whichtypicallyfocusesonthemotivationalinfluence of either personalor—sincerecently—groupvaluesand identities.Onthebasisofthis,weproposestrategiesto promoteclimateactionandhighlightdirectionsforfuture research.
Personal
values
and
identities
Personal values represent universal desirable life goals whichtranscend situationsandarerelativelystableover time. Allindividuals endorsethesame basicvaluesbut differ in how strongly they endorse and prioritizeeach value.Individualspositivelyevaluateobjectsandactions that they think support their strongly endorsed values, while theynegativelyevaluate objectsand actionsthey thinkthreatentheirstronglyendorsedvalues[6,9].
Fourtypesof valuesaremostrelevanttounderstanding individuals’climateactions:biospheric(caringaboutthe environment), altruistic (caring about others), egoistic (caring about personal resources) and hedonic (caring aboutpleasureandcomfort)[6,20].Sinceclimateactions aim to mitigate environmental and societal problems, these actions inherently support biospheric values and oftensupportaltruisticvalues.Hence,stronger altruistic and particularly biospheric values encourage climate action [20,21,22].Stronger egoistic and hedonic values often inhibit climateaction, as such actions tend to be associatedwithegoisticandhedoniccosts(e.g.financially
costly, bothersome) [23,24]. Yet, some climate actions (e.g. house insulation) also have egoistic or hedonic benefits(e.g.savingsonenergybills,increaseincomfort). In suchcases, stronger hedonic and egoistic valuescan promote individuals’ engagement in this action [23,25,26].Sincebiosphericvaluesformthemostrobust and stable motivational basis for climate action, the currentpaperfocuses onbiosphericvalues.
Valuesaregeneralandabstractinnaturesotheytypically guideclimateactionthroughothervariables[27,28].One suchvariableisself-identity,whichisthelabel individu-als use to describe themselves [11,12]. Individuals act upontheirself-identitybecausetheyaremotivatedtobe consistentand actinlinewithhowtheyseethemselves [24,29], and because doing so feels meaningful and significant[30].People whostronglyendorsebiospheric valuestypicallyhaveastrongerenvironmental self-iden-tity, which motivatesthem to consistently support and takeclimateaction[24,29,31].Whilstbiosphericvalues formthestable corefor individuals’environmental self-identity,environmental self-identity may also be influ-enced by individuals’ past actions [24]. Accordingly, pointing people to their pastpro-environmental behav-iourmaybeaneffectivewaytostrengthenenvironmental self-identityandtopromoteclimateaction,whilemaking peoplerealisetheyactedenvironmentallyunfriendlymay weaken environmental self-identity and inhibit climate action[11,24].
Group
values
and
identities
Nexttopersonalvaluesandself-identity,initialresearch suggeststhat individuals’ climateactions are motivated bythevaluesandidentitiesofthegroupstheybelongto. Such group memberships form an integral part of individuals’ self-concept: their social identity, which reflectsthedefinitionoftheselfintermsofsocialgroup memberships[32].When asocialidentityissalientand activated, for instance when a group membership is relevantinagivencontextanddiagnosticfortheactions to take, individuals’ attitudes, beliefs and actions align with the content of this social identity [33,34]. This contentislikelyreflectedinthegeneralgoalsindividuals thinkthisgroup strivesfor (i.e.perceived groupvalues) andthelabelthey useto describe thegroup(i.e. group identity)[35].Accordingly, insituationswhereacertain group membership is activated, individuals are likely influenced bythe perceived valuesand identity of this group.
Indeed, the more individuals perceive their group to endorsebiosphericvalues[35,36]andtohavean envi-ronmental identity [17,18,19,36], the more likely theyare to supportand take climateaction. This influ-ence is more likely to occur when individuals more stronglyidentify with a group [35]. Moreover, environ-mental group valuesand identities seemto particularly
motivateindividualswhodonotalreadystronglyendorse biosphericvaluesthemselves[35,37].Thissuggeststhat strengtheningperceptionsofbiosphericgroupvaluesand identities may provide a compelling way to promote climateactions among those individuals personally less motivated.
Importantly,perceivedgroupvaluesandidentitiesdiffer from the more frequently studied group norms. Group norms indicate what others are perceived to do (i.e. descriptivenorms)or(dis)approve(i.e.injunctivenorm) inagivensituation,providingguidelinesonwhichactions areeffectiveandhowindividualsareoughttofeel,think oract,respectively[38].Groupnormshavetypicallybeen conceptualised as more situation specific than group valuesandidentities,andfocus,for instance,onspecific actions such as household energy use [39] or recycling [40].Althoughspecificnormsmayhaveastronger influ-ence on specific actions, the more general values and identitiesmayinfluencealargerrangeofactions,whichis critically needed to combat climate change [13,35]. Further,group valuesand identitiesappear toinfluence individuals’actionsbecauseindividualsfinditpersonally importanttoact,whereasgroupnormstypicallyinfluence actions because others expect or do so, and thus for extrinsic reasons [41]. This implies that group values and identities intrinsically motivate behaviour and are thereforelessdependentonthepresenceandevaluations ofothers[13,35].
The
values
and
identities
people
report
Self-reportssuggestthatthereisastrongpersonal moti-vationalbasisforclimateaction.Manyindividualsacross the world report to strongly endorsing biospheric and altruistic values [13,42] and having a strong environ-mentalself-identity[11,43].Forexample,datafromthe EuropeanSocialSurveyshowsthatbiosphericand altru-isticvaluesareamongthemoststronglyendorsedvalues across 28 European countries (see Figure 1) and this prioritizationappears consistent across countries world-wide [35,44]. Similarly, interventions that target individuals’ biospheric values and environmental self-identities(e.g.byreferringtosuchvaluesandidentities onproductlabelsandinadvertisements)appeareffective in promotingclimateaction, and canbemore effective than interventionstargeting egoistic values[45,46–48]. Hence, many people appear intrinsically motivated to supportandtakeclimateaction[13,42],andaddressing individuals’ biospheric values and environmental self-identities may effectively promote climate action [24,45].
Manyindividuals,however,believethatmostotherscare considerably less about the environment than they do themselves.Specifically,individualsreportthatothers,in general, endorse biospheric and altruistic values less strongly [35,49,50] and are less pro-environmental 48 Humanresponsetoclimatechange
Figure1
Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences
ValueendorsementacrossEurope.
Self-reportedendorsementofthefourvaluesthattypicallyrelatetoclimateaction:biosphericvalues(greensquares),altruisticvalues(blue diamonds),hedonicvalues(yellowcircles)andegoisticvalues(orangetriangles).Presentedstatisticsarebasedonunweighteddatafromthe EuropeanSocialSurveyRound9(https://www.europeansocialsurvey.org/),withlistwisedeletionofmissingdata,resultinginasampleofn =45342.Scoreswerereversecodedsothathigherratingsreflectstrongerendorsementofavalue.Ofthetotalnumberof21gender-matched valueitems,thefollowingitemswereusedforbiosphericvalues‘She/hestronglybelievesthatpeopleshouldcarefornature.Lookingafterthe environmentisimportanttoher/him’;altruisticvalues‘She/hethinksitisimportantthateverypersonintheworldshouldbetreatedequally;She/ hebelieveseveryoneshouldhaveequalopportunitiesinlife’;‘It’sveryimportanttoher/himtohelpthepeoplearoundher/him;She/hewantsto carefortheirwell-being’;hedonicvalues‘Havingagoodtimeisimportanttoher/him;She/helikesto‘spoil’herself’;andegoisticvalues‘Itis importanttohertoberich.Shewantstohavealotofmoneyandexpensivethings.’.Theblackstarsindicatethemeanofall21valueitems.
[14,51,52]thanthemselves.1Hence,thereseemstobea mismatchbetweenhowindividualsperceivethemselves and how they perceive—and are thus perceived by— others.Thissuggeststhateitherindividuals’perceptions aboutthemselvesorothersare biased(or both).
One explanation for this biascould bethe better-than-average-effect,which statesthat people generally over-state how strongly they possess desirable attributes in ordertomaintainapositiveself-image[49,53].Indeed,it hasbeenarguedthatpeopleseethemselvesasoverly pro-environmentalandaltruisticbecausetheyseethese attri-butesasdesirableandpositive[51,52].Thissuggeststhat personalbiosphericvaluesandenvironmental self-iden-tities are generally weaker than self-reports suggest, implyingaweakermotivationalbase for climateaction. Atthe same time, it suggeststhat many individualsdo like to see themselves as pro-environmental and as stronglyendorsing biosphericvalues.
Alternatively,thebiascanbeexplainedby underestima-tions of others’ endorsement of biospheric values and environmental identities [13,14,54]. Such underesti-mations maybe due to two reasons. First, people may underestimate groups’ biospheric values and environ-mental identities because these are often not publicly shared,norvisible.Peoplemayincorrectlyconcludefrom this that the environment is not important to others, assuming others would otherwise have shown these valuesandidentitiesmoreclearly[13,14,54].Second, public and political discourse often discuss people as relatively egocentric and highlights that people do not carethatmuchabouttheenvironment.Thus,peoplemay inferthatmostothershaveweakerbiosphericand altru-istic,andstrongeregoistic,valuesthanisactuallythecase [13,14,35].
How
perceived
group
values
and
identities
influence
climate
action
Ifpeople(mistakenly)perceivethattheycaremoreabout theenvironment thanothers,this mayaffecthowmuch theysupportandtake climateaction.Ontheonehand, thisbiasmaypromoteclimateactionthroughenhancing individuals’ environmental self-identity. Specifically, it maygivepeopletheimpressionthattheircaringforthe environment differentiates them from others and char-acterizes them personally, making them likely to label themselves asthe typeof person who acts pro-environ-mentally.Thisstrengthenedenvironmentalself-identity may, in turn, motivate climate action [11,29,55] and, thereby,potentially furtherstrengthenitself. Perceiving oneself as having stronger environmental values and
identities than others may particularly have positive effectsonclimateactionwhenanindividual’s ‘personal identity’ is activated; that is, when individuals define themselves by differentiating themselves from other persons[56].
Ontheotherhand,thebiasthatonecaresmoreaboutthe environment than others may inhibit climate action, particularlywhen individuals act upon a social identity [56].Insuchoccasions,peoplearelikelymotivatedbythe perceivedvaluesandidentityofanactivatedgroup.Since individuals generally believe that groups have weaker environmentalvaluesandidentitiesthanthemselves,the activationofasocialidentitywilloftenmakeindividuals lesslikelytosupportandtakeclimateactionthanwhen theirpersonalidentityisactivated.Importantly,by reduc-ingindividuals’ climate actions,this bias mayreinforce the general perception that environmental values and identitiesare notstronglyendorsed withina group and thusstrengthenitself[13,54].
Lastly, underestimating others’ biospheric values and environmentalidentitiesmaydemotivateclimateaction through reducing feelings of outcome efficacy and responsibility.Sinceclimatechangewillnotbemitigated ifothersdonotact,individualsbelievingthatothersare notstronglymotivatedtotakeclimateactionmayregard theirindividual actions inefficacious,which may demo-tivatethemtotakeclimateaction[13,51].Moreover,the biasmaygivepeopletheimpressionthattheyarealready taking more climate action than others, and that first othersshouldactbeforetheythemselvesintensifytheir effortsto reduceclimatechange[51].
Using
values
and
identities
to
move
climate
action
forward
Whenpromotingclimateaction,itseemscriticalto opti-mally use the personal motivational basis for climate action, as reflected in the relatively strongly endorsed biosphericvalues andenvironmentalself-identities. For example,one couldfocus onemphasizing the environ-mental benefits of climate action [57]. Furthermore, highlighting individuals’ biospheric values and actions may(further) strengthen theirenvironmental self-iden-tity,whichlikelyincreasestheirclimateactions[24].
Whenpeopleactupontheirsocialidentities,the percep-tionindividualshaveofothers’valuesandidentitiesmay beproblematic.Topromoteclimateactioninsuch situa-tions,itseemscriticaltoclearlycommunicatethatothers stronglyvaluetheenvironment andto strengthen envi-ronmental group identities. Strategies could include encouraging groups and group members (e.g. leaders) toopenlyexpresstheirenvironmentalvaluesandidentity [13,58].Toachievethis,itisimportantthatsupportive group norms and policies are in place [59], and that environmental actionsare also takenat thegroup level 50 Humanresponsetoclimatechange
1Onlywhenagroupisperceivedasstereotypicallyvery
pro-environ-mental(e.g.climateactivists,liberals),individualsseemlikelyto per-ceivethegroupasvaluingtheenvironmentmorestronglythan them-selves,inwhichcasethebiasmaythusreverse[35].
[13,37].Alternatively,onecouldinformgroupmembers that their group is more pro-environmental than other groups,likelyenhancinganenvironmentalgroupidentity [60,61]. Highlightingpositive pro-environmental exam-ples in public and political discourse, instead of bad examples,couldalsostrengthenperceivedenvironmental group valuesandidentities.
Interventionsthatemphasizeenvironmentalgroupvalues andidentitiesmaybeparticularlypowerfulinpromoting climate action when focusing on groups with whom individuals generally strongly identify,and which have members with weaker biospheric values. Previous research indicated that the influence of group values and identities may grow larger the more individuals identify with a group [35], and the weaker individuals endorse biospheric values themselves [35,37]. Accord-ingly, interventions thatstrengthenthe perceived envi-ronmentalvaluesandidentitiesofsuchgroupsmayhavea relatively large impact on climate action. In addition, interventionsmaybeparticularlyeffectivewhenfocusing on social identitiesthat are often salient and activated, suchasschoolclassesforchildrenorwork-relatedgroups for employees,in whichindividualsspendalotoftime. Because suchsocialidentitiesareoften salientand acti-vated,andarelikelyimportanttoindividualsforalonger period of time, they may have a relative frequent and continuous influence on individuals’ climate actions. Moreover, environmental values and identities of such groups may, over time, internalize into an individuals’ personalidentity,therebystrengtheningindividuals’ per-sonal biosphericvalues and environmental self-identity [60,62–66].
Conclusion
In order to better understand and promote climate action, it is important to consider motivational factors atboththeindividuallevel,suchaspersonalvaluesand self-identity, and the group level, such as perceived group values and identities. Our paper highlights that climate actions could be promoted by harnessing individuals’personalbiosphericvaluesand environmen-tal self-identity, aswell as by strengthening perceived environmentalgroupvaluesandidentities.Researchon themotivationalinfluenceofpersonalandgroupfactors is rather separated, and research on the influence of group values and identities on climate action is still new. Itseems therefore important toinvestigate when and how personal values and self-identities, and per-ceivedgroupvaluesandidentities,interacttoinfluence climate action. Moreover, it seems critical to better understand why people generally believe they have strongerenvironmentalvaluesandidentitiesthanothers, and how such perceptions could be changed. Such understanding may critically advance thepromotion of asociety-wide responseto climate change.
Funding
ThisworkwassupportedbytheNederlandseOrganisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek [Dutch Research Council] [grant numbers 467.14.037, 651.001.011, 651.001.022].
Conflict
of
interest
statement
Nothingdeclared.CRediT
authorship
contribution
statement
Thijs Bouman: Conceptualization, Writing - original draft, Writing -review & editing. Ellen van der Werff: Writing-review&editing.GodaPerlaviciute:Writing -review&editing.LindaSteg:Writing-review&editing.Acknowledgements
WethankElliotSharpeforproofreadingthemanuscriptandproviding valuablefeedback.
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