Assessment of Hazard Analysis and Critical Control
Points Principles in Primary School Feeding Schemes in
the Western Region of Gauteng
Carina Muller
10085351
Mini-dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the
degree^Master of Sxienee (Dietetics) at the Potchefstroom campliflQf^the
North-- ~*** *• North--*North-- ^ e s t University
s u p e r v i s o r : i»r. oivi
ja.aneK.om
Co-Supervisor: Prof W Oldewage - T h e r o n
January 2009
Ps 16:8
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Doctor S M Hanekom and Professor W Oldewage —
Theron for their guidance.
To all my friends who encouraged me, I thank you from the bottom of my
heart - Elmarie, Chan, Maikeline, Sienie, Ronel, Lorinda, Hanlie, Heleen,
Petru, Marthie and Annette.
TABLE OF CONTENT
Title page 1
Acknowledgements 3
List of tables 7
List of Figures 8
Abbreviations 9
Addenda .. ...10
Abstract 11
Opsomming, , 12
CHAPTER 1 PREFACE ,.... 13
1.1 Problem. Statement 13
1.2 Aims and Objectives , 13
1.2.1 Primary Obj ectives .13 1.2.2 Secondary Objectives 14
1.3 Structure of the mini-dissertation 14
1.4 Author's contributions , 15
C H A P T E R 2 H A C C P A N D S C H O O L F E E D I N G . . . 1 6
2.1 Introduction 16
2.2 Barriers to optimal nutrition 16
2.2.1 Poverty in South Africa 16
2.2.2 Stunting 17 2.2.3 Deficiencies 17
2.3 The Integrated Nutrition Program and NSNP 17
2.4 Food safety and hygiene programs in the NSNP 19
2.4.1 Food Handlers 19 2.4.2 Duties of employers to ensure safety 19
2.5 Concerns relating to the impact of implementation of school feeding programs
on children's health 20
2.5.1 Pupils targeted by the NSNP 202.5.2 Insufficient menus 20 2.5.3 Insufficient storage 21
2.5.4 Theft 21 2.5.5 Accounting to parents 21
2.5.6 Environmental constraints 21 2.5.7 Problems with volunteers 21
2.6 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) 22
2.6.1 The seven principles of HACCP 22
2.7 Strategies for implementing HACCP in small catering operations 25
2.7.1 Good Manufacturer's Practices (GMPs) 25
2.7.3 Equipment 27 2.7.4 Storage 27 2.7.5 Manufacturers and suppliers 27
2.8 Critical Control Points (CCPs) 29
2.8.1 Temperatures 30 2.8.2 Cleaning materials 31
2.8.3 Training 31
2.9 Standard Operating Procedures 32
2.9.1 Personal hygiene 33 2.9.2 Preparation 33 2.8.3 Record keeping documentation 34
2.10 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points Implementation 34
2.10.1 Stage 1 35 2.10.2 Stage 2 36 2.10.3 Stage 3 37 2.10.4 Stage 4 38
2.11 Conclusion 39
2.12References 40
CHAPTER3 Scientific paper.. ...45
Author Guidelines 45
Assessment of Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points Principles in Primary
School Feeding Schemes in the Western Region of Gauteng 50
Abstract 50
INTRODUCTION .'...51
METHODOLOGY 51
Sample Selection 51 Questionnaire Design , 52 Ethical approval 52 Statistical analysis 53 R E S U L T S 53 Food items 55 Food handlers 56 Deliveries 56 Equipment 57 Hygiene and safety 58D I S C U S S I O N 61 C O N C L U S I O N 64 R E F E R E N C E S 66
CHAPTER4 Summary 68
4.1 Discussion 68
4.2 Conclusion 69
4.3 Recommendations 69
ADDENDA
70
Addendum A: Codex Logic Sequence for HACCP 70
Addendum B: Research request to Department of Education 71
Addendum. C: Approval of research by Gauteng Department of Education 72
Addendum D: Letter of consent from food handlers 73
Addendum E: Approval of research by the Northwest University, 74
Addendum F: List of Schools in the Western Region of Gauteng 75
Addendum G: NSNP Questionnaire 76
Addendum H: Hygiene & safety aspects of the NSNP 82
List of tables
Pa
Table 2.1: Four Stages for the implementation of H A C C P 35
C h a p t e r 3
Table l a : Urban schools a n d school feeding beneficiaries Table l b : Rural schools and school feeding beneficiaries Table l c : D a t a of N S N P schools used in r e s e a r c h study Table 2 : Items served to schoolchildren as p a r t of NSNP Table 3: Storage facilities in schools for NSNP stock Table 4: Standardized Equipment
Table 5: Hygiene and safety Table 6: Habits of Food Handlers
54 54 55 55 57 58 59 61
List of Figures
Page
Chapter 3
Figure 1 What kind of washing basins do you have? 59 Figure 2 Food handlers' indication of their knowledge of when to wash their hands while
Abbreviations
AIDS: Acquired immune deficiency syndrome CCP: Critical control point
CDW: Community development worker CL: Critical limit
DoE: Department of Education
FAO: Food and Agricultural Organisation FH: Food Handler
FSO: Food safety objective
GMP: Good manufacturing practices
HACCP: Hazard analysis of critical control points HIV: Human immunodeficiency virus
INP: Integrated nutrition program
NASA: National aeronautics and space administration NSNP: National school nutrition program
PHC: Primary health care PHF: Potentially hazardous food PRP: Prerequisite program
RDA: Recommended dietary allowance RTE: P.eady to eat
SOP: Standard operating procedure US: United States
Addenda
Addendum A Addendum B Addendum C Addendum D: Addendum E: Addendum F: Addendum G: Addendum H:Codex Alimentarius Commission Diagram 1 Research request to Department of Education Approval of research by Gauteng Department of Education
Letter of consent from food handlers
Approval of research by the North West University, Potchefstroom Campus
List of schools used in research PSNP Questionnaire
PSNP Hygiene and safety aspects
Page 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 82
Abstract
Assessment of Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points Principles in Primary School Feeding Schemes in the Western Region of Gauteng
Objective The objective of this study is to investigate the need for standard hygiene and safety practices for the National School Nutrition Program (NSNP). Food safety procedures and practices can be implemented as part of the Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points (HACCP) program. Background The National School Nutrition Program (NSNP) forms part of the Integrated Nutrition Program (INP) of South Africa and was implemented as a poverty alleviation strategy introduced in 1994 by government as part of the newly founded democratic Republic of South Africa. The NSNP is implemented in primary schools.
Design A questionnaire was designed to investigate, the hygiene and safety practices in primary schools in the Western Region of Gauteng. Both rural and urban schools using the NSNP were targeted.
Research Project The NSNP staff from 26 primary schools completed the research questionnaire focused on hygiene and safety practices.
Results Data collected indicated the need to implement a very basic HACCP program that includes identifying the HACCP team, training for food handlers, standardized equipment and the implementation of hygiene and safety procedures.
Conclusion To implement HACCP in the NSNP, the role players from the managerial structures and food handlers at schools, the training needs of the target group and the equipment needed to comply with HACCP procedures, should to be identified. Documentation must be in place for monitoring, evaluation and verification procedures to implement the HACCP program.
Opsomming
Ontleding van die Gevaar Analise van Kritieke Kontrole Punte (GAKKP) in die Nasionale Skoolvoedingsprogram in die Westelike Streekvan Gauteng
Doel Die doel van die studie is om die standaard van higiene en veiligheidspraktyke in die Nasionale Skoolvoedingsprogram te bepaal. Voedselveiligheidsprosedures en -praktyke kan gei'mplementeer word as deel van die GAKKP-sisteem.
Agtergrond Die Nasionale Skoolvoedingsprogram vorm deel van die Geintergreerde Voedingsprogram van Suid Afrika en is gei'mplementeer as deel van 'n armoede verligtingsprojek in 1994 wat deel vorm van die nuwe demokratiese Republiek van Suid Afrika. Die Nasionale Skoolvoedingsprogram is in primere skole gei'mplimenteer.
Ontwerp 'n Vraelys is ontwerp wat primere skole in die Westelike Streek van Gauteng geteiken het Beide stedelike en landelike skole is ingesluit.
Navorsingsprojek Personeel wat vir die Nasionale Skoolvoedingsprogram werk in 26 laerskole is ge'identifiseer om 'n vraelys in te vul wat op higiene en veiligheidsaspekte gefokus het.
Resultate Die verwerkte data "dui op die behoefte aan die implementering van 'n basiese GAKKP program wat fokus op die identifisering van cn GAKKP span, opleiding vir die voedselhanteerders,
gestandaardiseerde toerusting en die toepassing van standaard veiligheids- en higiene praktyke.
Samevatting Om GAKKP in die Nasionale Skoolvoedingsprogram te implimenteer moet rolspelers van die bestuurstrukture en voedselhanteerders by skole, opleidingsbehoeftes van die teikengroep en gestandaardiseerde toerusting ge'identifiseer word, om by die GAKKP program in te skakel. Relevante dokumentasie oor monitering, evaluasie en verifikasie moet in plek wees om die GAKKP te implementeer.
C H A P T E R 1 P R E F A C E
1.1 Problem Statement
Serving safe food is a critical responsibility for a school foodservice and a key aspect of a healthy school environment. The purpose of a school food safety program is to ensure the serving of safe food to children by controlling hazards that may occur along the flow of food from delivery to serving the food (USDA, 2005:7). Research on household food security has shown that South African children are, in general, prone to several micro nutrient deficiencies against a background of low income, unemployment and poverty. Nutrition education plays an important role in improving food and nutrition security. Sufficient food is needed to address both the quality and quantity of food needed to maintain good health (Maunder & Labadarios, 1999:2). The National School Nutrition Program (NSNP) implemented in South Africa emphasizes the provision of nutritious supplementary meals to learners to alleviate temporary hunger, improvement of learners' active learning capacity and, therefore, increasing school achievement, attendance and punctuality (GDoE, 2003:2).
In a study by Du Toit & Venter (2005:85) in South Africa on preparation of food for female students in hostels, the catering company staff prepared food under supervision and in accordance with food-borne disease prevention guidelines. When the female students prepared food in self-catering residences, only some bacterial food-borne prevention guidelines were followed and personal and general hygiene practices were neglected. Education is needed to prevent food-bome disease to improve standards in all areas of food preparation and service, more so in primary schools. The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) program is a scientific and systematic approach to identify hazards and control measures to ensure the safety of food. HACCP can be applied throughout the chain from primary production to consumption because the program focused on safety and hygiene practices throughout an organisation and not only on end product testing (WHO, 1999:21).
1.2 Aims and Objectives
1.2.1 Primary Objectives:The objective of this study was to analyze the hygiene and safety practices of the NSNP staff as well as assessing the conditions at the premises used for preparation of the food. The following aspects were considered:
• The suitability of facilities used in the process;
• The knowledge of the food handlers in the NSNP at various primary schools in the Western Region of Gauteng in order to identify safety risks; and
• To give guidelines for implementing safety and hygiene practices for the NSNP in the Western Region of Gauteng.
1.2.2 Secondary Objectives:
The research focused on interviews combined with the completion of a questionnaire with the NSNP staff of the various schools. The activities for the research project included the following:
• Develop a questionnaire to collect information on the types of food served; • The suitability of the facilities at the school; and
• To determine the knowledge of the food handlers from the participating primary schools
1.3 Structure of the mini-dissertation
The article format was used for the dissertation and the outline of the text is as follows:
Chapter One will explain the orientation of the study, which includes an introduction, problem
statement, purpose of the study, research objectives, the scope of the study and the research design.
Chapter Two contains a detailed literature review. The literature review will identify the components
of a school feeding scheme as well as the food safety risks and implementation of HACCP.
Chapter Three The mini-dissertation will be done in article format which will include research design
and methodology. It will include the collation and analysis of the results of the research findings and questionnaire. The data collected from the questionnaire will identify the type of food served at the different primary schools, food preparation techniques, facilities and equipment used to prepare food, hygiene practices during food preparation, safety measures for food and equipment during the preparation process and knowledge of staff about safety and hygiene practices to identify training needs of staff. A summary of the research findings and literature review will be included. Recommendations will be made on the research findings and final conclusions will be drawn. The
article will be written according to the specifications of the South African Journal of Clinical Nutrition.
1.4 Author*s contributions
The study reported in the dissertation was planned by a team of researchers. The role of the researchers is given in the table hereunder. Also included in this section is a statement from the co-authors confirming their individual roles in the study and giving their permission that the article may be part of this dissertation.
Name Role in the study
Ms C Mffller (BSc Nutrition) Responsible for literature searches, statistical analysis and writing up of the data. First author of the paper.
Dr SM Hanekom (PhD Nutrition) Supervisor of MSC dissertation. Involved in statistical analysis and writing of paper. Prof W Oldewage-Theron (PhD) Co^supervisor. Critically revised paper.
I declare that I have approved the above mentioned article, mat my role in the study, as indicated above, is reprjesentative of my actual contribution and that I hereby give my consent that it may be published aspartoftheMSc. Dissertation-ofMs. C MfEfler. . . ; ^V;
CHAPTER 2 HACCP AND SCHOOL FEEDING
2.1 Introduction
The Gauteng Provincial Government states that South African children are our country's most precious resource and the foundation of building a caring and prosperous nation (GPG, 2005:1). The Program Bana Pele (Children First) was introduced to focus on children and their basic rights, for example the right to education, recreational facilities, adequate nutrition, proper shelter, peace, good health, the right to protection from poverty, disease, abuse, exploitation, suffering, neglect, violence and hatred (GPG, 2005:1). The NSNP focus on improvement of health through supplementation of diets of learners through meals served in schools (DoH, 1994:4).
In developing countries where the food staples namely maize and groundnuts, can be susceptible to contamination by mycotoxins that can influence morbidity, strict safety control is necessary (UNFAO, 2001:10). Both maize and peanut butter form the basis of the NSNP menu (DoH, 1994:4). A Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) program focuses on safety and hygiene, identifying all significant hazards in raw materials and put control measures in place during production, distribution and preparation (UNFAO, 2001:10). The HACCP program ensures a safe product at the moment of consumption (Van Schothorst, 2005:813).
2.2 Barriers to optimal nutrition
Household food security is defined as access by all households at all times to adequate safe and nutritious food for a healthy life (Bonti-Ankomah, 2001:1). Socio economic conditions play an important role in food security or insecurity. Children in South Africa are faced with challenges of poor nutrition and food insecurity that may influence their physical and cognitive development negatively (Bonti-Ankomah, 2001:2). In the following paragraphs, the barriers will be discussed in more detail.
2.2.1 Poverty in South Africa
According to Labadarios et al. (2001: 70) a large part of South Africa's population still lives under adverse socioeconomic conditions with unemployment and inadequate income being very prevalent. Indications were that only one out of five mothers in a household was a wage earner and more than 50% of mothers were unemployed. According to the Income and Expenditure Survey of South Africa during 1995, 43% of households experienced poverty. High poverty rates were found with decreased income, increased household size, among households headed by females and in households in rural areas (Rose & Charlton, 2001:386).
2.2.2 Stunting
At the national level stunting (short for age) remains by far the most common nutritional disorder affecting nearly one out of five children. The disorder is by far more prevalent in rural areas. One in ten of all children in South Africa aged 1 - 9 years were found to be underweight (Labadarios et al., 2001:70). The integrated nutrition approach of supplementing learners3 diets at school address disease
specific nutrition support, growth monitoring and contributes to household food security (Witten et al., 2002:5).
2.2.3 Deficiencies
Poor nutrition is a major problem in the rural areas of South Africa where large numbers of people are unemployed, the children are malnourished and therefore vulnerable to disease (ANON., 1995:7). Micro nutrient deficiencies in iron, iodine and vitamin A are a public health problem in developing countries worldwide. These deficiencies can have adverse effects on the mental development and learning abilities of school children (Popkin, 1996:11). Lack of vitamin A was reported to impair the immune system, while iodine reduces mental capacity and iron leads to fatigue and dizziness (Labadarios et al, 2001:72; Popkin, 1996:11; Witten et al, 2002:3). Resources like clinics, food delivery, creches, water supply and roads are fundamental in fighting under-nutrition (Fincham & Ross, 1995:5).
2.3 The Integrated Nutrition Program and National School Nutrition
Program
The Integrated Nutrition Program (INP) was formulated to address current nutrition problems in the country. The INP aims at implementing programs that are integrated, sustainable, people and community driven and are targeted at the most vulnerable groups in South Africa (Department of Education, 2004:1). The mission of the INP is to improve the nutritional status of all South Africans through the implementation of integrated nutrition activities. The National School Nutrition Program (NSNP) forms part of the INP of South Africa and was implemented as a poverty alleviation strategy introduced in 1994 by government as part of the Reconstruction and Development Program of the newly founded democratic Republic of South Africa (Hall & Monson, 2006:49). The program targets schools from farm, rural and informal settlement areas where 100% of learners benefit. In urban areas, only 75% of learners were going to benefit (GDoE, 2003:2).
The implementation of the INP needs to be done in a manner to ensure that no risks are taken with possible food poisoning incidences. Special care must be taken, when an operation caters for populations considered at risk, for example - the elderly, infants and children or patients who may be immune system-compromised (Hall & Monson, 2006: 45; Witten et al, 2002:5).
Focus areas of the INP are:
■ Disease specific nutrition support; ■ Growth monitoring and promotion;
■ Nutrition education, promotion and advocacy; ■ Micronutrient malnutrition control;
■ Food service management;
■ Promotion and support of breast feeding; ■ Contribution to household food security; and
■ Children and women vulnerable groups (Witten et al., 2002:5).
The NSNP formally known as the Primary School Feeding Scheme of The Department of Education focused on:
• Provision of nutritious supplementary meals to learners to alleviate temporary hunger;
• Improvement of learners' active learning capacity and, therefore, increasing school achievement, attendance and punctuality (GDoE, 2003:2);
• Enhancing the implementation of school gardens;
• Enhancing programs for orphans and vulnerable children (Department of Education, 2004:4). • Improvement of health through micro-nutrient supplementation; and
• Improvement of health through providing education on health and nutrition (DoH, 1994:4).
In a study at Insingizi Primary School (ANON., 1995:8) in a poverty stricken area of the South Coast in South Africa, results showed that the food provided by NSNP was the only meal that the learners received during the day. Teachers noticed a marked increase in school attendance since the NSNP program began. Learners used to fall asleep in the classroom and could not concentrate in class because they were so hungry. Promoting health care is important in NSNP. A study by Wentzel-Viljoen (2003:351) in the North-West Province showed that learners benefit from school feeding as it encourages school attendance and increases potential for learning. Other indicators that improved due to school feeding were punctuality, discipline, average scores, alertness, physical well-being and behaviour.
2.4 Food safety and hygiene programs in the NSNP
A food safety program for hospitals or nursing homes and people at risk will have more critical control points (CCPs) than one implemented at a fine dining or fast food restaurant. Procedures for maintaining food safety and food quality must be taught and managed so that they are mutually supported. The international principles for Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) consist of all the procedures a company needs to learn to provide safe food (Hall & Monson, 2006:49).
The importance of supplying safe food to school children and a safe working environment for employees must be monitored by means of tested procedures. A more detailed discussion will follow. 2.4.1 Food Handlers
The food handlers in the NSNP are people who in the course of their normal routine work come into contact with uncovered food not intended for their personal use. A food handler is therefore any person involved in the processing, production, manufacturing, packaging, preparation, sale or serving of any foodstuff, including water and beverages (DoH, 2000:1). Food handlers suffering from upper respiratory tract infections can easily contaminate their hands with micro-organisms by coughing, sneezing, and touching their nose or mouth (Aycicek et at., 2004:259).
A proposed strategy for health surveillance of food handlers include: " Management commitment;
■ Education and training; " Health interviews;
■ Reporting illness to management; ■ Applying basic food handling practices;
■ Applying basic personal hygiene practices (DoH, 2000:3).
The main emphasis for food handler surveillance should fall on personal hygiene, clean protective clothing, effective supervision of the health of employees and appropriate action timely taken when indicated, and maintaining hygienic food handling practices (DoH, 2000:10).
2.4.2 Duties of employers to ensure safety
According to the South African Occupational Health and Safety Act (1993) the general duties of employers to their employees are:
• Every employer shall provide and maintain, a working environment that is safe and without risk to the health of his employees;
• Make arrangements for ensuring, as far as is reasonably practicable, the safety and absence of risks to health in connection with the production, processing, use, handling, storage or transport of articles or substances; and
• Provide such information, instructions, training and supervision as may be necessary to ensure, as far as is reasonably practicable, the health and safety at work of employees.
The international principles for HACCP consist of all the procedures a company needs to provide safe food. Basic training for food handlers should cover basic food handling procedures. Proper training of staff implementing the HACCP program will be needed to ensure success (Norton, 2002a:52).
2.5 Concerns relating to the impact of implementation of school feeding
programs on children's health
The NSNP provides only a small amount of food once a day to primary school learners, that assists to relieve child hunger (Hall & Monson, 2006:48). The energy content of the approved NSNP menus ranged between 17,6% to 27,4% of the RDA for children 7-10 years of age. The quantities of food served to learners in the North West province were less than indicated on the approved menus due to poor or no portion control at the schools (Wentzel-Viljoen, 2003:345). Issues of concern related to the managing of the NSNP that may have an impact on the children's health are discussed below.
2.5.1 Pupils targeted by the NSNP
Only primary school learners (grade R to 7) participate in the NSNP and they have to cope without a school feeding program when entering grade 8, the beginning of the secondary school phase (ANON., 1998:29). The National Guidelines from Department of Education states that the NSNP will apply to any public school with a registered site, which also includes Grade R classes (Department of Education, 2004:3).
2.5.2 Insufficient menus
Most provinces preferred to choose "cold" menus that do not require cooking facilities. Equipment and the facilities available at the school determine the menu choice (Department of Education, 2004:25). This menu consists of brown bread with margarine, peanut butter and jam, served with a powdered milkshake supplement enriched with micro-nutrients or a powdered vitamin C enriched cold drink (Hall & Monson, 2006: 48). Wentzel-Viljoen (2003:187) found that the menu provided on average 20% of the RDA for energy for. 7-10 year olds and did not meet the national or the North
West Province guideline of 25% for 7-10 year old children. Therefore, these menus are seen as Insufficient
2.5.3 Insufficient storage
To cook for large groups of people, secure, spacious, and pest free storage areas are needed. This is not the case in many schools as the staff kitchen is mostly used as the basis for food storage and preparation for the NSNP (Paton, 1998:29).
2.5.4 Theft
It may seem that food allocated for school going children disappears from school storage facilities and parents are concerned that the food is stolen. Hall & Monson (2006:48) raised concerns that food handlers and other staff members in rural schools in South Africa take the food meant for the learners, for their own use.
2.5.5 Accounting to parents
A limitation of the school feeding program is the lack of a system of accountability to the parent body. Many caregivers do not know whether their children receives food regularly. Food handlers say that all the children in the class receive food, while others believe that the program is only for those children whose parents are unemployed, or only for orphaned children (Hall & Monson, 2006:48; Department of Education, 2004:7).
2.5.6 Environmental constraints
A number of factors hinder the proper implementation of a school feeding program, such as:
• Schools that do not always operate during regular school hours, closing half-way through the morning.
• Delivery of bulk supplies are to be made weekly or monthly, but most of the rural areas are inaccessible by road after even a light rainfall and this ■ make deliveries an uncertainty (Department of Education, 2004:7).
• The milkshakes/cold drinks require a clean, safe water supply to reconstitute and schools without this facility reported diarrhoea episodes in children (Hall & Monson, 2006:50).
2.5.7 Problems with volunteers
For proper cooked meals, a school needs a committee of local women (mothers, grandmothers, aunts or well-wishers) who would, with their own resources (time, hands, ovens) cook proper meals for the children. Paton (1998:28) found in her report on two school feeding programs in the Eastern Cape that women lacked experience and did not have knowledge on mass catering and could not keep basic
accounts for costing purposes. The school pays the volunteers an honorarium which is a minimal salary and excludes benefits (Department of Education, 2004:24).
2.6 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP)
HACCP was originally developed as a microbiological safety system in the 1960s for the United States operated space program in order to guarantee the safety of astronauts' food. Until then most food safety systems were based on end product testing and could not fully assure safe products as 100% testing was impossible. A pro-active process-focused system was needed and the HACCP concept was born (USDoHHS, 2001: 5; Bryan, 1999:9).
The HACCP program monitors hygiene and safety practises for food production from raw materials through processing to end products, and serving based on controlling time and temperature which are factors that, if mismanaged are known to contribute to food borne disease outbreaks (UNFAO, 2001:7).
2.6.1 The seven principles of HACCP
According to a study conducted by Bryan (1999:14), the seven principles of the HACCP concept are important because they are based on historical data on causes of illness:
• It focuses on critical operations where critical control is needed;
• It is comprehensive because it includes ingredients, processes and end products;
• It is continuous because problems are detected as they occur and corrective actions are taken as an ongoing process; and
• It is systematic because it covers step-by-step operations.
These attributes give a high degree of assurance that the end product in a HACCP program produces low risk to food borne illness (Bryan, 1999:14).
The seven principles of HACCP will now be discussed in more detail.
Principle 1
Conduct a hazard analysis investigation by identifying hazards and assess the risk associated with them at each step from receiving to serving. These hazards may be of a microbial nature (for example
pathogenic organisms), a chemical nature (for example pesticides) and/or a physical nature (for example pieces of glass). While performing a hazard analysis investigation the likely occurrence of
hazards and the severity of their adverse effects on the health of the people should be taken into consideration. Identification of specific control measures for the hazards identified is needed (CAC, 2003:25; UNFAO, 2001:29; WHO, 1999:10).
Principle 2
Determine the critical control points. A critical control point (CCP) is a step at which control can be
applied and is essential to prevent or eliminate a food safety hazard, or reduce it to an acceptable level (CAC, 2003:26; UNFAO, 2001:30; WHO, 1999:10).
Principle 3
Establish critical limits. Each control measure associated with a CCP must have an associated critical
limit, which separates the acceptable from the unacceptable control parameter. Measurable and observable criteria used to set critical limits may include measurements of temperature, time, p'H and level of available chlorine. However measurements of many of these criteria may be beyond the means of most operations because of either lack of knowledge, lack of access to support services or simply because of the cost of some measurements. Operations should be encouraged to make the best use of the time and temperature criteria that are more relevant to everyday experience and practices. Sensory evaluation is a poor tool to access critical limits, but could be used in support of the other measurements listed (CAC, 2003:26; WHO, 1999:12).
Principle 4
Establish a monitoring system. Monitoring is the scheduled measurement or observation at a CCP to
assess whether the step is under control, for example within the critical limits specified in Principle 3. Monitoring will identify where a loss of control has occurred or if there is a trend towards loss of control. It will also identify the required corrective actions to the process to restore or maintain control. A trained person must record and evaluate the monitored results and implement corrective actions. Monitoring is the responsibility of each individual establishment (CAC, 2003:26; USFAO, 2001:29; WHO, 1999:14).
Principle 5
Establish a procedure for corrective action, when monitoring at a CCP indicates a deviation from an established critical limit. Specific corrective actions must be developed for each CCP. Corrective
actions must specify what needs to be done to bring the CCP under control and ensure that potentially unsafe products are not used.
Corrective action includes:
• Steps to correct the problem;
• Steps to deal with the affected product.
The corrective action must be easy to implement and understood by the food handler performing the activity (CAC, 2003:26; USDoHHS, 2001:29; UNFAO, 2001:29; WHO, 1999:14).
Principle 6
Establish procedures for verification to confirm the effectiveness of the HACCP plan. Verifications
should occur regularly to ensure that the HACCP plan is being followed to prevent unsafe food reaching the consumer. Review deviations and product dispositions and do random sampling and checking to validate the whole plan.
Verification activities include:
• Ensuring that prescribed practices are followed;
• Ensuring that the food handlers have the correct tools and adequate facilities; and • Ensure that control procedures are being followed (CAC, 2003:27; UNFAO, 2001:29).
Principle 7
Establish documentation concerning all procedures and records appropriate to these principles and their application. Documentation and records should be adequate to enable the business to be
confident that controls are in place and being maintained. The record-keeping system can use existing paperwork, such as delivery invoices and simple checklists (CAC, 2003:227; USDoHHS, 2001:29; WHO, 1999:15).
2.6.2 Benefits for consumers by implementing HACCP
HACCP is widely accepted as a system to put hygiene and safety measures in place. Benefits include: • Reduce the risk of foodborne disease;
• Increase the awareness of basic hygiene;
• Increase the confidence in food supply (WHO, 1999:15); and
• Improve quality of life - especially when catering to vulnerable groups like children and pregnant women (Paton, 1998:28; Witten et al, 2002:3).
2.6.3 Barriers to implementing HACCP
Implementation of HACCP in an organization requires planning, assessment of current systems used and commitment of all role players in the organization to make it work. The barriers to implementation include:
• Lack of government commitment; • Lack of customer demand; • Absence of legal requirements; • Financial constraints;
• Human resource constraints; • Lack of expertise; and
• Inadequate infrastructure and facilities (WHO, 1999:15).
HACCP builds on the foundations of well established quality management systems such as Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP), identifying of CCPs and standard operating procedures (SOPs) (Norton, 2002b:52).
2.7 Strategies for implementing H A C C P in small catering operations
It is important to recognize that there is a critical interdependency between HACCP implementation and prerequisite programs (PRP). Prior to implementing HACCP operations must be engaged in good hygiene practices (WHO, 1999:19; Norton, 2002a:54).
2.7.1 Good Manufacturer's Practices (GMPs)
GMPs include processes and facilities that must be in place before the HACCP program can be implemented. GMPs will focus on aspects like the design of facilities that must be appropriate for the type of operation, adequate levels of maintenance and sanitation, transportation that must keep quality intact and food handlers must be trained on personal hygiene and on the operational procedures. When applying HACCP, all GMPs must be adhered to (USDoHHS, 2001:27; Norton, 2002a:52).
Food may be contaminated by naturally occurring micro-organisms or pathogens transferred to food during harvest, slaughter or a food preparation step. Measures to protect the food from contamination are fundamental to GMP's (Baker, 2002:371). For best quality, ingredients of reputable suppliers should be used, and strict purchasing standards that include specifications for food safety should be adhered to (Norton, 2002c:54).
2.7.2 Food premises
By ensuring that the layout of a kitchen is conducive to a HACCP plan, it allows a continuous flow of product without any crossovers between clean and dirty processes (Norton, 2002d:52). Kitchen
design and the food handling processes must be of such a nature that a hygienic flow of food is adequate and uninterrupted. The raw food area must be kept totally separate from the prepared food area to prevent cross contamination (Aycicek et al, 2004:258).
Establishing that the building meets strict standards will promote the safe handling of food. Floors, walls and drains should be easy to clean. Floors must be waterproof, and non-absorbent without crevices or cracks (Aycicek etal., 2004:258). Surfaces should be smooth, impervious, toxic, non-absorbent and resistant to damage by cleaning agents. Equipment must be in good working condition (Maunsell & Bolton, 2002: 99).
The following regulations for food premises according to the South African Health Act No. 63 of 1977 must be in place in organizations catering for the public:
Food premises shall:
• Have a wash-up facility with hot and cold water for the cleaning of facilities; • Be rodent proof in accordance with the best available method; and
« Have a waste water disposal system approved by the local authority (DoH, 2000:8).
With regards to food premises, according to regulations of The Department of Health (2000:7) one latrine and one hand basin must be available for every ten staff members. For staff facilities where less than 10 people work on a food premises, separate sanitary facilities shall not be required for workers of different sexes. Hand washing facilities shall be provided with cold and/or hot water for the washing of hands by workers on the food premises together with a supply of soap and hand drying material /equipment.
Refuse containers must be liquid proof, easy to clean with close-fitting lids suitable for the hygienic storage or refuse removal from the food handling area. Storage space for the hygienic storage of food, facilities and equipment and a suitable separate area for the hygienic storage of refuse containers on the food premises must be made available. An adequate water supply for the type of organization is required (DOH, 2000:7).
The room in which food is handled must not have a direct connection with any area in which gas, fumes, soot deposits, offensive odors or any other impurity is present or may arise in such a manner that food in the food-handling room could be contaminated or spoilt (DOH, 2000:7).
2.7.3. Equipment
Determine if equipment is designed not to harbour bacteria and can be easily cleaned (Norton, 2002a:52). Equipment used for chilling food should be capable of keeping food at the correct temperatures. It is important to keep perishable food such as dairy and meat products at the correct temperatures to prevent bacteria from growing and multiplying (Maunsell & Bolton, 2002:107). 2.7.4 Storage
Storage areas must be well ventilated, cool and easy to clean to control hygiene. Fridges or chilled areas should be capable of maintaining the food at temperatures of-1 °C to 5°C. Deep freezers should be capable of maintaining food at temperatures of-18°C or lower (Maunsell & Bolton, 2002:100). Storage facilities must be maintained for appropriate temperature control and sanitation procedures to discourage the growth of micro-organisms (Norton, 2002b:52).
Maize, for example, can be stored relatively safely for one year at a moisture level of 15% and a temperature of 15°C. However, the same maize stored at 30°C will be substantially damaged, by moulds within three months (USDoHHS, 2001:31). Maize meal porridge forms a major part of the hot menu for the NSNP (Department of Education, 2004:24).
Insects and mites (arthropods) can also make a significant contribution towards the biodeterioration of grain because of the physical damage and nutrient losses caused by their activity. The metabolic activity of insects and. mites causes an increase in both the moisture content and temperature of the infested grain that lead to faster deterioration (USDoHHS, 2001:31).
2.7.5 Manufacturers and suppliers
HACCP deals with the safety of a product "from farm to fork" and not from raw material to finished product. A manufacturer needs to consider what may happen with the product after purchase (USDoHHS, 2001:10).
A HACCP study starts with identifying all significant hazards in raw materials and the effect of the control measures during production, distribution, preparation and use in order to evaluate the safety of a product at the moment of consumption. The control measures and good practices employed during agriculture, manufacturing, preparation and use are derived from food safety standards or objectives (FSO) (Van Schothorst, 2005:813). In developing countries where the food staples namely maize and groundnuts, can be susceptible to contamination by mycotoxins (more detail in 2.7.5.2) that can
influence morbidity, strict control is necessary (UNFAO, 2001:10). These standards and/or objectives will now be discussed in more detail.
2.7.5.1 Food safety objectives (FSOs)
Microbial safety is a major risk concern, which has led to a much greater focus on public health and methods for establishing clear health targets. The concept of FSOs provide meaningful guidance to food safety management in practices of manufacturers. It is important to demonstrate the relationship between food safety management practices and national public health goals. It is critical that food safety objectives are achievable by current industrial and consumer practices as we inevitably seek to improve standards of public health protection (Stringer, 2005:776).
Defining an acceptable level of risk is exceedingly difficult and it is important to understand that a level of zero risk cannot be obtained or expected. The FSO must be for consumption of the end product. It is important to set a target level at the moment of consumption. Microbial examination of food is still used when no more reliable means to judge the acceptability of food is .available (Tebbutt, 2007:889; Van Schothorst, 2005:814).
FSOs must be set for the point of consumption of a product. This is sensible for ready-to-eat products (RTE) but more difficult for raw products like meat or vegetables, before preparation. The management of a specific organization must determine the acceptable level of a risk in the context of the food production process. This will influence the standards set for manufacturers (Stringer, 2005:777). Food safety is one of the democratic rights of a healthy nation and should be fostered at all costs (Limson, 2001:3).
2.7.5.2 Mycotoxins
Certain moulds produce toxic secondary metabolites such as ergot alkaloids, which are described as mycotoxins and the disease they cause are called mycotoxicoses. When fungal metabolites are ingested, inhaled or absorbed through the skin, lowered performance, sickness or death in man or animals, including birds are caused (UNFAO, 2001:31).
Mycotoxins are considered to be among the most significant food contaminants with regard to their negative impact on public health food security and the national economy of many countries, particularly developing ones like Sub-Saharan African countries. In developing countries where the food staples - maize and groundnuts - are susceptible to contamination, it is likely that significant additional losses will occur amongst the human population because of morbidity and premature death
associated with the consumption of mycotoxins. Aflatoxin is a type of mycotoxin that can be found in peanuts and peanut products (UNFAO, 2001:10).
The tolerance levels of aflatoxins in human food products like maize are regulated internationally and in South Africa by Government Notice No. R 313 of 16 February 1990 (Government Notice, 1990:1). Strict control of treatment of soil, harvest conditions, storage and moisture control are recommended. Products are sampled and tested for mycotoxins at mills using a quality control program before supplied for human consumption (Riley & Norred, 1999:26).
Peanut butter forms a major part of the cold menu in the NSNP in South Africa (Department of Education, 2003:24). Peanuts and peanut butter must be sampled and tested for aflatoxin by the manufacturer. Aflatoxin is produced by the fungus Aspergillums flavus which grows on peanuts in poor storage conditions either before or after harvesting. Because of their cancer causing properties, the tolerance levels of aflatoxin are strictly regulated worldwide. The maximum level of aflatoxins in food in South Africa is 10 micrograms per kilogram. High levels cause cancer in humans. The synergy between aflatoxin B and the hepatitis B virus can cause liver cancer (Medical Research Council, 2001:21).
Commercially available peanut butter differs in composition from peanut butter that is supplied in bulk to the schools in the NSNP, Rigorous quality control measures need to be enforced by Department of Health (DOH) on the manufacturers and distributors to ensure that suppliers comply with existing legislation aimed at reducing the risk of exposure to aflatoxins (Limson, 2001:2; Medical Research Council, 2001:21).
HACCP in the peanut industry is still in the implementation stage and challenges included: lack of data on import and processing methods, generic HACCP plans for different peanut processing sectors and lack of capacity of authorities to implement HACCP (Jansen van Rijssen, 2003:2).
2.8 Critical Control Points (CCPs)
When a food safety hazard has been identified, appropriate control measures should be considered. This includes any action or activity that can be used to control, prevent, eliminate or reduce, the identified hazard to an acceptable level. Critical control points (CCPs) must be implemented for the following areas: receiving, storage, preparation, cooking, hot holding and chilling equipment. The procedure for HACCP application in a food sendee unit (kitchen) is to: (1) list the food served on the
menu; (2) find the hazard locations and list them on a flow chart for the food preparation and; (3) determine CCPs for the types of food that pose hazards (Sun & Ockerman 2005: 327).
2.8.1 Temperatures
Bacterial colonisation and growth is limited by holding hot foods hot, cold foods cold, and by ensuring that hot food are cooled to appropriate storage temperatures before bacterial multiplication (Baker, 2002:372). Food used in the NSNP is divided into two types of menus: (1) the cold menu that consists mainly of sandwiches and fortified biscuits; and (2) a hot menu that consists of cooked food items; It is important to determine the process flow of food through the temperature danger zone (USDoHHS, 2006: 41, Maunsell & Bolton, 2002:108).
Storage temperatures appropriate for frozen food is -18°C and for chilled foods between 0°C to 5°C (Martinez-Tome & Murcia, 2000:443; Maunsell & Bolton, 2002:100). Cooked food must be cooled to below 7°C in three hours. To ensure the safety of food products for human consumption, food must be stored at temperatures below 7°C or above 60°C (referred to as the temperature danger zone). Food stored according to these critical limits prevents the growth of pathogenic and toxic bacteria in the catering and the foodservice environment (Baker, 2002:374).
According to the United States Department of Health and Human Services (2006:16) there are three processes that food undergo that influence bacterial growth:
• In the first process food preparation requires no cooking, for example: Receive-Store-Prepare-Hold-Serve:
There is no cooking step to destroy pathogens. Inspection of delivery / receiving is important in food preparation with no cooking step. The food must be as safe as possible and must therefore be in good condition and from approved sources. Without a kill step to destroy pathogens, the primary responsibility of the operator will be to prevent further contamination by ensuring that employees follow good hygienic practices (USDoHHS, 2006:16).
• In the second process preparation and cooking are done for same day service for example: Receive-Store-Prepare-Cook-Hold-Serve:
There is only one process through the temperature danger zone. Food is usually cooked and held hot until served or can also be cooked and served immediately. Proper cooking is important to destroy bacteria and parasites. Food is not stored, to be used at a later stage.
• The third process, also seen as the complex food preparation process, includes a reheating process that takes the food twice through the danger zone and involves cooling, storing and reheating that require strict temperature control (USDoHHS, 2006:19).
The intervention strategy for temperature correction can be done immediately on site by using correct equipment like a thermometer and good standard operating procedures (SOPs) (Baker, 2002:372). 2.8.2 Cleaning materials
All procedures for cleaning and sanitation of equipment (utensils, containers, crockery and cutlery) in the facility should be documented and appropriate foodservice chemicals used (Norton, 2002a:54). Cleaning equipment like wipes, dish clothes and towels must be washed daily. Disposable wipes are the best to prevent microbial contamination. Cutting boards, work surfaces and pot scourers must be disinfected after every use. A cleaning and sanitation plan should be in place (Maunsell & Bolton, 2002:102).
A cleaning schedule should include the following: • What needs to be cleaned;
• Who is responsible for performing the cleaning and inspection; • How often it needs to be done;
• How the cleaning should be done;
• What actions should be taken if the person checking the cleaning finds it has not been performed satisfactorily; and
• Cleaning instructions should state what chemicals to use, how to use the chemicals (diluted if required to do so) and how the chemicals should be stored (Maunsell & Bolton, 2002:102). 2.8.3 Training
It is essential to assure that personnel are trained and aware of correct food handling practices when applying HACCP. Considerations for training include handling of specific ingredients, packaging, sanitation procedures, employee health and hygiene, identifying of CCPs and application of preventative measures (Norton, 2002e:58). Staff must be trained on proper hand washing techniques (Norton, 2002c:54).
Training of food handling staff should include safety training, such as how to conduct a risk assessment and hazard evaluation, learning how to minimize risk and control hazards, and identifying safe procedures that include correct time and temperatures for chilling and freezing for food. The value of safety is a positive, integral part of daily activities and cannot be compromised. Safety
procedures protect the worker, co-workers, and others from suffering from food poisoning episodes and improve the quality of people's lives (Hill, 2003:10).
The implementation of HACCP will have to take place within the existing constraints of the organisation with regard to time and resources. The implementation process is approached by breaking it down into a number of key tasks for management. All personnel must have an understanding of the HACCP concept and how it affects their particular working environment. Compliance to GMP will mean that personnel must understand how their commitment is important for overall food safety management. To reduce cost and to internalise the process it is important to train the trainer to educate other personnel. Personnel must be trained to create an awareness of their role within the food safety management program (Mortimore, 2001:214).
Training tools that the staff will need to implement the HACCP process can range from basic office supplies to a wide range of temperature measurement and monitoring equipment. Useful items range from accurate thermometers, timers with alarms, temperature calibration blocks, colour coded chopping boards and temperature strips for dish washing machines (Maunsell & Bolton, 2002:104; Norton, 2002b:60).
Other prerequisites to establish a HACCP program include:
■ A good preventative maintenance program (Maunsell & Bolton, 2002:110); ■ Incident reporting program;
■ Documentation of staff and training developments; and ■ A disaster preparedness plan (Norton; 2002a:52).
2.9 Standard Operating Procedures
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) must be employed throughout an operation. People expect to eat in a food service operation that is clean. Prerequisite programs for HACCP would include SOPs for supplier control, written specifications, written cleaning and sanitation procedures and documented employee training (Youn & Sneed, 2003:55).
SOPs can be an extensive document of many pages or a plainly written list of steps for the staff to use. Whatever the case may be, some of the information included in specific SOPs will now be discussed in more detail.
2.9.1 Personal hygiene
Food service staff should wear protective headgear, gloves and clean and sanitised uniforms. Staff must be trained in good personal hygiene, use of correct hand washing techniques and follow the correct procedures in the preparing, cooking, serving and cleaning procedures in the kitchen to prevent the spread of infection (Sun & Ockerman, 2005:326).
Hands can be vectors in the spread of food borne disease.because of poor personal hygiene or cross-contamination. An employee might, for example, contaminate his hands when using the toilet, or bacteria might be spread from raw meat to salad greens. When retail food personnel use gloves to prepare and serve food, they must be trained to realize that micro-organisms adhere to the surface of gloves and therefore gloves can be a source of cross-contamination just as much as unwashed hands. Food service staff must be trained on the frequency of glove changing and also to wash their gloved hands after touching contaminated products. Single-use gloves should be used for only one task such as working with ready-to-eat food or with raw animal food, used for no other purpose, and discarded when damaged or soiled or when interruptions occur in the production operation. When wearing gloves, it is recommended that hands be washed and sanitised with an effective product prior to wearing the gloves (Aycicek et al, 2004:258). Wearing gloves is not a substitute for hand washing but only an additional safeguard if used correctly (Norton, 2002c:52).
2.9.2 Preparation
Employees must clean and sanitise work surfaces, utensils, clothes, aprons and hands to avoid the possibility of cross-contaminating to foods or food contact surfaces. Household sponges, cutting boards, dish cloths, counter tops and other surfaces represent areas where microbial pathogens can deposit and must be sanitised before use because unclean areas can lead to cross-contamination (Rayner et al, 2004:37; Baker et al, 2002:372).
The prevalence of bacteria on surfaces as well as salad vegetables has significant implications regarding the accurate cleansing ability of commercial sanitizing and cleaning products. Inadequate washing may leave micro-organisms behind on the fabrics and food from which subsequent bacterial re-growth may occur and therefore lead to cross-contamination (Rayner et al, 2004:37; Sun & Ockerman, 2004: 328). Checklists for SOPs range from personal hygiene, preparation, cooking, cleaning and serving must be in place to make monitoring a clear procedure for the food handler as well as the manager.
Some important hygiene practices during food preparation are:
• Precautions to contain meat juices when opening pre-packed meat must be taken and done in a designated area;
• Packaging material must be disposed of immediately and in the correct manner to avoid cross-contamination;
• Place raw meat on the lowest refrigeration shelves to prevent drips from contaminating other foods, their containers or the refrigerator shelves (Baker, 2002:375);
• Cutting boards should be cleaned and sanitised each evening, using heat and/or chemical treatments (Baker, 2002:375);
• Double wash fruit and vegetables under running water if they are to be served raw; and • Stock should be rotated on a 'first in - first out' basis, taking into account the 'best before'
and 'use by' dates (Maunsell & Bolton, 2005: 103; Norton, 2002c:52).
2.8.3 Record keeping documentation
Managerial control is important for an. effective food safety program. SOPs must be in place to ensure safety for example:
• Recipe cards that contain the specific steps for preparing a food item and the food safety critical limits such as final cooking temperatures that need to be monitored and verified;
• Purchase specifications; • Monitoring procedures; • Record keeping;
• Employee health policy; and
• Manager and employee training (USDoHHS, 2006:30).
2.10 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) Implementation
To implement HACCP in a restaurant or food service environment, four stages and twelve steps have been identified. Table 2.1 indicates the stages and the steps for HACCP implementation. Communication both upward and downward in an organisation plays a very important role in successful HACCP plan implementation (Norton, 2002a:54; Mortimore, 2001:212). Addendum A gives an outline of the Codex Logic Sequence for HACCP implementation.
Table 2.1: Four Stages for the implementation of HACCP (Norton, 2002a:54; Mortimore, 2001:212)
Stage . Steps
I
( Stage 1)
1. Assemble the HACCP team that are tasked to define the operations food and distribution patterns
2. Describing the food's intended use and its consumers II
(Stage 2)
3. Developing and verifying a flow diagram for food production 4. Conducting the Hazard Analysis
5. Determining the Critical Control Points 6. Establishing critical limits
7. Establishing monitoring procedures 8. Establishing corrective action HI
(Stage 3)
9. Establishing verification procedures 10. Establishing record keeping procedures 11. Validating the HACCP plan
IV (Stage 4)
12. Ongoing Evaluation and Maintenance of the HACCP Program
These stages and steps will now be discussed in more detail
2.10.1 Stage 1
2.10.1.1 The HACCP Team
When HACCP was first implemented in organizations a single person was appointed to drive the program which frequently ended in failure. The lack of a team approach with appropriate levels of support and empowerment was often the underlying reason for failure. The first step in the implementation process would be to identify team members and appoint a HACCP program coordinator (Mortimore, 2001:210; UNFAO, 2001:30). The coordinator is responsible for the development of the plan, with each team member performing his or her assigned function. The most successful teams draw from all layers of an organization. For a food service operation, minimum members for a team will include a chef, a buyer, a receiving/storeroom person and a sanitation worker. The team leader must convene team members.
The following additional people are required to be part of the team:
• The specialist with detailed knowledge of the food service procedures able to draw up flow diagrams
• Several other specialists, each with an understanding of their particular hazards like food handlers and cleaners.
2.10.1.2 Food's intended use
The team needs to do a full description of the products and processes used, including relevant safety information such as: composition, treatments (heat-treatment, freezing, brining and smoking), packaging, durability and storage conditions. Products with similar characteristics or processing steps can be grouped together for the purpose of developing the HACCP plan (UNFAO, 2001:32).
2.10.2 Stage 2
2.10.2.1 Flow diagram
The first goal will be to define the types of food the operation produces, how ingredients are received, how they move into production, and then to the customers, or into holding facilities. This information forms the basis for the use of a flow chart, in identifying the CCPs in the operation. First categorize the food used in groups (fresh, frozen, shelf stable). The next goal is to track the food's distribution patterns. The basic distribution would be from receiving, storage, issuing and preparation to holding to service. For practical purposes the flow chart will typically begin where food arrives at the foodservice operation. The food purchase specifications should include criteria specifying producers, distributors and manufacturers who have handled food products previously and also use the HACCP approach. A flow chart is an evolving document, subject to change and revision as operations and processes change (USDoHHS, 2006:12; CAC 2003:25).
2.10.2.2 Hazard Analysis
Effective hazard identification and hazard analysis are the keys to a successful HACCP plan. All real or potential hazards that may occur in each ingredient and at each stage of the commodity system should be considered. Food safety hazards for HACCP programs have been classified into three types of hazards:
• Biological: Typical food borne bacterial pathogens examples such as Salmonella, Listeria and E.coli, also viruses, algae, parasites and fungi.
• Chemical: There are three principle types of chemical toxins found in foods: (1) naturally occurring chemicals for example cyanides in some root crops, and allergic compounds in peanuts; toxins produced by micro organisms, for example mycotoxins; (2) algal toxins; and (3) chemicals added to the commodity by man to control identified problems, for example fungicides or insecticides.
• Physical: Contaminants such as broken glass, metal fragments, insects or stones. Once a food safety hazard has been identified, appropriate control measures should be considered.
These are any action or activity that can be used to control the identified hazard, such that it is prevented, eliminated, or reduced to an acceptable level (UNFAO, 2001:32).
To start the process of hazard analysis, a full description of the product, including customer specification, should be prepared. This should include information relevant to the safety of the product for human consumption, information about the packaging, storage conditions and transportation. Appropriate labeling information should also be included. Information on whether the product will be consumed directly, or be cooked, or be further processed, will all have an effect on hazard analysis. Specify if consumption is meant for a specific target group like the elderly or infants and children (UNFAO, 2001:32).
The steps 5-8 in stage 2 compare with the HACCP principles 2 - 5 and were discusses as part of the seven HACCP principles (see 2.4.1).
2.10.3 Stage 3
2.10.3.1 Verification
Verification is carried out to determine if the HACCP system is working correctly. Verification is usually performed by someone other than the person responsible for performing the activities specified by the plan. Verification can be carried out by the manager or supervisor of the food handlers in the organisation. Verification should occur at a frequency that ensures that the HACCP plan is being followed in order to minimize the risk of unsafe products reaching customers (UNFAO, 2001:34).
Verification activities should ensure that:
■ the prescribed practices are consistently followed;
■ the food handlers have the correct equipment and facilities for procedures like hand-washing, cleaning equipment and temperature measuring devices;
■ calibrations of the equipment are correct; and
■ control and monitoring procedures are being followed (CAC, 2003:25).
2.10.3.2 Record Keeping
HACCP procedures should be documented. Accurate documentation and record keeping is essential to the application of a HACCP program. Documentation and records should be sufficient to ensure the organisation to maintain standards.
Records document that the critical limits at each CCP were met or that appropriate corrective action were taken when the limits were not met. The record-keeping system can use existing paperwork, such as delivery invoices and simple checklists for documenting product temperatures (CAC, 2003:24; Mortimore, 2001:213).
2.10.3.3 Validation
When implementing the HACCP program, confirmation activities are required to validate that the HACCP plan is effective. These activities need to take place at all the stages of the HACCP program for example, confirmation of the critical limits, or the identified hazards must be reduced to acceptable levels or eliminated (CAC, 2003:25).
2.10.4 Stage 4
2.10.4.1 Evaluation and maintenance of HACCP
Management is responsible for regular evaluation of ongoing HACCP plan maintenance activities. The HACCP plan must be reviewed and finally approved. This ongoing process should be viewed as a risk management process that will in the end take far less time and cost less than damage control and liability issues that would have to be dealt with in the case of a food bome illness incident. A HACCP program not only enhances the quality of the food and the professionalism of the organisation, but also contributes to the overall quality of management that exists in a food service operation (WHO,l 999:23).
Standards must be defined and audit schedules determined to analyse incoming data. Problem solving in the form of corrective action plans must be developed if deviations from the standard are encountered. The following processes will help with the monitoring procedures;
• Record keeping; • Data analysis;
• Updating the HACCP plan; and
2.11 Conclusion
Good nutrition is a cornerstone of the primary health care approach, and is considered a key developmental priority for the NSNP in South Africa. A further focus for the NSNP is to improve the nutritional status of children (Department of Education, 2004: 2). Good menu planning guidelines for children, coupled with good hygiene and safety practices, all contribute to the quality of care. Ultimately, the implementation of such standards of care can positively affect the growth and development of children. However achieving these standards requires sound nutrition knowledge on the part of the food handlers (Pietersen et al., 2002:14; DoH, 2000:12).
Recommendations to improve the outcome of nutrition interventions are adequate numbers of workers to promote interventions like safety, ongoing skills development and continuous funding to strengthen and improve nutrition programs (Hendricks et al., 2006:215).
The ultimate responsibility for food safety lies with the management of an organisation. Most food safety management systems are based on the HACCP program (USDoHHS, 2001:5). The HACCP program is a scientific and systematic approach to identify hazards and measures for their control to ensure the safety of food. HACCP can be applied throughout the chain from primary production to consumption because the program focused on safety and hygiene practices throughout the organisation and not only on end product testing (WHO, 1999:21).
To be successful, in implementing a HACCP program, the whole organisation, from food handler to top management must believe in the approach. The critical factors for success include proper preparation of food, training of food handlers and commitment to food safety by all employees (Mortimore, 2001:214). The HACCP program requires skill to be implemented as each organisation needs an individually developed HACCP plan for specific needs.
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