How does international experience influence early CSR thinking? : an analysis from the perspective of the learning school and individual ethics

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Final version

How does international

experience influence early

CSR thinking?

An analysis from the perspective of the Learning School and Individual Ethics.

Master Thesis UvA, Amsterdam Business School, Executive Programme in

Management Studies, Strategy Track.

Heleen Oudman, studentnumber

10684565 6/24/16

Supervisor dr Arno Kourula, Assistent Professor

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Abstract

This research analyses the influence of international experience on early Corporate Social

Responsibility (CSR) thinking in young professionals from the perspective of the Learning School and Individual Ethics. CSR is defined as “Managing your firm in such a way that its activities meet the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs” (Brundtland report, 1987). An abductive, comparative case study was conducted at the Amsterdam University of Applied Sciences (AUAS), of the interviews and reflection reports of 9 full-time

students, that went on an international study semester abroad.

A preliminary framework was designed, combining different levels and approaches from

organizational and individual level from a range of disciplines, with added perspectives related to the Learning School (Mintzberg, 1998) and Individual Ethics. The broad scope of angles in this

framework, forming a distinctive feature of this research, showed how intuiting and interpreting within an international setting broadened the horizon of the participants.

The students developed new knowledge and skills. These then evolve into transformed individual ethics and a budding CSR awareness, allowing these young professionals to be less path-dependent in the formation of strategy in their futures, path-dependency being defined as the liberty not to follow a pre-specified trajectory (Kolk & Pinkse, 2005). Bringing Elkington’s Triple Bottom Line theory of People, Planet and Profit (1998) into the equation, the results show that the students lean heavily towards the P of People, attempting to put differences in ethical norms and beliefs into perspective and gaining new appreciation for the creativity that comes from culturally diverse teams. The

framework allowed for themes to pop up “incrementally” from the data. Hierarchy was an important finding that came forward. Closely connected to power distance (Hofstede, 2001), hierarchy

transpired to be an element that is expected to have an impact on the way in which the respondents will substantiate the People factor in their future strategic CSR. As for the factor Planet: having returned from their international assignments the students expressed feeling hopeful of the

prospects for faring business in a sustainable manner, provided goals are set clearly and procedures are strictly followed.

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Statement of Originality

This document is written by Heleen Oudman who declares to take full responsibility for the contents of this document.

I declare that the text and the work presented in this document is original and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating it.

The Faculty of Economics and Business is responsible solely for the supervision of completion of the work, not for the contents.

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Acknowledgements

Hereby I kindly like to thank my supervisor, Assistant Professor dr Arno Kourula, for his inspirational lessons and his really constructive feedback. The Skype sessions worked well for me! Also I would like to thank the students who devoted their time to answer my questions. Without their help this research would not have been possible. The help of my friend Sophie Kerssemakers for the English language was indispensable. Thank you for that. Finally, I would like to say a special thank you to my husband Robbert for energising me and our three children for being so patient.

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1. Introduction

1.1 Background

Sustainability is a topic that is currently of the utmost urgency in many an agenda. Some scientists even say that this has marked the start of a new era: the Anthropocene. An era “in which human modification of the global environment becomes significant enough to terminate the current Holocene geological epoch” (Crutzen & Sturmer, 2000). As Crutzen states “.. a daunting task lies ahead to guide society toward environmentally sustainable management during the area of the Anthropocene..” (Crutzen, 2002). It is clear that we need to adapt our behaviour on a global scale; to change the relationship between humans and the natural environment in order to stop the

destroying of our planets resources. We need a movement towards green jobs (Gopal, 2009). Green jobs will serve to stimulate industries that produce environment-friendly products and will ensure that not only the job itself, but also the workplace and the way labour is organized become more environmentally sustainable (Crane & Matten, 2010).

The number of people on earth is growing fast and in this globalizing world it is important that employees are equipped to compete on a global level. Global success may be attained by a proper grasp of perspective, opportunity, motivation, organization, knowledge and skills. The challenge for today’s global managers is to identify those opportunities, to develop appropriate marketing strategies and build and sustain competitive advantages (University of Hertfordshire, 2015). So how is the manager to acquire this global perspective in the development of his or her Corporate Social Responsibility-thinking (CSR)? This new era calls for a strategic change; for management education that will provide our young managers with the skills to contribute to global sustainability. Real strategic change requires inventing new categories, not rearranging old ones (Mintzberg, 1994), so real visionaries are needed to invent these categories. This is also underpinned when Mintzberg stated that “the most successful strategies are visions, not plans” (Mintzberg, 1994).

In 2007 UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon launched the Principles for Responsible Management Education (PRME), with a mission “to inspire and champion responsible management education, research and thought leadership globally”. The goal is to engage business schools to ensure they provide future business leaders with skills needed to balance economic and sustainability goals since understanding the fundamental connections between business, the environment, and society has become essential (UN website, 2016). Increasing complexity and interdependence require new approaches (UN website, 2016). The aim of this study is to explore to what extend international experience influences the early development of CSR thinking, so that the next generations of managers may contribute to this worldwide movement towards responsible management. 1.2 Prior research and research gap.

In a framework that is developed to map environmental adaption in organizations by Miles & Snow, it is interesting to see what defines the experiences that lead to the recognition of environmental changes in a globalizing world. Does CSR thinking develop along different lines of actors and reactors when individuals are more aware of changes in the global environment? A future manager with more experience than others might be better able to adjust to the environment (Miles & Snow,

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1978), so in the current research will be examined how this experience is broadened by an international study semester abroad.

Through the lens of emergent strategies as business responses, Kolk & Pinkse (2005) come up with a framework that maps business response to climate change in 136 companies, which can be brought down to 6 strategic options that these companies apply. Of these six options, most of the companies fall in the category of “cautious and emergent planners” (31% and 36% respectively), followed by “internal and vertical explorers” (14% and 10%). The two remaining categories of “horizontal explorers and emission traders” (10% and 4%) are the companies that implement pro-active climate change strategies most strongly and that appear to be the least path-dependent, meaning that they do not follow a pre-specified path (Kolk & Pinkse, 2005). Brought back to an individual level, the challenge is how to help the next generation of managers to be less path-dependent when it comes to CSR thinking.

Joyner & Payne (2002) performed research on issues that were analysed to identify the links between values, ethics, and Corporate Social Responsibility as incorporated into the culture and management of a firm. They state that there is growing recognition that good ethics may have a positive economic impact on the performance of firms (Joyner & Payne, 2002).

So far, little research has been done to examine how managers can implement social responsibility at an individual level in the organization and more specificallly at the level of the individual

employee (Glavas & Piderit, 2009). The authors are addressing this issue by linking social

responsibility with employee engagement at work, with creative involvement in their work tasks, and the quality of their relationships with co-workers. The value of the answer to this question is significant, since the younger generation that is now entering the workforce emphasise their desire to see business work for world benefit as opposed to the benefit of the owners or shareholders (Knight, 2006).

The study of Lee et al (2013) contributes by suggesting several important theoretical implications for researchers. It undertakes a holistic examination of employee perception of CSR activities by

incorporating the roles of its key antecedents - namely, perceived corporate cultural fit and CSR capability. The more employees perceive an alignment between CSR and the culture of their firm, the more likely they are to think that their firm is effectively executing CSR (Lee et al, 2013). Previous studies have not been able to quantify the influence of CSR on employee behaviour because the two elements were being measured at different levels of analysis (Glavas & Piderit, 2009). Employee behaviour is typically measured at an individual level of analysis and CSR at the organizational level. Glavas (2016) states that CSR has been primarily studied at macro and institutional levels, but more studies are needed to understand how CSR influences employees. A mayor gap is found by Glavas (2016) in the exploration of mediators and moderators of the CSR-employee outcome relationship, which comes down as the why, how and when. This issue will be addressed by merging different angles.

This current research was conducted to determine how the experiences of Dutch students spending a study semester abroad, influences their early development of CSR thinking. This study semester is either an internship at a company or an exchange semester at a University. The research is relevant

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because it provides in-depth information regarding the influence of international experience on the development of CSR thinking in young professionals who are about to enter the labour market. The research will shed light on how these young professionals view the importance of CSR and how they perceive their role as future employees and explores whether it influences their path-dependency, as described by Kolk & Pinkse (2005). International study experiences are examined in detail, to observe how the knowledge and skills of the participants are influenced. To this end a set of angles from different theories and disciplines will be used encompassing a variety of different levels and approaches. Awareness about the development of CSR thinking and international experience will also contribute to hone the curriculum of the AUAS with regard to CSR, individual ethics and internationalization.

1.3 Research question

The objective of this research is to provide an answer to the following research question:

How does international experience influence the early stage of the development of CSR thinking in students?

1.4 Structure

This Thesis will be structured as follows: after the Introduction (Chapter 1) the Literature Review (Chapter 2) will provide a theoretical background. Main concepts and key themes are defined here. Literature on organizational level and on the subject of the Learning School will be analysed, followed by ethics at individual level. A review of literature on organizational psychology is included in this section. The literature review is concluded with the image of a preliminary framework, depicting the flow analysis.

In the Methodology chapter (Chapter 3) the approach to answering the research question will be set forth. It contains the goals and objectives from the research question, the sources from which the data were collected and data collection and analysis methodology. Next, in the Empirical Results chapter (Chapter 4) the different theories of The Learning School and Individual Ethics are measured against the findings by means of abduction.

In the ensuing Discussion chapter (Chapter 5) the significance of the findings is discussed. Answers to the research question emerge and it is described how the theory relates to the data analysis. In this chapter the framework will be evaluated and calibrated based on the empirical findings in this study. Ultimately, in the Conclusion (Chapter 6) the answer to the research question will be provided, along with managerial implications and limitations. Recommendations for further research are given.

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2. Literature Review

In this chapter definitions and a general scope will be given on current literature on the subject, thus providing a theoretical background to the research at hand. A range of theories that are potentially interesting are chosen to examine organizational and individual level as well as different disciplines, in order to find the best fit with the phenomenon that is studied in this research. This fit is visualised in the preliminary framework at the end of this chapter.

2.1 Definitions

In this paragraph the concepts of CSR, sustainability and ethics will be viewed and defined. 2.1.1 CSR

In 1970, Milton Friedman published his famous theory on the liberal market in which he puts forth that business has but a single social responsibility, which is to use its resources and engage in activities designed to increase its profits (Friedman, 1970). Nowadays, with a greatly increased population toll and a strain on natural resources, this theory no longer matches with the popular view on responsible entrepreneurship. Companies that care to be considered socially responsible can no longer get away with a focus that is limited to their revenue or stock price. Today’s companies are also being judged by what they give back to their local and global communities (Below, 2014). This is where Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) comes into play.

To define CSR, multiple competing definitions exist. Aguinis (2011:855) defines CSR as “context-specific organizational actions and policies that take into account stakeholders’ expectations and the triple bottom line of economic, social, and environmental performance”. The European Commission 2001 defines it as “a concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis and in a context-specific way” (Aguinis & Glavas, 2012). Definitions differ and there is no general

agreement as to the precise elements which it ought to contain. What all definitions have in

common, however, is the conviction that natural resources won’t last forever and that we must stop destroying them.

The definition that will be used in this research comes from the former Norwegian Prime Minister Brundtland, defining CSR as “Managing your firm in such a way that its activities meet the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs”

(Brundtland report, 1987). This definition is best suited to this research because of its dual focus: both the present and the future are taken into consideration. A focus that cannot be neglected in a thesis that targets on the education of a new generation of globally aware managers. We are in it for the long term.

2.1.2 Sustainability and Triple Bottom Line.

We are in it for the long term indeed. As awareness grew that we need to act today to ensure that future generations may meet their needs, the concept of sustainability was conceived. Adding to this concept Elkington coined The Triple Bottom Line (TBL) theorem. TBL pertains that businesses do not have just one single goal - adding economic value – but that it has an extended goal set which

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necessitates adding environmental and social value too, known as People, Planet, Profit (Elkington, 1998). Subsequently, the theorem’s reach towards the future was further defined by Crane, Matten & Spence as they incorporated the Triple Bottom Line of economic, social and environmental components with long term considerations of intergenerational equity (Crane, Matten & Spence, 2013).

2.1.3 Individual Ethics

Moving from the organizational level of CSR to the individual level of ethics, Crane & Matten (2010) define ethics as “the study of morality and the application of reason to elucidate specific rules and principles that determine right and wrong for a given situation…”, meaning that ethics is about rationalization of morality. Morality is then defined by Crane & Matten (2010) as being “concerned with the norms, values and beliefs embedded in social processes which define right and wrong for an individual or a community”. In the course of this research these definitions are used when it comes to individual ethics.

2.2 Organizational level

Having looked at definitions on both organizational and personal levels, we shall now return to organizational level, since that is where, in the definition of this research, CSR takes place: we are now zooming in on the “C” in CSR.

To classify the findings from the organizational point of view, the framework of Aguinis & Glavas (2012, figure 1) will be the starting point. Through extensive literature review, it provides a survey with predictors, outcomes, mediators and moderators, with the aid of which the findings from the interviewsmay be viewed and analysed. The chart shows the inter-relation between institution and individual employee, for instance commitment from supervisors to CSR is an important predictor of CSR engagement and individual employees who perceive strong signals of encouragement from their supervisors are more likely to develop and implement creative ideas that positively affect the natural environment (Ramus & Steger, 2000).

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Figure 1. Framework of Aguinis & Glavas (2012). Multilevel and Multidisciplinary Model of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): Predictors, Outcomes, Mediators, and Moderators. Note: Inst =

institutional level of analysis; Org = organizational level of analysis; Ind = individual level of analysis. 2.3 Learning School

As we have seen in the model of Aguinis & Glavas above, influences on CSR - which is primarily a corporate notion - are Multilevel and Multidisciplinary. This means that development of CSR cannot be viewed apart from the development, awareness and values of the individuals that, together, form the organization. Since in the realm of this thesis we are looking at the personal experiences of young individuals, the future employees and managers that will help shape the CSR-awareness of the companies that will employ them, it is of the essence that we take a closer look at how this process takes place: how do organizations and individuals influence each other? How does this process of learning from one another work? To find out we proceed to The Learning School (Mintzberg, 1998).

To understand how learning takes place at both organizational and individual level in the framework of Aguinis & Glavas (2012), the theory of the Learning School is examined. In the Learning School strategies emerge as individual employees come to learn about a situation as well as their organization‘s capability of dealing with it (Mintzberg, 1998). He states that by letting strategy emerge as things gradually become apparent, strategic management becomes no longer just the management of change but management by change. In Strategy Safari (Mintzberg, 1998) one of the prescriptions for logical incrementalism in the Learning School is adapted from Quinn (1982). To build organizational awareness at early stages of strategy formation, management processes are rarely directive. Instead they are likely to involve studying, challenging, questioning, listening, talking

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to creative people outside ordinary decision channels, generating options, but purposively avoiding irreversible commitments. To answer the research question in this research it will be interesting to see which themes pop up “incrementally” from the data.

In the Learning School a framework created by Crossan, Lane & White (1997), is used by Mintzberg (1998) in which learning at individual level takes place in the process of Intuiting and Interpreting. The inputs and outcomes are 6 categories:

1. Experiences (Intuiting) 2. Images (Intuiting) 3. Metaphors (Intuiting) 4. Language (Interpreting) 5. Cognitive Map (Interpreting)

6. Conversation/Dialogue (Interpreting).

Intuiting can be seen as a process that takes place at subconscious level, whilst Interpreting is moving toward a more conscious level - which will be interesting elements to search for in the learning process of our interviewees - and the transformation that takes place from this process. The Learning School helps to find the themes that come forward in the intuiting and interpreting phases in the mind-sets of the individuals that are examined in the current study. To focus on how these themes influence the ideas about CSR, the key of the Learning School is applied, which is about description rather than prescription.

An important criticism to the Learning School is that, since it does not aim to form a strategy, it is nothing but “muddling through” (Brews & Hunt, 1999). As it happens, “muddling through” is a vital instrument to this research, as precisely through this lack of a rigid focus the themes from

international experience can be found that will influence future strategic directions regarding CSR. The Learning School is the starting point in the conceptual framework of this research.

2.4 Individual level

Having established that individuals – or employees – and the beliefs that they hold are one of the elements that influence Corporate Social Responsibility, and vice versa, we now turn to Glavas (2016), who debates whether the role of CSR could be opening up questions regarding the role of employment as regarded by individual employees. Is the role of employment merely to secure economic profit or is having a positive impact on the world a factor as well? Due to the complexity of these questions, Glavas (2016) predicts that how employees perceive CSR and its importance to their own lives may vary greatly. CSR thus opens up a context within which to study numerous topics in organizational psychology such as the importance of self-concept, purpose at work, values alignment, and career development (Glavas, 2016). As a result, scholars have become more interested in CSR on individual level. In the current research this forms a second perspective that is used to analyse the influence of international experience. In this paragraph a range of theories on individual employee level will be looked into, that are potentially interesting to use as means to interpret the broad phenomenon being studied.

2.4.1 Organizational psychology

Building on psychological premises, Money et al (2015) propose that economic, social, and

environmental impacts on individuals, groups and organizations can be better understood if they are viewed in terms of psychological mechanisms at the level of the individual who causes these

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outcomes. This validates Glavas (2016) in investigating how organizational psychology could help to gain a better understanding of the processes surrounding CSR. What is meaningful to employees, how they construct their self-concepts, and many other individual factors -all of which are areas of organizational psychology. In this paragraph the subjects of perceived CSR, engagement, creativity and caring relationships will be explored.

The notion that CSR has numerous positive effects on employees is corroborated by the research of Lee et al (2013) on how employee perceptions of CSR trigger emotional, attitudinal, and behavioural responses, establishing a positive relationship between CSR and organizational commitment. A relational view of CSR in which CSR by its very nature includes caring for stakeholders therefore follows that organizations that put effort into creating quality relationships with external stakeholders could create a culture in which caring relationships inside the organization are

important as well (Glavas, 2016). Measuring this against the study of Hansen et al (2011), evidence is provided that employee trust partially mediates the relationship between CSR and the attitude of employees and their behavioral outcomes. In other words, employee opinion about the company’s social responsibility plays a key role in shaping their trust in the organization, which in turn

influences their attitudes and behavior (Hansen et al, 2011). These findings suggest that if an

organization goes above or beyond its primary task of financial stakeholder satisfaction to contribute to the greater good of society by implementing CSR, then employees will go above and beyond their primary tasks to contribute to the greater good of the organization (Glavas, 2016).

Perceived CSR

Social identity theory suggest that employees are proud to identify with organizations that have a positive external reputation and thus, a positive relationship is likely to occur between perceived CSR activities and employee attachment (Lee et al, 2013). Rupp et al (2013) on the other hand are

examining theoretically relevant boundary conditions that moderate employees’ reactions to perceived CSR, i.e. self-focused justice concerns and moral identity. It is conceptualized that CSR is not so much the firms’ objective socially responsible behavior per sé, but rather employees’ perceptions of their employer’s CSR. How employees perceive this CSR of their organization has a more direct and stronger implications for employees’ subsequent reactions than actual firm behaviors of which employees may or may not be aware (Rupp et al, 2013). Rupp et al (2013) examine that in people with a strong moral identity there is a greater likelihood that they will react to perceived violations of socio-moral norms. In contrast, individuals with a weaker moral identity, moral values are not central to their self-definitions and the moral self-schema is neither available, primed, nor activated by their observed socio-moral norm violations. For these persons, moral values or moral trait associations are less important and less relevant in the processing of social information. Therefore, those weaker in moral identity tend to care relatively less about justice, ethics, or morality as they navigate their daily lives. (Rupp et al, 2013).

So although there are some boundaries to the influence of perceived CSR for employees, its general importance becomes clear in the top 10 workplace trends 2015 (Below, 2014) in which CSR, be it perceived or factual, was viewed as one of the top trends affecting the workplace. This reflects the findings in organizational psychology that actions of organizations that want to be seen as socially responsible, influence how people feel about companies, and the attitudes of the employees who work there. Glavas (2016) claims that once an employee’s perception of CSR is measured, then the

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impact of the perceptions of CSR on employees can be measured. So why and how CSR impacts employees depends heavily on individual differences. Lee et al (2013) focus in their research on “perceived cultural fit”, which is the extent to which people believe that CSR activities are congruent with the culture of the organization or corporation. They demonstrate how perceived fit between corporate culture and its CSR activities affects employee perception of CSR activities positively. Engagement

An intriguing concept in the exploration of the mutual influence between individual employee and company with regard to CSR is the concept of engagement. Kahn (1990) originally described engagement as a unique and important motivational concept: the harnessing of an employee’s full self in terms of physical, cognitive, and emotional energies to work role performances. A more holistic investment of the self into one’s role represents something that is distinct and fundamental (Kahn, 1990). Building on Kahn’s theory, Rich et al (2010) find engaged individuals as being

psychologically present, fully there, attentive, feeling, connected, integrated, and focused in their role performances. They are open to themselves and others, connected to work and others, and bring their complete selves to perform. Individuals who experience meaningfulness tend to feel worthwhile, useful, valuable, and able to give themselves to their work role and to others (Kahn, 1990). When individuals believe that their personal values are congruent with those of the

organization for which they work, they perceive that organizational role expectations are congruent with their preferred self-images (Kristof, 1996), and thus they should find more meaningfulness in their work, and in turn, exhibit higher engagement (Rich et al, 2010). In short, a mutually benefitting situation.

Kahn suggests that employees experience psychological safety, in part, as a result of supportive management and supportive and trusting interpersonal relationships with others in their organization (Kahn, 1990). The experience of psychological safety is then feeling able to invest oneself without fear of negative consequences (Kahn, 1990). The research of Rich et al (2010) studies the reverse of this phenomenon, when engagement is explicitly positioned as a motivational concept and emphasizes relationships with behavioral consequences. Negative feedback may then be threatening to an individual’s self-image and may therefore reduce feelings of psychological safety (Rich et al, 2010).

Creativity

Research had also been done into the connection between CSR and Creativity. Glavas & Piderit (2009) have examined the consequences of CSR for individual employees. They found that

employees who perceive higher levels of social responsibility in their organizations will report higher levels of creative involvement (Glavas & Piderit, 2009). Research of Amabile leads to the outcome that creativity is one’s ability to approach problems and solutions and then come up with new ideas, while creative potential is how much an employee taps into that ability (Amabile, 1998). If the outcome of Glavas & Piderit is combined with the research of Amabile, then creativity appears to be an individual asset. This can even be taken further with the findings of Amabile (1998) that passion for one’s work is what drives creative involvement.

For CSR it is relevant how much an individual is using its creative potential and it is not really known yet how CSR can be a driver for using this creative potential. Brammer, He & Mellahi (2015),

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therefore come up with the development of a key positive employee behaviour – namely Employee Creative Effort. Creative effort has shown to be an important influence on employee creativity. The consequence is that an employee breaks out of its usual thinking patterns and find new way to contribute to CSR (Amabile, 1998). To determine how international experience influences individual creativity concerning early CSR thinking, this research will be analysing creative involvement. Caring relationships

CSR can be used to create a relational job design, this opens up possibilities for creating cultures, which are caring and compassionate (Aguinis & Glavas, 2012). Since CSR has a relational nature, there is a need to explore in what way caring for the well-being of stakeholders, by creating caring relationships, may have an impact on employees (Rynes et al, 2012). This culture of creating caring relationships is opposite to the leading focus on cultures that are grounded rather more in

aggressiveness, competitiveness and rigid norms. Van Vianen & Fischer (2002) state that it is common ground that most employees do not thrive in cut-throat cultures and that it keeps those with more nurturing values from being fully engaged in such an environment. That might be the reason why CSR could bridge diversity on how to create workforces that engage employees more strongly (Van Vianen & Fischer, 2002).

When employee values about caring for others overlap with caring for the company’s key

stakeholders, Glavas & Piderit (2009) find that employee alignment is high because employees find meaning in such work. They find that employees do not limit care for other to their homes, but can rise beyond simple profit-making, engaging their true selves at work, whilst still making a profit. CSR can provide nurturing and safe environments in which employees feel safe enough to let their inner selves show (Glavas, 2016). Csikszentmihalyi & Hunter (2003) go even further, stating that when employees find meaningful work, a flow state is entered which makes them more engaged, creative and productive, which leads to superior results. The same is found by Willard (2002) saying that companies that are socially responsible organizations, provide meaningful work that in turn attracts the best employees and increases employee productivity. Caligiuri et al (2013) find support for the importance of meaningful projects relating to greater capability development. Also an international environment is important for capability development, since professional skills that have to be used in the novel environment are important for learning and development. The above has established a ground for analyzing whether or not a safe environment is experienced by the participants.

2.5 The preliminary framework

In the preliminary framework the fit from the different theories and disciplines is visualised in order to conduct the research and to guide the interview protocol. The conceptual model starts in the Learning School (Mintzberg, 1998), in which individual learning is seen as a process of intuiting and interpreting. Intuiting is seen as the first step in the learning process at a subconscious level and is followed by the more conscious level of interpreting. The next step is how this learning is transferred to early CSR thinking. To deepen this CSR thinking in strategic positioning Porter & van der Linde (1995) offer the solution to concretize CSR awareness into “knowledge and skills CSR”, consisting of actions that are undertaken to recognize opportunity costs of underutilized resources, innovation-based productivity-enhancing solutions and which actions lead to a more pro-active stand with regard to sustainability.

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The second theory influencing the learning in the framework comes from the perspective of Individual Ethics. Therefore arrows are drawn to the Intuiting and Interpreting phases from this perspective. Individual Ethics are classified in 6 themes (Glavas, 2016), based on the findings in the different theories about perceived CSR (Lee et al, 2013; Rupp et al, 2013; Glavas, 2016), engagement (Kahn 1990; Rich et al, 2010; Kristof, 1996), creative involvement (Amabile, 1998; Glavas & Piderit, 2009), caring relationships (Glavas, 2016, Glavas & Piderit, 2009, Willard, 2002; Csikszentmihalyi & Hunter, 2003; Van Vianen & Fischer, 2002) and capability development (Caligiuri et al, 2013). These themes can be found in table 4.

The figure shows an additional influence on the learning process: Impalpable concerns, which lead to people disregarding problems they cannot see or feel (Griskevicius, Cantu & Vugt, 2012).

The preliminary framework itself is displayed in figure 2. The thick arrow means that a strong influence is expected, while a thin arrow means that the expected influence is weaker. In the discussion chapter the framework will be evaluated and modified into a more accurate framework based on the empirical findings in this study.

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Figure 2. Conceptual Framework of developing early CSR thinking, based on Mintzberg (1998), Griskevicius, Cantu & Vugt (2012), Porter & van der Linde (1995) and Glavas (2016).

Intuiting  Experiences  Images  Metaphors Interpreting  Language  Cognitive map  Conversation / Dialogue

Knowledge and Skills CSR

 Recognize opportunity costs of underutilized resources  innovation-based productivity-enhancing solutions

 which actions lead to a more pro-active stand with

regard to sustainability

Impalpable concerns Individual Ethics

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3. Methodology

3.1 Research Design

This is an exploratory research design, which has the advantage that it is flexible and adaptable to change, since it may commence with a broad focus (Saunders et al, 2012), but will be narrowed down as the research progresses. The research question in this exploratory research design is unexplored (Yin, 1994). A case study is conducted because the research question refers to a contemporary phenomenon that can only be studied in its real life environment (Yin, 1994). A triangulation (Saunders et al, 2012) is made that combines qualitative characteristics in reflection reports that students wrote at the end of their international semester, before setting up the interview questions and a predetermined coding schedule. These multiple sources improve the validity (Patton, 2005).

Sequential steps were made. First an initial exploratory survey of literature and reflection reports took place. The results were used to make a qualitative analysis of the way students develop characteristics concerning CSR thinking. The second step took place by means of open-ended individual in-depth interviews within a semi-structured interview, designed to encourage extensive answers (Saunders et al, 2012). The experiences are post skills and perceptions, meaning that the students have already finished the semester that is investigated.

3.2 Sampling.

All respondents were full-time students of the Amsterdam University of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Economics and Business, Bedrijfskunde/MER Program. The majority were male. The respondents all spent a semester abroad in different countries like Surinam, South-Africa and Canada. They were selected through the researcher’s own network. This facilitated access to the respondents. Since trust-based relationships had previously been established, interviewees opened up easily to the researcher. The research started with the sampling of eleven students. Of these eleven students, ten reflection reports were available. One student had two reflection reports, since he performed two internships abroad. One reflection report came up empty in QDminer and could therefore not be coded. One student went on a minor abroad, after which a reflection report is not required. Eventually nine students out of the sample of eleven were interviewed. The remaining two were unavailable. One had already graduated and could not be reached for the interview. The other student was could not be located either in Amsterdam or via Skype, for reasons that are not clear. However, since this student’s reflection report barely mentions the topic of CSR, it might be presumed that this student has little interest in the subject.

3.3 Data collection

Nine open ended individual in-depth interviews within a semi-structured interview were conducted, specifically designed to encourage extensive answers (Saunders et al, 2012). After these nine interviews saturation was reached and no more new codes arose from the transcripts. A list was used with themes and key questions from the preliminary framework for this research. A second key theme, the Triple Bottom Line of People, Planet, Profit (Elkington, 1998) was subsequently added, based on the coding from the first interviews. The order of questions varied depending on the flow of the conversation and further questions were added to explore the research question (Saunders et al, 2012). The first interviews started with an introduction of the topic and for later interviews

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information was sent beforehand, so the respondents were informed in advance about definitions and theory, ensuring equal definition sharing to improve the validity of the research. Problems regarding the constructing of validity were addressed by starting very broadly and allowing the interviewees to talk about themes and topics of their own choice. The researcher then tried to establish whether a uniform understanding of the definitions that were send beforehand had been reached. The complete introduction and list of interview questions can be found in appendix A. All interviews were doubly audio recorded, on a telephone and on an I-pad, and lasted 45-60 minutes. A transcription was produced per interview, yielding a written verbatim representation with additional contextual information.

3.4 Analysis Strategy

According to Yin (1994), the role of the general strategy is to help to choose among different techniques and to complete the analytic phase of the research successfully. The general strategy being used in this research is to rely on theoretical propositions about causal relations – answers to the “how” question – which is useful in guiding case study analyses in this manner (Yin, 1994). In a grounded theory approach, the areas of reducing the data into manageable units and coding information are integral parts of the analysis process (Miles & Huberman, 1984).

3.5 Analysis Technique

As Fann reviews Peirce’s theory of abduction (Fann, 2012), he quotes that abduction “is a distinct type of reasoning, which is not to be confused with the two traditionally recognized types, induction and deduction”. Peirce considered abduction to be the essence of his pragmatism. He insisted that it was essential that it constituted the first stage of all inquiries and a necessary part of perception and memory (Peirce, 1957). Based on Peirce’s theory of abduction, Dubois & Gadde (2002) have

produced a framework for systematic combining, displayed in figure 3. The objective of this

framework is to confront the theory with the empirical world, that which can be observed (Dubois & Gadde, 2002). As a result, the role of abduction distinguishes itself from both deduction and

induction. The use of Dubois’ framework of systematic combining and alternating is opposed to Yin’s positivistic idea of relying on theoretical propositions about causal relations and sequential steps to answer the Research Question. In the Results Chapter the analysis will match the preliminary framework with the data and the theories of the Learning School and Individual Ethics at organizational and individual level.

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Figure 3. Framework Dubois & Gadde, 2002: Systematic combining

The analysis consists of three different flows of activity, described by Miles & Huberman (1984) as data reduction, data display and conclusion-drawing/verification. In data reduction raw data are transformed into edited field notes, for which in this instance the program QD Miner has been used. In the second flow of analysis activity the data were displayed as part of the analysis (Miles & Huberman, 1984), by designing a matrix. For the tables the codes from QD Miner were applied (appendix B). In the conclusion-drawing and verification phases the purpose of the displayed, reduced data was to show regularities, pattern, explanations and so on (Miles & Huberman, 1984). Reliability was created by open coding from the reflection reports and the transcriptions of the interviews.

The first step was to label fragments of data in QD Miner. The next step was to merge, split and renew codes by axial coding. The objective of the axial coding was to define each code exactly in QD Miner, so that the title of the codes would match all fragments and reliability would be improved. The third step was then to apply selective coding relations by which method processes and hierarchies in the coded data were found and exceptions could be explained. All interviews were conducted in Dutch, necessitating translation of the data whenever quotes were used in the text. The coding tree was drawn up in English from the beginning.

There are nine main codes based on the research topic. These codes are divided into sub-codes and labelled further per sub code (appendix B). The codes that arose from the open coding were more extensive than the codes that were derived from the theoretical framework. From the interviews and reflection reports 7 new codes were derived in addition to the 2 codes that originate from the theoretical framework. The themes for the matching of the theory of Individual Ethics where derived from the literature.

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21 Respon- dent Sort Semester + Period of time

Gender Age Country Curricu- lum Interview Reflec- tion Report 1 Internship 3rd yr: 5 months + Internship 4th yr: 5 months Male 25 Curaçao + RSA

WBW Yes Yes RSA

Yes CUR

2 Minor at

University: 5 months

Female 24 Indonesia WBW Yes No

3 Internship

3rd yr: 5 months

Male 21 Surinam FB Yes Yes

(empty in QDminer)

4 Internship

3rd yr: 5 months

Female 21 RSA WBW Yes Yes

5 Internship 3rd yr: 5 months Male 29 Hong Kong LBW Yes Yes 6 Internship 3rd yr: 5 months

Male 25 Canada WBW Yes Yes

7 Internship 3rd yr: 5 months Male 24 North-Amerika FB Yes Yes 8 Internship 3rd yr: 5 months

Female 23 Turkey WBW Yes Yes

9 Internship

3rd yr: 5 months

Female 23 Turkey WBW Yes Yes

Table 1: Respondents

3.6 Strengths and weaknesses of the methodology

These strengths and weaknesses pertain to the methodology only. Limitations that surfaced during the research will be disclosed in the discussion chapter.

Strengths:

 Multiple levels and approaches from both organization-oriented and individual-oriented theories give the benefit of a broad scope to test the correlation to the phenomenon in this study.

 A large quantity of in-depth information was gathered and analyzed (Yin, 1994), which could be used as discussion material and follow-up research.

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22 Limitations:

 Generalization is not possible (Yin, 1994) since the focus on a single Faculty makes the analysis relatively narrow. To overcome this limitation the aspects on which the research was done are broad themes, which open up possibilities to apply them to other Faculties as well.

 The willingness of students to speak freely on CSR matters. To overcome this, the interviews all took place after the semester abroad was finished, so negative kickback to the workplace was limited.

 The researcher not being an unbiased interviewer, because of familiarity with the students. To prevent interviewees from giving desirable answers, the students that were selected for the interviews were not taught by the researcher during the final year of their studies. That way the interviewees are not in a dependent role, which could endanger the honesty of their answers.

 The variety of multiple levels and approaches from different disciplines does not always provide a perfect match in their approach towards the phenomenon. To solve the limitation that the researcher can never know all these theories by heart, the choice for abduction is made to make it possible to alternate.

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4. Empirical Results

In this chapter the student interviews are analysed as well as their reflection reports. It commences with a case-specific analysis, which will be expanded by a cross case analysis. In the cross case section, differences and similarities between cases become clear with the aid of two tables, through the use of which a summary is reached . For the analysis the “Systematic Combining” framework of Dubois & Gadde (2002) is applied, in which the outcomes are matched with the two theories from the preliminary framework of the Learning School and Individual Ethics.

4.1 Case-specific analysis

In this section all cases will be analysed one by one. The choice for the case-specific analysis is made in order to be concise and clear, matching the framework and key descriptive per individual case. Every case description starts by matching it to the Learning School theory on the coding tree that was distilled from the interviews. The themes and topics that came up in the intuiting and interpreting phases of the Learning School can be found in the coding tree in appendix B.

Subsequently each individual case will be matched to the Individual Ethics theory as distilled from both the interviews and the reflection reports. The themes from the theory of Individual Ethics are classified in 6 themes (Glavas, 2016), based on the findings in the different theories about perceived CSR (Lee et al, 2013; Rupp et al, 2013; Glavas, 2016), engagement (Kahn 1990; Rich et al, 2010; Kristof, 1996), creative involvement (Amabile, 1998; Glavas & Piderit, 2009), caring relationships (Glavas, 2016, Glavas & Piderit, 2009, Willard, 2002; Csikszentmihalyi & Hunter, 2003; Van Vianen & Fischer, 2002) and capability development (Caligiuri et al, 2013).

For the first match to the Learning School, the coding tree of table 3 is used for the analysis. For the ensuing match to of the theory of Individual Ethics, the themes of table 4 are used.

Code

Other experiences abroad

1 Ethical norms and beliefs prior to semester abroad Ethical norms and beliefs after semester abroad 2 Equality

3 Observation of different norms and beliefs 4 Observe and compare

5 Observation of environmental pollution (Planet) 6 Observation of business operations

7 Observation outside the Company or University 8 Observation of Manager as example

9 Interpreting 10 AUAS curriculum

11 Preparation for Semester abroad 12 People

13 Profit 14 Future job

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24 Theme 1 Perceived CSR 2 Engagement 3 High-quality connections 4 Creative involvement 5 Caring relationships 6 Capability development Table 4: Themes Individual Ethics

Case 1. In the first case, the student performed two internships abroad. The first one being a third-year internship of 5 months, performed in Curaçao and the second one a fourth-third-year internship of 5 months in South-Africa.

Applying the Learning School

Ethical norms and values: Asked for ethical values prior to his semesters abroad, the student replied “... I consider myself middle ground, depending on the situation..”. In the intuiting phase the student surmised that Dutch directness is considered to be rude in other cultures. He felt uncomfortable being treated as “boss” by the workers around him, and tried to level with them. In the interpreting phase he learned that cultural norms and beliefs need to be at least nominally matched to create a workable situation, using as an example the discrepancy caused by the fact that efficiency and time-management are not considered important in Curaçao and South-Africa.

Triple Bottom Line: Although the company holds green certificates for the use of natural products as ingredients, the way the business was performed was far from sustainable “.. the endless pumping of groundwater is done without any regard to the consequences of dry and unusable land..”. As a result the student learned to look at the consequences of the actions of a company when resources are taken from the Planet. In the knowledge and skills-development he learned how easy it was to just copy sustainable activities from the Netherlands and implement them in Curacao or South-Africa.

AUAS: During his study at the AUAS the subjects of CSR, sustainability and individual ethics were integrated in broad projects. Lecturers did not have enough knowledge of the subjects to transfer this content. As for the preparation for his internships abroad he was glad that he did not receive any prior specific training, but preferred “learning by doing” and arriving with an open mind. Matching the theory of Individual Ethics.

Perceived CSR, engagement: Perceived CSR of the student in this case was average. On the positive side the student perceived CSR awareness as the company provided organic cosmetics with a

certificate, but a negative point for the Planet was marked since resources were not used judiciously. Since there was a strong alignment between the company’s and the student’s values, he was able to act in a role in which he could be really engaged. The student felt respected and was asked for a second internship within the company. The experience of a safe environment gave him the chance to bring his true self to work.

High-quality connections, capability development: The student describes how much he appreciated working with the manager “..his feedback taught me on a daily basis what the consequences of one’s actions for research are..”. Building up a relationship with the workers on the plantation was not easy, but he invested time and energy in the relation by ”..communicating with them as much as

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possible and showing them that I was truly interested…”. He received feedback from his manager on a daily basis and the competence that was developed mostly was Communication.

Creativity: The students eyes were opened to innovation “..I learned how much research was done to acquire the organic certificate ..” In his reflection report he realized innovation in sustainability can attained in small things, like taking collective deliveries. To that end the student purchased a whiteboard to collect the purchases of all team members.

Case 2. In the second case, the student performed a minor of 5 months in an exchange program at a University in Jakarta, Indonesia.

Applying the Learning School.

Ethical norms and values: The student claimed to have strong ethical values prior to the semester abroad. By observing people from different cultures the student lost her prejudice in the interpreting phase. About her intuiting phase she remarks “...how shocked I was to experience the prejudice of other people…”. In the same phase of intuiting she came across hierarchy and considered it an advantage when the rules are set in the hierarchy “…the respectful way the teachers were treated by the students and the calm classroom behaviour, even though the lessons took 3.5 hours...”. She was much better able to learn in such a respectful environment and has taken this knowledge with her in the lessons she is following presently at the AUAS.

Triple Bottom Line: The student is very passionate about the pollution of the Ocean, for instance when they go on a boat trip organised by the University of Jakarta “..we went snorkelling and everywhere I looked there was waste in the Ocean.. when we came back ashore the crew tipped our waste overboard into the ocean..”. Taking this experience into the intuiting phase led to the insight that people in Indonesia tend not to think about the consequences for the Planet when they dump waste into the ocean. The student interpreted her experiences and observations into the belief that when it comes to CSR, it is now or never to save the resources of the Planet.

AUAS: During her study at the AUAS the subjects of CSR, sustainability and individual ethics were integrated in broad projects. Lecturers did not have enough knowledge of the subjects to transfer this content.

Matching the theory of Individual Ethics.

Perceived CSR, alignment of values: Perceived CSR of the student was low, since she has not observed any activities with regard to sustainability, nor were any stated on the website of this University. In this case there was little alignment with values within the organizations. She learned the most outside the classroom, this did not lead to bringing her true self to work, or in this case, to the classroom.

High-quality connections: In the interview the student described her Chinese classmates as children, since they were 5 to 6 years younger than she was. After class she always went to a food market with her co-students, so there was a connection to some degree.

Creativity: during the interview the student did not show that she had gained in creativity during her semester abroad. This matter was proved when she declared during the interview that “…listening to a teacher without interaction for 3,5 hours per class was not a very productive setting…” and although she did experience a safe environment, she was not challenged by the way the classes were organized to bring her true self to work.

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Case 3. In the third case, the student performed a third-year internship of 5 months in Paramaribo, Republic of Surinam.

Ethical norms and values: The student claims to have strong ethical values. The student explains how he was surprised by the strict hierarchy in Surinamese business culture, which he came upon in the intuiting phase “..if the boss tells you to do it a certain way, then that is what you do .. even if you know that it is completely wrong, for example sending letters to seniors by using an incomplete directory and not correcting it..”. He interpreted that some people are followers and need instructions to stay focused.

Triple Bottom Line: The student has learned how Surinam is able to protect its natural resources from being laid waste by mercury since all companies are well aware of the consequences. On the other hand there is no procedure for collecting household waste.

Manager as example: The manager broadened this student’s horizon by showing him that every problem can be taken on from various angles, by organizing a forum on which experts from Harvard and Yale were covering the question of “how to improve the economy of Surinam” from their own expertise. The student was very impressed with the enormous set of solutions from different directions.

Perceived CSR: Perceived CSR of the student was low in this government organisation where nothing was mentioned about sustainability. There was some alignment of the values within the organization and the student, but he was mostly learning to open up his mind, seeing beyond the limitations of his own “Dutch backyard” for the first time in his life.

High-quality connections: In the interview it was obvious that the student was mostly amazed about the connections between himself and his manager and colleagues around him.

Creativity: During the interview the student showed that he had gathered creativity within the company, mainly through the international expert forum as mentioned above, “…it was really impressive with the enormous set of solutions from different directions which showed that every problem can be tackled from various angles…”.

Case 4. This student performed a third-year internship of 5 months in South-Africa, graded by the AUAS as “excellent”, which means she gains 5 extra ECTS for doing research at a higher level than the regular requirements.

Ethical norms and values: This interviewee considers herself someone with strong ethical beliefs and in this she is quite distinct, as she says “..other people don’t have to accept it, but I will certainly give my opinion, because I have strong ethical values and beliefs..”. Experience taught her to somewhat reign in her directness and be more careful in the way she brings her strong opinions forward. She stresses the hierarchy she experienced in South-Africa, “…I was opposed to being treated as ‘the boss’ and kept on telling the people I worked with that I was doing the job together with them…”, but she found that it was not possible to behave on the same level as the workers and would always be regarded as the boss.

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Triple Bottom Line: The student learned that sustainability in a project in South Africa is indeed possible if a company’s mind is really set on it. The whole idea of the NGO was about people, since the very core of the organization and the Flagship project, which was the student’s responsibility, was women empowerment. The student learned that she feels very strongly about People coming first and that are all met with the same respect.

Manager as example: The student learned how important it is to build up trust to get things done. “…My manager, being an older lady and speaking the same language as the workers in the project, was given a lot of respect. This respect also radiated my way and made it easier for me to do my job, “… communication skills turned out to be of the utmost importance...”.

AUAS: During her study at the AUAS the subjects of CSR, sustainability and individual ethics were taught, but not in great depth. As for the preparation for the internship abroad she was glad that she did not receive specific training for this, but preferred “learning by doing”.

Perceived CSR, engagement: It was clear that the student was feeling good about herself working for the NGO as she describes in het reflection report “...I thrive on personal development. Actual and concrete work can be used as a tool to achieve and enhances this development too. Between the activities you reflect on what you have learned and apply the knowledge you acquired before…”. The alignment of the values within the company and the student were strongly matched. This

engagement showed in her enthusiasm in the way she describes how much time and energy she put in the communication with the women in the township, where the Flagship project was situated. She felt both respected and attached. In the interview her attachment is apparent in the way she talks about ”us” and “we” instead of “the company” or “the NGO”. Engagement also shows through in the marking of “excellent” of this internship.

High-quality connections: The student was very positive on the connections between herself and her manager as she comments on the fact that she shared in the respect with which her manager was met and that this benefitted her in her job.

Creativity: Having experienced the energy and positive vibe of working in such a stimulating

company, the student has developed an intensity that she brings with her to the interview. She met creativity in the aim of faring business in a hundred percent sustainability and recyclability. In her reflection report she mentions some examples of the innovation proposals that she made. Capability development: the student shared her knowledge as she describes “..We discussed mentioned problems above with all our colleagues, in a multi- and interdisciplinary team..”. The student also shared her knowledge with another intern. She improved herself significantly in the competency of communication, which was written in the reflection report.

Case 5. This student performed a third-year internship of 5 months in Hong Kong. Applying the Learning School

Ethical norms and values: The interviewee describes his ethical values as strict, since he was raised with very clear ethical norms and values. He describes how “…his world has opened up and he is less judging than before…”. He experienced that it is not possible to work at an equal level with the Chinese workers, since “…the hierarchy is extremely strict. Especially for workers in the production factory, where everybody does as the boss tells them…” and employees do not take responsibility for their actions. By interpreting habits in the Chinese culture in the making of appointments he

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learned how this is contrary to Dutch directness. The only way that this is effective is “…with a lot of two-way communication and understanding...”.

Triple Bottom Line: The student learned that in China the environmental pollution is grave, as he observes “..the streets are full of waste, I have not seen a plan to process all the waste..”. The people in China do not enjoy the liberty of free speech, “.. Facebook was blocked and so was Google…”. The student learned that the company could use its power to a positive end: “…being the biggest

customer, did give the company the power to set demands on the way third parties produce with regard to sustainability …”. Experiences in the intuiting phase about the importance of protective clothing for the workers (“…there was a welder from England and he was fully dressed in protective clothes, while the Chinese workers he was teaching to weld were wearing flip flops…”) led to the formation of his own ideas about the importance of protective clothing and exploitation in mass production in China in the interpreting phase. He came to realise the importance of employee motivation and is eager to try his ideas to reach a shared responsibility.

AUAS: During his study at the AUAS the student did not learn much about the subjects of CSR, sustainability and individual ethics. His self-chosen minor of 30 ECTS focussed on Cross Cultural Business Skills. He feels he did not learn not much since it was all theoretical lectures.

Matching the theory of Individual Ethics:

Perceived CSR: The interviewee did not observe CSR being put into practice and thus perceived CSR was low. He was mostly learning to open up his mind, seeing beyond the borders of his own “European backyard” for the first time in his life and working with a great many nationalities within the company. Although the student clearly did experience a safe environment, he was too

overwhelmed by all the different cultures to bring his true self to work.

High-quality connections: It was obvious that the student was feeling good about the connections between himself and his manager “.. he was a smart guy, who knows what he is talking about. I really liked to listen to him and learn..”. Between the student and his colleagues there appeared to be no connections, the student just seemed amazed by all different nationalities and phased especially by the Chinese co-workers’ communication methods: “..Chinese behavior is very confusing, they say yes but mean no, which makes it real hard to make appointments..”.

Creativity: During the interview the student did not show that he had gathered creativity within the company. Visiting an external production plant, however, made him aware of the need to take care of People and he formed his own creative ideas about giving shared responsibility. To make this work he wanted to motivate employees to share responsibility and let all employees share in the profits.

Capability development: Feedback was regularly given, as the interviewee states in his reflection report “..Depending on the situation we evaluated my work regularly and I had the opportunity to share my thoughts as well...”.

Case 6. In this case, the student performed a third-year internship of 5 months in Vancouver, Canada.

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29 Applying the Learning School

Ethical norms and values: The student describes his ethical values as “fairly strong, which is 7,5 to 8 on a scale of ten”. He has learned to put perspective on his ethical values. He observed that

“…combining ideas generated by the Southern way of brainstorming and creating with the Northern work mentality gave real good solutions…” and by doing this he actively learned the positive aspects of a culturally diverse work team. This student had a bad experience in the confrontation with hierarchy in Canada, where many cultures came together in a British company. He describes how the work was organized Top Down and how he got frustrated having to blindly follow the rules.

Triple Bottom Line: The student interpreted from his experiences that Profit can only be made when Planet and People are taken care of. He discovered how sustainability may well be implemented as a city when it comes to environmental pollution, provided that goals are clearly set and all inhabitants commit themselves to this goal, “…the city is nicknamed Van Green…”.

AUAS: During his study at the AUAS the student didn’t learn about the subjects of CSR, sustainability or individual ethics. His self-chosen minor in Finance of 30 ECTS though, did focus on ethics and he learned a lot.

Perceived CSR: Perceived CSR was average. The organization was not really committed to

sustainability, although employees were encouraged to avoid printing whenever possible and to use public transport.

Safe environment, engagement: There was no alignment of the values between the company and those of the student. He felt as if he was very much on is his own, being abandoned to doing a project by himself, after he had differences with the manager. In the interview his lack of attachment is shown when he remarks “… orders, not questions, came top down and

communication was very much closed instead of open…”. This student clearly did not feel safe and respected and therefore he could not bring his true self to work.

High-quality connections: In the interview the student was not feeling good about the connections between himself and his manager, from whom he received a very bad review for his internship and was almost asked to leave the company. In the end he had to work alone, since his manager did not want him to be involved with his colleagues.

Case 7. In this case, a third-year internship of 5 months was performed in North America. Applying the Learning School.

Ethical norms and values: The interviewee describes himself as somebody with strong ethical norms and values, which he received from the way he was raised. By interpreting his experiences, this respondent came to the realization that “… to respect other people’s ethical norms and values, it works better to be slightly reserved instead of coming on strongly with my own strict opinion...”. This way he learned how Dutch directness can be a disadvantage when working in another culture. He also experienced the advantages of hierarchy as he says “..the hierarchy leads to a survival of the fittest and if you are one of the winners you career can soar to great heights..”.

Triple Bottom Line: This company puts Profit ahead of the People and Planet which in the student’s opinion is not enough, he thinks the company can do better. This respondent not only experienced that when compared to the Netherlands, in general North America lags behind in sustainability when it comes to resources and saving the environment (Planet), but also that a green company is

How does international experience influence early CSR thinking? : an analysis from the perspective of the learning school and individual ethics