The effect of mobile shopping, in comparison with non-mobile online shopping, on customer loyalty

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The effect of mobile shopping, in comparison with

non-mobile online shopping, on customer loyalty

Student name: Lisa de Jong Student number: 10530525

Study: MSc. Business Administration

Track: Marketing

Institution: University of Amsterdam Thesis supervisor: Drs. Frank Slisser

Date of submission: 23-06-2017 Version: Final thesis

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Statement of Originality

This document is written by Lisa de Jong who declares to take full responsibility for the contents of this document. I declare that the text and the work presented in this document is original and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating it. The Faculty of Economics and Business is responsible solely for the supervision of completion of the work, not for the contents.

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Abstract

Online shopping has grown tremendously. Especially now, since a new form of online shopping has arisen. Namely, nowadays, online shopping consists of mobile shopping (i.e. shopping via mobiles and tablets) and non-mobile online shopping (i.e. shopping via desktop computers and laptops). Mobile shopping is rising and growing rapidly. However, there is limited knowledge about this new channel. Marketers and companies do not know how to respond to the relatively new mobile shopping channel (Wang et al., 2015). They do not know which format to use for selling their products and services. Therefore, this research investigates the effect of mobile shopping, in comparison with non-mobile online shopping, on customer loyalty. Furthermore, this study examines the mediating effect of customer satisfaction and trust, and the moderating effect of buying impulsiveness on these relationships. An online survey has been distributed to 180 respondents. After analysing the data by SPSS Macro process of Hayes (2012), several findings are presented. The results show that the use of the mobile shopping channel during the purchase phase has a positive effect on customer loyalty. Furthermore, the results demonstrate that the use of the non-mobile online shopping channel during the purchase phase does not have any effect on customer loyalty. Besides, the moderator buying impulsiveness and the mediators customer satisfaction and trust do not have a significant effect on the relationship between mobile shopping and customer loyalty, or on the relationship between non-mobile online shopping and customer loyalty. However, trust and customer satisfaction have a direct positive impact on customer loyalty in both the mobile and non-mobile shopping contexts. Hence, a mobile shopping channel seems more profitable regarding customer loyalty. Furthermore, managers should create trust and customer satisfaction when designing and using both these channels.

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Nowadays, consumers have the option to shop for products and services through different kinds of channels. Namely, since the late 1990s, consumers have also been able to buy products and services online instead of just through offline channels. Online shopping is becoming more and more popular (Zhou, Dai & Zang, 2007). So, the number of consumers using the Internet as a shopping medium has grown tremendously (Limayem, Khalifa & Frini, 2000; Monsuwé, Dellaert & Ruyter, 2004). At first, the Internet was only used for shopping via desktop computers and laptops. Recently, technology allows people to buy goods and services through mobile devices. This new technology enables shopping not only on laptop and desktop computers (i.e. non-mobile online shopping), but also on smartphones and tablets (Barnes, 2002). This current development attracts the attention of marketers and firms since a lot of people possess and carry a smartphone or tablet (i.e. mobile devices).

In fact, research shows that there are more people with mobile devices than there are with toothbrushes in the world (MMA Asia, 2011). Mobile acceptance is a global phenomenon (Shankar et al., 2016). The possession and use of mobiles in developed economies have significantly increased since the mid-1990s (Bauer, Reichardt, Barnes & Neumann, 2005). In 2013, for example, the typical United States (US) adults spent an average of 20% of his or her daily media time on mobile devices. Thereby, the shoppers’ use of mobiles is growing (Shankar et al., 2016). This means that consumers’ purchases through mobile devices are rising, and mobile shopping is becoming more common (Yang & Kim, 2012; Wang, Malthouse & Krishnamurthi, 2015). The statistics suggest that the mobile retail revenues through mobile devices will be approximately 180 billion dollars in the US by 2019, compared to 48 billion in 2013. Besides, the technology associated with mobile devices which lets marketers personally communicate with consumers, continues to develop (Scharl, Dickinger & Murphy, 2005). So, the possession and use of mobile devices are rising, and

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thereby mobile shopping is growing substantially (Wang et al., 2015).

New mobile technology is making online shopping even more popular. The ability and growth of shopping through mobile devices provide marketers and organisations with even more options to sell their products and services trough the Internet. The organisation can sell goods via websites optimized for computers, but also create platforms and apps for mobile devices. Marketers find it difficult to make a decision regarding which channel to use (non-mobile online channel vs. (non-mobile channel), especially since (non-mobile shopping is a recent topic and little is known about this channel. It turns out that firms are often uncertain if they should respond to the rising mobile shopping trend (Wang et al., 2015). In particular, there is a lack of information and insights regarding the impact of mobile shopping on customer loyalty (Wang et al., 2015). Furthermore, a comparison between non-mobile online shopping and mobile shopping is needed. Non-mobile online shopping has existed for longer than mobile shopping. Marketers are unaware which channel is most profitable in terms of loyalty, since this has not been investigated yet.

This study will investigate the effect of mobile shopping on customer loyalty. Different moderators and mediators which possibly influence the relationship between mobile shopping and customer loyalty will be investigated as well. In particular, the moderator buying impulsiveness and the mediators customer satisfaction and trust will be examined. The effect of mobile online shopping on customer loyalty will also be tested to compare non-mobile online shopping with non-mobile shopping. Furthermore, the effect of the variables on the relationship between non-mobile online shopping and customer loyalty will be compared with the effect of the variables on the relationship between mobile shopping and customer loyalty.

This thesis is organized in different sections. In chapter 2, the existing literature regarding mobile commerce, mobile shopping, online shopping, and loyalty is discussed. Furthermore, the research gap is revealed. Chapter 3 shows the conceptual model and the

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different hypotheses are stated and explained. The research design and methodology of this study is elaborated upon in chapter 4. Furthermore, chapter 5 presents the results and the analysis of the data. Finally, chapter 6 ends with a discussion and conclusion. Moreover, the managerial implications as well as the future recommendations are presented in this chapter.

2. Literature review

First, this chapter discusses the topics mobile commerce and mobile shopping because these topics are relatively new compared to non-mobile online shopping. The definition of mobile commerce and mobile shopping is given, and the multiple advantages are explained. Furthermore, previous literature regarding mobile shopping is examined. Besides, this chapter addresses the way mobile shopping can be measured. Thereafter, this chapter explains the differences between mobile shopping and online shopping. The general differences and the differences during the multiple phases of the buying process are discussed. The differences are given to show that the recent topic of mobile shopping has some similarities with online shopping. However, they can’t be treated the same due to the differences between the two channels. Secondly, this chapter addresses the existing literature regarding loyalty. Loyalty and customer loyalty are defined. The benefits regarding customer loyalty and the ways customer loyalty can be measured are addressed. Thereafter, this section discusses the literature concerning the relationship between online shopping, mobile commerce, mobile shopping, and loyalty. The relationship between these topics is explained to give an overview of the theory which already exists, and which research gap still needs to be investigated.

2.1 Mobile commerce

2.1.1 Definition

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devices to conduct and communicate transactions through private and public networks (Balasubramanian, Peterson & Jarvenpaa, 2002). So, m-commerce is described as any transaction communicated and executed through a wireless telecommunication network (Yang, 2005). Experts have predicted an entirely mobile world, where commerce can happen anywhere and anytime (Balasubramanian et al., 2002).

2.1.2 Benefits

Mobile commerce is a broad concept which provides new opportunities for businesses and consumers (Li & Yeh, 2010). First, the opportunities for businesses are discussed. M-commerce offers organisations the means to sell services and products to customers, and to distribute essential information to employees, regardless of the time or place (Frolick & Chen, 2004). Mobile technology gives companies the possibility to connect with their customers (Venkatesh, Ramesh & Massey, 2003). M-commerce can be helpful for enhancing customer relationships and provides the opportunity for personalized marketing (Frolick & Chen, 2004). Moreover, another advantage is the lower cost structure compared to traditional media, and the possibility to make faster transactions (Srinivasan, Anderson & Ponnavolu, 2002).

Thereby, m-commerce offers some advantages for consumers. First, it provides greater convenience and gives better access to information (Srinivasan et al., 2002; Frolick & Chen, 2004). Furthermore, technology decreases the information asymmetry between the sellers and the buyers. As a result, the consumers’ bargaining power is increased (Frolick & Chen, 2004).

2.1.3 Mobile commerce vs. mobile shopping

M-commerce is defined as any transaction conducted through wireless handheld devices, whereas mobile shopping is strictly concerned with the process of buying services and goods

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on these devices. The buying process consists of different phases. Mobile shopping is discussed in the next section.

2.2 Mobile shopping

As mentioned before, m-commerce is a broad topic. In order to specify the subject, this research focuses on mobile shopping.

2.2.1 Definition

In the existing literature, definitions are mentioned regarding mobile shopping. Mobile shopping (M-shopping) is defined as the ability of customers to search or purchase products and services from retailers via mobile devices (Hung, Yang & Hsieh, 2012; Lu & Su, 2009; Yang & Kim, 2012). Customers can shop through mobile applications (apps) and mobile browsers (Wang et al., 2015). Thus, M-shopping is described as shopping with a mobile device (i.e. smartphone or tablet). However, this definition is not complete. Namely, this definition does not include all the opportunities of mobile shopping (Groß, 2015).

2.2.2 Advantages

M-shopping has multiple advantages. It provides shoppers with the ability to immediately gain information from multiple sources. It gives consumers the opportunity to investigate the product availability, notable offers, and to change their selection whenever they want during their journey to purchase (Lai, Debbarma, & Ulhas, 2012). Furthermore, the mobile shopping service can be accessed anywhere and at any time (Hung et al., 2012; Lu & Su, 2009). Besides, Yang (2010) even suggests that mobile shopping services can function as a personal assistant for customers. M-shopping services can help shoppers make smart purchase decisions. Thereby, it provides mobile marketing which fits the customers’ interests and

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priorities (Yang, 2010).

2.2.3 Prior research regarding mobile shopping

Even though mobile shopping offers several benefits, the consumer adoption of the service has been mixed, for example in the US (Yang, 2010). Recently, there have been some studies which investigate the determinants and motivation behind the use of mobile shopping services (Yang, 2010; Yang & Kim, 2012). Yang (2010) suggests that facilitating conditions and social influences are important determinants of US consumers’ use of mobile shopping services. Thereby, mobile affinity has a direct and positive impact on consumers’ adoption of mobile shopping (Manzano, Mafé, & Blas, 2009). Affinity is a variable which shows the importance of the medium to individuals (Bigné, Ruiz & Sanz, 2007; Perse, 1986; Rubin, 1981). Furthermore, research has shown that current mobile shoppers use the service due to different motivations. The primary motivations are efficiency, idea, adventure, and gratification (Yang & Kim, 2012). Idea shopping is the shopping activity whereby a consumer gathers information regarding new trends (Kim, 2006). Gratification shopping is defined as shopping which produces happy feelings and provides special treats to the individual (Kim, 2006; Tauber 1972).

Mobile shopping is mainly used for purchasing habitual products. The consumers already have a history of buying the product, or they buy products from manufacturers with whom they have experience (Wang et al., 2015).

Besides, Wang et al. (2015) suggest that the order rate rises when people adopt M-shopping. It turns out that the benefits for low spending customers are even bigger. Their order rate and order size increase when they develop the habit of M-shopping (Wang et al., 2015).

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2.2.4 Measurement

In the existing literature, there are some methods mentioned to measure mobile shopping. The methods which are described in the existing literature are discussed below. Research shows that a consumer goes through three phases in their buying process, namely information search, purchase behaviour, and after sales service (Frambach, Roest, & Krishnan, 2007). Therefore, researchers can focus on different stages of the buying process. For example, research can focus on just the information search phase in mobile shopping to gain deeper insight about this specific phase. Furthermore, mobile shopping customers can be segmented by the number of products they buy. For example, research can focus on mobile shoppers who used mobile devices at least once in their orders (Wang et al., 2015). On the other hand, consumers can also be distinguished by the kind of products they purchase. This means that consumers can be segmented according to different product categories (Konuş, Verhoef & Neslin, 2008).

2.2.5 Mobile shopping vs. online shopping ● General differences

Mobile shopping and online shopping are similar to each other. Namely, both occur on the Internet. Consumers do not have to go to a store to buy a product or service (Heinonen & Pura, 2006). However, there are some differences. These are discussed below.

Online shopping permits customers to purchase services or goods via the Internet by using a web browser. Customers can shop online through multiple devices, such as laptops, desktop computers, tablets, and smartphones. However, mobile shopping is described as the buying of goods and services on tablets and smartphones (Wang et al., 2015). Mobile shopping is not focused on shopping using desktop computers and laptops. So, online

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shopping is broader than mobile shopping. In the following text, online shopping will be divided in mobile shopping and non-mobile online shopping to make the differences between these two channels clear.

The mobile shopping channel allows consumers to shop at any time and at any location, irrespective of spatial and temporal constraints (Heinonen & Pura, 2006). A mobile Internet system is moveable and can be made available at any moment and in any place (Chae & Kim, 2003). This is in contrast with non-mobile online shopping, where the service delivery is linked to a specific location or a specific fixed local area network (Heinonen & Pura, 2006).

Moreover, mobile Internet is restrained by available resources. Stationary Internet (non-mobile online service) has a higher level of available resources compared to those afforded by mobile Internet systems. For example, mobile devices have smaller screens and are less convenient in input and output facilities compared to desktop computers (Chae & Kim, 2003). So, it is harder to process a lot of information on mobile devices and to see the picture of the product on the screen due to its smaller size.

Besides, stationary (non-mobile online) Internet devices (i.e. desktop computers and laptops) are usually less individual and personal compared to mobile Internet devices (Kristoffersen & Ljungberg, 1999). Desktop computers are generally shared among people, whereas it is uncommon for people to share mobile Internet phones. So, the mobile device contains its user identity (Chae & Kim, 2003). Shoppers see mobile devices as an expansion of their own personal identity (Shankar et al., 2016).

● Differences in the phases of the buying process

Research shows that mobile devices, laptops, and desktop computers are used for purchases, comparing products, checking prices, reading user reviews, and gathering product information

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go through the three phases of the buying process. However, there are some differences between mobile and non-mobile online shopping during the phases of the buying process.

First, the three different stages are mentioned. After that, the differences between mobile shopping and non-mobile online shopping in each of the three phases are discussed.

- Three phases

The consumer decision-making process can be divided in a three-stage model. There are more elaborate models (Shankar, Inman, Mantrala, Kelley & Rizley, 2011; Holmes, Byrne & Rowley, 2013), however, the three-stage model is less complex to understand for respondents and readers (Holmes et al., 2013).

The three-stage model states that consumers go through three phases in their buying process. Consumers start with the information search, thereafter go through the purchase phase, and close up with the after sales service. So, there are three broad stages: before purchase, during purchase, and after purchase (Shankar et al., 2016).

Information search is the phase where consumers gather information. In the purchasing stage, consumers actually purchase the product or service. The decision to purchase is made, and the transaction is performed (Frambach et al., 2007). The after sales service includes the services provided by the company concerning product information and assistance.

- Online vs. mobile related to the three phases

Holmes et al. (2013) state that the use of mobiles is higher in the information search phase compared to the purchase stage phase. All the other channels share the same result. Nonetheless, the emphasis on the information search phase is even greater for mobiles, compared with computers (Holmes et al., 2013).

- Information search

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the time, mobile devices are carried by the user. Consumers can search for information quickly, like reading product experiences and reviews of other shoppers, while they are on the move (Heinonen & Pura, 2006; Shankar et al., 2016). The most important drivers of mobile device use during the information search phase are convenience and savings. Furthermore, mobile devices offer immediacy, which means that consumers can get access to information in real time (Shankar et al., 2016). Searching information via the stationary Internet of a desktop computer or laptop (i.e. non-mobile online channel) can only be done at a specific location with Wi-Fi or connectivity.

However, mobile devices are not very useful for comprehensive information search and processing which requires a lot of effort and time. Consumers prefer to research products like cars or life insurance on Laptops because they have a larger screen (Shankar et al., 2016). So, mobile devices could not entirely replace laptops and desktop computers for evaluation and reflection of options. For instance, consumers prefer larger screen devices for complex purchases. (Shankar et al., 2016).

- Purchase phase

Research shows that different kinds of products are bought through mobile and non-mobile online shopping services. Customers prefer mobile Internet versus stationary Internet (i.e. non-mobile Internet) for low-risk products. Products which are not standardized and not expensive are described as low-risk products. High-risk products are products which are technologically complicated and expensive (Bhatnagar, Misra, & Rao, 2000). Furthermore, Wang et al. (2015) state that people prefer buying habitual products through mobile devices. These fall into the same category as low-risk products.

- After sales services (post-purchase)

In the post-purchase phase, the mobile shopper and non-mobile online shopper can share their opinions about products or services (Shankar et al., 2016). However, the mobile channel is

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more convenient for sharing opinions compared to stationary Internet devices. The mobile channel allows frustrated and delighted customers to post their opinions immediately and from anywhere. It is an opportunity to post opinions immediately since the experience can disappear from memory. Marketers can reach shoppers sooner by means of mobiles after they purchased a product or service, compared to laptops and desktop computers (Shankar et al., 2016).

In summary, typical non-mobile online shopping deviates from mobile shopping. The mobile channel must be seen as a distinct channel. It is not just a copy of the Internet. Mobile devices will be used at home and on the move and they can substitute or supplement the current Internet-based services (Holmes et al., 2013). By extension, mobile and non-mobile online shoppers may be treated as distinct segments.

2.3 Loyalty

Loyalty can be linked to company growth. Moreover, it is essential to the longevity of any brand (Reichheld, 2003). Thus, loyalty is one of the most important factors for business success (Reichheld & Teal, 2001), and is discussed in detail in this section.

2.3.1 Definition loyalty

Due to the importance of loyalty for marketers, a lot of research has been done on this topic. Multiple definitions are mentioned in the existing literature. Loyalty stands for retention and commitment (Narayandas, 1999; Eriksson & Vaghult, 2000; Birgelen, Wetzels & Ruyter, 1997). Loyalty is not just a matter of how you act, but also a matter of how you think (Keller, 2007).

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2.3.2 Customer loyalty

This research focuses on customer loyalty. Oliver (1999, p. 34) describes customer loyalty as “a deeply held commitment to rebuy or re-patronize a preferred product/service consistently in the future, thereby causing repetitive same-brand or same brand-set purchasing, despite situational influences and marketing efforts having the potential to cause switching behaviour.” It is important not to confuse repeated purchases with loyalty. Customers may repeatedly purchase a product or service, but this does not necessarily mean that they are committed to the company or brand. There can be other reasons for repeatedly purchasing a product or service (Baloglu, 2002). Whereas, loyalty goes beyond actions and also is a matter of how you think (Keller, 2007).

2.3.3 Benefits

Customer loyalty consists of several benefits. Research shows that there is a positive relationship between customer loyalty and profitability (Bowen & Chen, 2001). Reichheld (1996) states that loyal customers spend more time with the company and are less price sensitive. Furthermore, they recommend their favourite brands or organisations to other people. Besides, the costs of serving loyal customers are lower than the costs of attracting new customers (Reichheld, 1996).

2.3.4 Measurement

Loyalty can be assessed on two dimensions, namely behaviour and attitude (Baloglu, 2002). So, there is a distinction between attitudinal and behavioural customer loyalty measures (Dick & Basu, 1994). An indicator of loyalty in the behavioural measurement is the consistent and repetitive purchase behaviour (Bowen & Chen, 2001). Attitudinal data is used in the attitudinal measurements to look at the psychological and emotional attachment regarding

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loyalty (Bowen & Chen, 2001).

2.3 Online shopping, mobile commerce and mobile shopping related to loyalty

There have been some studies regarding mobile commerce, mobile shopping, and loyalty. However, these studies are limited. The studies which are found are discussed below. Furthermore, literature regarding online shopping and loyalty is examined.

2.3.1 Online shopping related to loyalty

Online shopping has existed for longer compared to mobile shopping. Therefore, a lot of research regarding online shopping has already been done. The relationship between online shopping and loyalty has been tested by several researchers (Park & Kim, 2003; Harris & Goode 2004). Various studies show that trust and customer satisfaction are two major determinants affecting customer loyalty during online shopping (Harris & Goode 2004; Yang & Peterson, 2004). These two determinants are deemed most influential in creating customer loyalty during online shopping. For example, Harris and Goode (2004) show that trust and customer satisfaction have a direct impact on loyalty. Additionally, the findings of Yang and Peterson (2004) suggest that customer loyalty can be achieved through improving customer satisfaction. Besides, research shows that trust is the most significant factor for success in an online environment (Salo & Karjaluoto, 2007).

o Customer satisfaction

Different factors influence customer satisfaction with online shopping (Alam & Yasin, 2010). Website quality and vendor/service/product characteristics have a direct impact on customer satisfaction (Li & Zhang, 2002). Vendor characteristics stand for the features of the Internet stores. The service characteristics refer to the service the Internet store offers to assist with the transaction. Furthermore, Alam and Yasin (2010) show that consumers’ satisfaction with

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online shopping is influenced by product variety, website design, delivery performances, and reliability. Besides, Ho and Wu (1999) state that technological characteristics, logistical support, information characteristics, and homepage presentation, influence customer satisfaction. Technological characteristics include organized information systems, innovative networks, and computer facilities. Logistical support contains fast reply to customers’ needs, providing goods for customers quickly, facilitating communication channels, and delivering after service. Information characteristics include transactions which are secure. Product characteristics contain the diversity of products and providing goods for lower prices. Homepage presentation is presented by exhaustive information of products and a page which is easy to use (Ho & Wu, 1999).

o Trust

When shopping online, the consumer’s trust in a vendor is influenced by contextual factors, like security and privacy (Lee & Turban, 2001; Monsuwé et al., 2004). Furthermore, calculative-based beliefs, structural assurances, situational normality and an easy to use interface are important antecedents of trust when shopping online (Gefen, Karahanna, & Straub, 2003). Calculative-based belief is the belief that the seller has nothing to win by cheating. Structural assurance is the assumption that the website is based on safety mechanisms. Situational normality is a judgment of how normal or customary the transaction looks. This characteristic assures people that they know what is happening and that everything in the setting is as it should be (Baier 1986; Lewis & Weigert, 1985). So, it is an estimation of the success of the transaction (Gefen et al., 2003).

To conclude, several studies investigate the relationship between online shopping and customer loyalty. (Shankar, Smith, & Rangaswamy, 2003). Customer satisfaction and trust are important factors in creating customer loyalty during online shopping. However, there is

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still room to investigate the effect of moderators on the relationship between online shopping and loyalty. Specifically, the impact of individual differences on customer loyalty requires future investigation (Liao, Wang & Yeh, 2014). For instance, Liao et al. (2014) mention that customers with high variety-seeking characteristics do not aspire to form a long-term relationship with a service provider. So, individual differences in variety seeking are already investigated. However, there are other individual differences which require future investigation (Carrasco & Faxall, 2006). The individual differences in buying impulsiveness deserve some additional attention (Zhang & Wang, 2010). This is discussed later on.

2.3.2 Mobile commerce related to loyalty

In 2006, Lin and Wang investigated the impact of habit, trust, perceived value, and customer satisfaction on customer loyalty, within the context of consumer-oriented m-commerce. Respondents were divided into different m-commerce categories, like booking travel tickets, downloading music and regular bank services. The research focused on the actual purchase of products or services through an m-commerce website. Respondents were requested to mention the last m-commerce website they had used to purchase a product or service. The researchers show that trust, habit, perceived value and customer satisfaction are significant predictors of customer loyalty. However, Lin and Wang (2006) state that future research is needed to find additional factors which can enhance the capability to predict customer loyalty in a mobile commerce context. So, there is only one existing study which investigates mobile commerce and customer loyalty, which was conducted in Taiwan in 2006. Now, 11 years later, the mobile commerce context has changed due to several improvements and technologies. Besides, the authors only investigate the m-commerce context. So, to make the research more specific, the literature regarding mobile shopping and loyalty is investigated. Furthermore, the next chapter examines if the mentioned predictors are also examined within

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the existing literature regarding mobile shopping.

2.3.3 Mobile shopping related to loyalty

As mentioned before, Wang et al. (2015) show that the order rate increases when people adopt mobile shopping. Order rate is defined as ‘‘the number of orders placed per year’’ (Wang et al., 2015, p. 217). So, the order rate used in the study is just a measure of behavioural customer loyalty. It turns out that Wang et al. (2015) are the only researchers who have investigated the relationship between mobile shopping and loyalty.

2.3.4 Research gap

As shown before, online shopping is an interesting topic. Especially now, since a new form of online shopping has arisen. This new form of online shopping is mobile shopping. Mobile shopping is a relatively recent topic. Therefore, the research on mobile shopping is scarce. However, mobile shopping is growing, so additional research is necessary, especially in the area of mobile shopping and loyalty (Wang et al., 2015). Wang et al. (2015) are the first and only researchers who investigate the effect of mobile shopping on the order rate. However, this is just the behavioural aspect of loyalty. As explained before, customer loyalty consists of behavioural and attitudinal loyalty. Customers may repeatedly purchase a product or service (behavioural customer loyalty), but this does not necessarily mean that they are committed to the company or brand (attitudinal customer loyalty). There can be other reasons for repeatedly purchasing a product or service (Baloglu, 2002). Therefore, it is also interesting to investigate the effect of mobile shopping on attitudinal customer loyalty. This has not yet been investigated. Thus, customer loyalty needs to be measured including both the attitudinal and behavioural dimension. Loyalty is crucial in the marketing context. Loyalty is one of the most important factors for business success (Bowen & Chen, 2001).

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Several studies have investigated the relationship between online shopping and customer loyalty. However, online shopping is broader than mobile shopping. Namely, nowadays, online shopping is divided in mobile shopping and non-mobile online shopping. These two forms of online shopping have some differences. However, they also have some common characteristics. Therefore, it is also interesting to investigate the relationship between mobile shopping and customer loyalty. It is interesting to examine if mobile shopping also has an effect on customer loyalty and if the effect is different compared to the effect of non-mobile online shopping (i.e. original form of online shopping). So, it is interesting to compare the relationship of non-mobile online shopping and customer loyalty with the relationship between mobile shopping and customer loyalty. This hasn’t been investigated yet, but can help marketers to make a decision regarding the use of mobile and/or non-mobile online channels.

Furthermore, the researchers who focus on online shopping, mobile commerce and loyalty show that there are several possible factors which influence this relationship. The factors customer satisfaction and trust are mentioned the most. These variables still need to be investigated in the mobile shopping context to explore the relationship between mobile shopping and customer loyalty. Therefore, this research investigates if customer satisfaction and trust also influence the relationship between mobile shopping and loyalty. This research focuses on these factors since, as explained earlier, mobile commerce, online shopping, and mobile shopping are closely related. Thereby, this study investigates if the role of the variables trust and satisfaction is different in the relationship between non-mobile online shopping and customer loyalty, compared to the role of these variables in the relationship between mobile shopping and customer loyalty. This is investigated since satisfaction and trust might play a different role in these relationships.

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loyalty requires future investigation (Liao et al., 2014). In addition, impulsive buying might influence customer loyalty (Zhang & Wang, 2010). Therefore, it is interesting to investigate if the trait buying impulsiveness affects customer loyalty during non-mobile online and mobile shopping. Also, different product categories need to be tested to generalize the results of this study (Wang et al., 2015).

Therefore, the research question is:

What is the effect of mobile shopping, in comparison with non-mobile online shopping, on customer loyalty, and what is the role of customer satisfaction, trust and buying impulsiveness in these relationships?

2.4 Contribution

2.4.1 Scientific contributions

This study contributes to the existing literature in different ways. First, the study expands the scarce literature regarding the relatively new mobile shopping concept by investigating the effect of mobile shopping on attitudinal and behavioural customer loyalty. Furthermore, this study adds to the existing literature by comparing the effect of non-mobile online shopping on customer loyalty with the effect of mobile shopping on customer loyalty. This hasn’t been investigated in previous research yet. Thereby, this research investigates the role of the mediators (customer satisfaction and trust) and moderator (buying impulsiveness) in these relationships to address a gap in the literature. Besides, this study contributes by testing different product categories.

2.4.2 Managerial contribution

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and managers. Non-mobile online shopping has already been investigated several times, but managers still need to know what effect M-shopping has on loyalty. Managers are interested in customer loyalty since it has a significant impact on a firm’s performance (Sasser, Schlesinger & Heskett, 1997; Woodruff 1997). If M-shopping creates loyal customers, then they need to be aware of this. Managers can use the information from this thesis to make a decision regarding the investments in mobile shopping channels. They will know whether and for whom mobile shopping is an important channel and if they need to invest in it. Furthermore, they can compare mobile channels and non-mobile online channels in their effectiveness on customer loyalty. The comparison between the two channels can be relevant for a manager to decide which channel is more valuable to gain customer loyalty. This information helps them to determine the investments in the different channels.

3. Conceptual framework

In this chapter, the conceptual framework is presented. First, this chapter shows and explains the conceptual framework which is developed for this research. After that, several hypotheses are proposed and formulated. The first hypotheses focus on mobile shopping and non-mobile online shopping. The second part of the hypotheses concentrate on the difference between the relationship of mobile shopping and customer loyalty, and non-mobile online shopping and customer loyalty.

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Figure 1 - Conceptual framework

This study investigates what the effect of mobile shopping and non-mobile online shopping is on customer loyalty. Furthermore, this research examines if trust, buying impulsiveness and customer satisfaction play a role in these relationships. Besides, the two channels are compared with each other regarding their effect on customer loyalty. The conceptual framework of this study is presented in Figure 1.

3.1 Mobile shopping and non-mobile online shopping

3.1.1 Information search, purchase phase and after sale service.

As discussed before, mobile shoppers and non-mobile online shoppers go through three different phases of the shopping process. However, this study focuses on the purchase phase. Specifically, on the moment when consumers purchased the product or service. This choice is made since computers and laptops, as well as mobiles and tablets, are used often for making purchases. Therefore, the channels can be easily compared based on the purchase phase. The information search is excluded in this research since mobile devices are not very useful for comprehensive search and processing (Shankar et al., 2016). Therefore, mobile devices are not used very often for searching information which requires a big investment of time and effort, compared to desktop computers and laptops. This makes it difficult to compare the two

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used in many different industries and therefore excluded in this study. Furthermore, since this study needs to be completed in a short time frame, the information search and aftersales service are excluded for practical reasons as well.

Customer loyalty here is described as ‘‘the customer’s favourable attitude towards a mobile or non-mobile online vendor, followed by repeat purchasing behaviour in the future, despite situational influences and marketing efforts having the potential to cause switching behaviour’’ (Lin & Wang 2006, p. 273; Oliver, 1999, p.34; Anderson & Srinivasan, 2003).

Shankar et al., (2003) found a positive association between Internet usage and loyalty. Internet usage includes purchasing products and services via the web. Therefore, we expect that there is also a positive relationship between mobile shopping and customer loyalty, as well as a positive relationship between non-mobile online shopping and customer loyalty. Furthermore, online service is likely to meet the expectations of the customers. Namely, the web enables information search, which better informs the customer about the service level to expect. Therefore, the customers are probably not surprised by the services received (Shankar, Smith & Rangaswamy, 2003). As a consequence, the company, brand, and website build ‘fortitude’ which protect the brand from competitors (Oliver, 1999). So, one may conclude that online shopping (mobile as well as non-mobile) results in customer loyalty. Furthermore, purchases can be made very easily and very quickly via the Internet. The Internet is simple to use, which enables customers to easily get in contact with the brand or organization, to get access to information very quickly, and to make purchases even when the stores are closed (Heinonen & Pura, 2006). The convenience and savings might stimulate the loyalty as well among customers during the purchase phase. Therefore, the first hypotheses state:

H1a: The use of the mobile shopping channel during the purchase phase has a positive effect on customer loyalty.

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H1b: The use of the non-mobile online shopping channel during the purchase phase has a positive effect on customer loyalty.

3.1.2 Trust

Trust is a critical aspect in the online environment (Salo & Karjaluoto, 2007; Gefen, 2000). Trust has a direct and positive impact on customer loyalty (Harris & Goode, 2004). In this study, trust is defined as ‘‘a set of specific beliefs dealing primarily with the integrity (trustee honesty and promise keeping), benevolence (trustee caring and motivation to act in the truster's interest), competence (ability of trustee to do what the truster needs) and predictability (trustee’s behavioural consistency) of a particular mobile vendor or non-mobile online vendor’’ (Lin & Wang, 2006, p. 274). Trust in a mobile vendor or non-mobile online vendor might be increased or decreased through previous purchase experience with the given vendor. Positive outcomes from repeated purchases might result in a higher level of trust (Chiu, Hsu, Lai & Chang, 2012). Consumers’ trust in the vendor during online shopping is important due to the perceived level of risk associated with online purchasing (Anderson & Srinivasan, 2003). Previous research suggests that customers stay away from online retailers who they do not trust (Jarvenpaa, Tractinsky, & Saarinen 1999; Reichheld and Schefter, 2000). They stay away from firms which might violate their privacy, which engage in unfair pricing or from firms who use their credit card information without authorization (Gefen et al., 2003). We expect that this relationship also exists during mobile shopping. Furthermore, we also test this relationship in the non-mobile online shopping environment. Therefore, we hypothesize that:

H2a: The positive relationship between the use of the mobile shopping channel and customer loyalty is mediated by consumer trust, so that mobile shopping will increase customer loyalty

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through an increase in consumer’s trust in the vendor.

H2b: The positive relationship between the use of the non-mobile online shopping channel and customer loyalty is mediated by consumer trust, so that mobile shopping will increase customer loyalty through an increase in consumer’s trust in the vendor.

3.1.3 Buying impulsiveness

The trait buying impulsiveness is the degree to which a person is likely to make unintentional, thoughtless, and hasty purchases (Huang & Ming, 2005; Lee & Yi, 2008). Consumers who are highly impulsive buyers are more influenced by spur-of-the-moment buying stimuli, and they are more prone to sudden buying ideas. The rise and development of the Internet increase the accessibility of products and services, and the ease of buying something. Therefore, the new technology provides possibilities for shopping impulsively (Lee & Yi, 2008). So, the Internet’s convenience can stimulate consumers’ buying impulsiveness (Sun & Wu, 2011). Impulsive buyers may not pay attention to the company or website they buy from, since they experience sudden buying impulses. This might have a negative effect on customer loyalty. Furthermore, impulsive purchases influence disappointment (Rook, 1987). Besides, Rook and Hoch (1985) argue that buying impulsiveness has a negative effect on finance and overall self-esteem. The unfavourable consequences derived from buying impulsiveness might negatively affect loyalty to the retailer, producer or website (Zhang & Wang, 2010). Therefore, we expect that:

H3a: The positive relationship between the use of the mobile shopping channel and customer loyalty is moderated by buying impulsiveness, so that this relationship is less strong for impulsive buyers.

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and customer loyalty is moderated by buying impulsiveness, so that this relationship is less strong for impulsive buyers.

3.1.4 Customer satisfaction

According to Kim, Park and Jeong (2004, p.148), customer satisfaction is defined as ‘‘the customer reaction to the state of fulfilment, and customer judgment of the fulfilled state.’’ More specifically, according to Anderson and Srinivasan (2003, p. 125) satisfaction is ‘‘the summary psychological state resulting when the emotion surrounding disconfirmed expectations is coupled with consumer’s prior feeling about the consumer experience.’’ In this study, customer satisfaction is defined as the contentment of the customer with respect to his or her prior purchasing experience with a given mobile vendor or non-mobile online vendor (Anderson & Srinivasan, 2003). Customer satisfaction of an organization’s services or products is essential for a company’s success and long-term competitiveness (Thurau & Klee, 1997). Customer satisfaction reduces consumers’ price sensitivity, strengthens the business reputation, and stimulates word-of-mouth recommendations, repeat purchase intentions, or loyalty (Fornell, 1992; Eggert & Ulaga, 2002). Besides, the research of Harris and Goode (2004) show that customer satisfaction is a major determinant in affecting customer loyalty during online shopping. Since mobile shopping and (non-mobile) online shopping differ but also share some common characteristics, it is interesting to investigate if customer satisfaction also influences the relationship between mobile shopping and customer loyalty. Furthermore, to test previous theories, the role of customer satisfaction in the relationship between non-mobile online shopping and loyalty is tested as well. We hypothesize that:

H4a: The positive relationship between the use of the mobile shopping channel and customer loyalty is mediated by customer satisfaction, so that mobile shopping will increase customer

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loyalty through an increase in customer satisfaction.

H4b: The positive relationship between the use of the non-mobile online shopping channel and customer loyalty is mediated by customer satisfaction, so that non-mobile online shopping will increase customer loyalty through an increase in customer satisfaction.

3.2 Differences between mobile shopping and non-mobile online shopping

3.2.1 Mobile/non-mobile online shopping and customer loyalty

As stated before, Internet usage has a positive association with customer loyalty (Shankar et al., 2003). Mobile shopping, as well as non-mobile online shopping, enable customers to make purchases through the web. So, as explained before, mobile shopping or non-mobile online shopping might have a positive relationship with customer loyalty. Shopping through mobile devices enable customers to use the Internet during the whole day. Information can be searched, and purchases can be made at any moment. So, the Internet usage through mobile devices is probably higher compared to the Internet usage through desktop computers and laptops, since the mobile Internet is not restricted to a specific location or a specific fixed local area network (Heinonen & Pura, 2006). Therefore, consumers can make purchases more easily and more frequently compared to non-mobile online shopping. So, one may theorize that mobile shopping might lead to higher customer loyalty compared to non-mobile online shopping. It should be noted that searching for information and purchasing products and services through mobile devices are not only performed when consumers are on the move. Consumers also use mobile devices when they are at home, just as the non-mobile online devices (Holmes et al., 2013). However, the possibility to use the Internet during the whole day makes the Internet usage through mobile devices higher compared to non-mobile online devices, which might increase the customer loyalty even more.

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the customer better about the service level to expect, which might result in customer loyalty (Oliver, 1999; Shankar et al., 2003). Since the mobile shopping channel enables consumers to search for information during the whole day (Shankar et al., 2003), consumers might even be better informed about which service level to expect. Consumers are not restricted to search for information at a specific location. So, the mobile shopping channel is even more likely to meet the expectations of the customers compared to the non-mobile online shopping channel. Therefore, the website might be better protected against competitors with mobile shopping, which results in even higher customer loyalty.

H5: The use of the online shopping channel (i.e. use of the mobile shopping channel or use of the non-mobile online shopping channel) has a positive effect on customer loyalty, and this positive effect is stronger for the use of the mobile shopping channel compared to the use of the non-mobile online shopping channel.

3.2.2 Different role of trust

As previously explained, trust in a vendor is important to develop customer loyalty. In this chapter, we explain if trust in a vendor might be more important during mobile shopping or during non-mobile online shopping. As mentioned before, mobile shopping and non-mobile online shopping have some common characteristics, but the channels also show some differences. Research show that stationary Internet devices (i.e. computer desktops and laptops) are usually less personal and individual compared to mobile Internet devices (Kristoffersen & Ljungberg, 1999). Namely, desktop computers and laptops are mostly shared among people and contain less private information. Since mobile devices are more personal and individual, people might worry even more about the privacy and security when shopping on a mobile device compared to shopping through stationary Internet devices (i.e. non-mobile

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online shopping). During mobile shopping, people might worry even more about firms who could use their credit card information and firms who might violate their privacy, since mobiles and tablets contain more private information. People need to trust the company in order to use the mobile shopping channel or non-mobile online shopping channel of that firm (Reichheld & Schefter, 2000). The consumers’ trust in a company or firm which helps to create customer loyalty might be more important during the use of the mobile shopping channel compared to the use of the non-mobile online shopping channel. Therefore, trust in the vendor may play a different role in the relationship between mobile shopping and customer loyalty compared to the relationship between non-mobile online shopping and customer loyalty.

H6: The positive relationship between the use of the online shopping channel (use of the mobile shopping channel or use of the non-mobile online shopping channel) and customer loyalty is mediated by trust, and the positive mediating role of trust is stronger for the use of the mobile shopping channel compared to the use of the non-mobile online shopping channel.

3.2.3 Different role of customer satisfaction

As explained before, customer satisfaction is important for developing customer loyalty during mobile shopping as well as during non-mobile online shopping (Harris & Goode, 2004). However, the role that satisfaction plays in the relationship between non-mobile online shopping and loyalty might be different than the role satisfaction plays in the relationship between mobile shopping and loyalty. The different role which satisfaction might play is explained below.

Expectation plays an important role in creating satisfaction. The importance of expectation is explained by the expectation-confirmation theory (Bhattacherjee, 2001). The

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expectation-confirmation theory states that consumers assess the perceived performance of a product or service versus their initial expectation, and decide the degree to which their expectation is confirmed. By the confirmation level and expectation on which the confirmation was based, the consumer forms an opinion about their level of satisfaction (Bhattacherjee, 2001). Both devices have certain qualities, and the expectations might differ between the two channels. It is assumed that the expectation levels of the performance of a product or service from a vendor are lower during mobile shopping compared to non-mobile online shopping. Namely, the mobile shopping channel is relatively new, so people do not expect it to work flawlessly (Wang et al., 2015). In this reasoning, the expectations of the performance of a product or service from a vendor might be more easily met during mobile shopping compared to non-mobile online shopping. Therefore, it is expected that people are satisfied earlier during the usage of the mobile shopping channel compared to the usage of the non-mobile online shopping channel. To make this argument clear, this study looks at the variable website design. Website design is a determinant which influences customer satisfaction when shopping online (Alam & Yasin, 2010). Website design receives the most support as a factor that influences customer satisfaction during online shopping (Alam & Yasin 2010). People will probably be more critical when judging a non-mobile website design compared to a mobile website design. Namely, the consumers believe that marketers and companies already have had the opportunity to make the website design as good as possible since this channel has already existed for a long time compared to the mobile shopping channel. The website design expectations for the non-mobile online channels are higher. Since the expectations of the website design are higher during non-mobile online shopping, it is probably more difficult to create satisfaction. So, in general, it seems more difficult to create satisfaction during non-mobile online shopping compared to mobile shopping.

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online shopping (Shankar et al., 2016). Therefore, the non-mobile online channel offers a larger variety of websites available for consumers to buy products and services (Bradshaw & Brash, 2001). Since there are so many alternative websites to buy the products/services, people can easily switch to another company when they are not satisfied with the vendor. However, since mobile shopping is relatively new, there are not as many alternatives as with non-mobile online shopping (Wang et al., 2015). Therefore, although not completely satisfied, people are more likely to buy from the same mobile vendor’s website in the future. Thus, satisfaction might play a more important role in the relationship between non-mobile online shopping and customer loyalty compared to the role of satisfaction in the relationship between non-mobile online shopping and customer loyalty. Thus, we hypothesize that:

H7: The positive relationship between the use of the online shopping channel (use of the mobile shopping channel or use of the non-mobile online shopping channel) and customer loyalty is mediated by customer satisfaction, and the positive mediating role of satisfaction is stronger for the use of the non-mobile online shopping channel compared to the use of the mobile shopping channel.

3.2.4 Different role of buying impulsiveness

As mentioned before, the Internet makes it easier to buy something. Namely, people do not have to go to a store to purchase a product or service. The Internet’s convenience can stimulate consumers’ buying impulsiveness (Sun & Wu, 2011). The mobile shopping channel is easy to use, and can be used everywhere and at any moment. Laptops and desktop computers (non-mobile online channels) are linked to a specific location or a specific fixed local area network, so can’t be used for shopping purposes while on the move (Heinonen & Pura, 2006). Though, laptops are becoming more portable but finding a network to connect to

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is still a common problem when on the go. Therefore, impulsive purchases can be made more frequently and easily through the mobile shopping channel compared to the non-mobile online shopping channel. Thus, the mobile shopping channel gives consumers the opportunity to make impulsive purchases during the whole day and might stimulate the impulsive purchases even more (Chae & Kim, 2003). Therefore, buying impulsiveness might have a greater impact on the relationship between mobile shopping and customer loyalty compared to the impact on the relationship between non-mobile online shopping and loyalty. Therefore, we state that:

H8: The positive relationship between the use of the online shopping channel (use of the mobile shopping channel or use of the non-mobile online shopping channel) and customer loyalty is moderated by buying impulsiveness, and the negative moderating effect of buying impulsiveness is stronger for the use of the mobile shopping channel compared to the use of the non-mobile online shopping channel.

4. Methodology

Data were collected by means of a survey to answer the research question and to test the proposed hypotheses. This chapter discusses the data collection method. First, the research design is addressed. Second, the way the data is measured is explained. After that, this chapter describes the sample. In the end, there is a description of the strengths and limitations of this research design.

4.1 Research design

To answer the research question, a cross-sectional, self-administrated online survey was distributed. This study enabled statistical analysis and the collection of structured data based

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on a lot of respondents (Saunders and Lewis, 2012). After the data had been collected through the survey, the data were analysed statistically to test the hypotheses and to be able to draw conclusions.

4.1.1 Procedure

At the beginning of the survey, a short introduction was given about the research. In this introduction, the respondents were informed about the topic of the study, the length of the survey (duration), and the confidentiality of the questionnaire.

The survey started with questions regarding the use of mobile devices during shopping. The respondents were questioned about the usage of the mobile channel for the purchase of products or services. The answer was nominal by answering ‘yes’ or ‘no’. If the respondent answered ‘yes’ to use mobile devices for purchasing products and services, questions regarding mobile shopping were asked. After that, respondents were questioned about the usage of laptops and desktop computers for purchasing products and services. If they confirmed that they also participate in non-mobile online shopping, they needed to complete questions about non-mobile online shopping as well. If the respondents answered ‘no’ to using the mobile shopping channel or non-mobile online shopping channel for purchasing products or services, they did not need to answer questions regarding that channel. So, the respondents only needed to answer questions that were applicable to them.

If the respondents answered ‘yes’ to using mobile devices or laptops and desktop computers for purchasing products or services, questions were asked about the mobile shopping channel and/or non-mobile online shopping channel. Respondents were questioned about the frequency of using a particular channel for purchase purposes. Furthermore, respondents were asked what the last mobile or non-mobile online website was they had used for buying a product or service. After that, they needed to answer questions thinking about

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that vendor’s mobile or non-mobile website. Respondents were questioned about the frequency of usage of that vendor’s mobile or non-mobile website for purchases. Besides, to measure customer loyalty, questions regarding behavioural and attitudinal loyalty were asked. Thereby, the satisfaction level of the customer with the given mobile or non-mobile online vendor was requested based on the customer’s prior purchasing experience from that vendor’s website. Furthermore, questions about website design were asked to see what the effect of this antecedent was on satisfaction during mobile or non-mobile online shopping. Thereby, questions about the consumer’s trust towards that mobile or non-mobile online vendor were asked based on previous experience with the vendor’s website.

At the end of the survey, each participant had to answer questions regarding buying impulsiveness. Furthermore, some general questions about age, gender, education, and income were asked. Before the survey was distributed, a pilot study was conducted to evaluate the survey design and to establish survey quality.

4.2 Measures

The different validated scales which were used for this study are presented below. The measures of the different variables were adopted from previous research to ensure content validity.

An adapted version of the validated four item 7-point Likert scale of Gefen (2000) was used to measure trust. One item from Gefen’s study (2000) to measure trust was deleted, namely the item ‘based on my experience with the vendor’s mobile/non-mobile website, I know it is not opportunistic’. This item was deleted for this research since a pilot test of the survey showed that respondents did not understand the item. Besides, the Cronbach’s alpha was not high compared to the other items which measure trust (Luarn & Lin, 2003; Lin & Wang, 2006). Customer satisfaction was measured with the six-item 7-point Likert scale

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adopted from Anderson and Srinivasan (2003). For example, one item to measure customer satisfaction is ‘‘I am satisfied with my decision to purchase from this vendor’s mobile website/non-mobile website’’. The three item 7-point Likert scale of Lee and Lin (2005) was used to measure website design, which is a factor that might influence customer satisfaction. An example of an item to measure website design is ‘‘the vendor’s mobile website/non-mobile website is visually appealing’’. Furthermore, the five item 7-point Likert scale of Lin and Wang (2006) was used to measure customer loyalty (attitudinal and behavioural). For example, one item to measure customer loyalty is ‘‘my preference for this vendor’s mobile website/non-mobile website would not willingly change’’. Buying impulsiveness was measured with the nine-item 7-point Likert scale of Rook and Fisher (1995). An example of one of the items to measure buying impulsiveness is ‘‘I often buy things spontaneously.’’ A full overview of the survey questions is presented in Appendix C.

4.3 Statistical analysis

Several statistical methods were used to analyse the data in SPSS. At first, a validity and reliability test was used to check the consistency of all the items. Next, the Cronbach’s alpha demonstrates the reliability of the variables. The frequency test was done to check for the data set on possible errors. Thereby, the dataset was checked for missing values, so that only fully completed cases are included in the analysis. After that, the variables which were counter indicative were recoded. The next steps included a normality test for all the variables and a correlation test to measure the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables. After that, the hypotheses were measured with the SPSS Process macro of Hayes (2012).

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4.4 Sample

The population for this study consists of all online shoppers, non-mobile and/or mobile, aged 18 and older. This population is large, and it is difficult to retrieve a sample frame. Therefore, the respondents of the survey have been selected using a convenience (non-probability) sampling technique. Furthermore, the convenience sampling technique was used to overcome financial and time problems. The respondents were approached to participate in the online questionnaire via social media, i.e. Facebook, email, family, and friends. To create a representative sample and to accomplish generalizability, this study tried to collect as many respondents as possible. In total, the data of 180 filled in surveys were used for the final analysis. A description of the characteristics of the sample is presented in the Table 1 below.

Table 1 – Characteristics of the sample

Gender Percent Male 23.9 Female 76.1 Age Percent < 18 0 18 - 25 72.8 26 - 35 12.8 36 - 45 1.6 46 - 55 8.4 > = 55 4.4 Education Percent Primary school 0.6 High school 8.3

Bachelor degree (HBO/College) 18.3 Bachelor degree (University) 35.6

Master degree 37.2

Yearly Income Percent

< €5000 50.6 €5000 - €10 000 19.1 €10 000 - €15 000 9.6 €15 000 - €20 000 3.9 €20 000 - €25 000 3.4 €25 000 - €30 000 2.8

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Mobile and non-mobile device use.

In total 140 respondents stated they used a mobile website for purchasing a product or service at least once in the last three months. This is 77.78 % of the total respondents. Furthermore, 162 participants reported that they had used a non-mobile online website for purchasing a product or service in the last three months. This is 90.00 % of the total respondents. Therefore, the sample for mobile users is 140, and the sample for non-mobile users is 162.

4.4 Strengths and limitations

This research design contains strengths and limitations. The quantitative research design provides the opportunity to question a lot of people through the Internet, and examine a great number of respondents. Furthermore, different product categories are analysed which provides the opportunity for generalizations. However, this research design also faces some limitations. First, it is a cross-sectional study which does not allow for analysis over time and does not permit us to draw causal relationships between two constructs. Besides, a non-probability convenience sampling method reduces the generalizability of the study. Thereby, the self-reported questionnaire has some validity problems. Namely, the self-reported questionnaire may cause common method bias and social desirability bias. To reduce the risk of some errors and biases, the questionnaire guaranteed the anonymity and the need for honest answers at the beginning of the survey.

5. Results

This chapter discusses the results of the study. Firstly, some preliminary analyses are explained. This is followed by a discussion of the reliability and validity of the results. After that, the correlation and hypothesis are examined.

The effect of mobile shopping, in comparison with non-mobile online shopping, on customer loyalty

The effect of mobile shopping, in comparison with

non-mobile online shopping, on customer loyalty

Table of contents