The Relation between Popular Media and the Acquisition of Children’s and Adolescent’s Second Language Vocabulary: a Systematic Review
Leonie van de Kragt Bachelor Thesis
University of Amsterdam 10579621 Assessor: Ernst Mulder
January 2016 Word count: 5765
Table of Contents
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Abstract
The relation between popular media and the acquisition of children’s and adolescent’s second language vocabulary is examined in this systematic review. The popular media that were reviewed are television, video games and music. For all three media, a positive relation with second language vocabulary acquisition was found. These findings suggest that media can be efficiently used in teaching and learning a second language vocabulary. In this review, an overview of the factors of the media that contribute to second language vocabulary acquisition is presented.
Keywords: second language vocabulary, media, television, video games, music, childhood, adolescence
The Relation between Popular Media and the Acquisition of Children’s and Adolescent’s Second Language Vocabulary: a Systematic Review
Nowadays, the majority of the world’s population speaks more than one language, and this percentage is still increasing (Abutalebi & Weekes, 2014). A main reason that led to this phenomenon is the ongoing globalization that is taking place. Globalization is the process of a worldwide economic, politic and cultural integration (Arnett, 2002). This process is facilitated by the increase in mobility through an extensive infrastructure and telecommunication network (e.g. telephone, radio, television and internet) (Arnett, 2002). A result of this integration is the growth in contact with people who speak another language and in the exposure to different, unknown vocabularies. Moreover, it also leads to more immigration, which means that more people will need to learn a second language if they move to another country (Chen, Benet-Martinez & Bond, 2008).
Since the emergence of easy accessible media and advanced technology in the 21st century, children are also more exposed to the vocabulary of another language than in the past. Moreover, children spend a lot of time using these media, either actively (through downloading and searching for media) or passively (coincidentally coming in contact with the media). Some of the most popular media are television, video games and music (Cole, Cole & Lightfoot, 2005). In the Netherlands, 6 out of 10 children between the age of 4 and 12 watch television for 10 or more hours per week (Centraal bureau voor de statistiek [CBS], 2003). Similar results were found for playing video games and listening to music.
It is not fully understood yet how children acquire a language. However, social learning theorists attribute the language acquisition especially to the language environment and (explicit) language education provided (Cole, Cole & Lightfoot, 2005). They state that mechanisms such as learning by association, classical and operant conditioning and imitation account for language acquisition. These mechanisms can be found in all sources of language, including popular
media. For instance, perceiving the spoken word, sometimes in combination with the written word in the form of subtitles or instructions, is a main element in the experience of watching television, playing video games and listening to music. Thus, it is interesting to determine whether or not there are significant educational profits regarding second language acquisition linked to the many hours spent using these media.
Furthermore, it is especially interesting to look at children’s second language acquisition because in the process of learning a (second) language a critical period may exist (Lenneberg, 1967). According to the critical period hypothesis, the ideal moment to learn a language is between the age of 2 and 12. In this time span, learning a language will occur without much effort. Moreover, Weber-Fox and Neville (2005) state that “the age of immersion is the best predictive variable for the ultimate linguistic proficiency”. This is the case for both first and second language acquisition (Johnson & Newport, 1989). Moreover, during adolescence, it is often mandatory to learn a second language in high school, such as English, German, French or Spanish. Likewise, college students often follow English tracks and ought to write their paper in English, although this might not be their first language. Thus, it is interesting to investigate the effects of popular media on second language vocabulary, because it can potentially improve their grades.
Being bilingual has a variety of benefits. One of them is called the bilingual advantage. This advantage implies that people, who speak a second language, dispose of better cognitive capacities than people who do not (Nicolay & Poncelet, 2015). For instance, they are better in switching between tasks and adapting to new situations. Moreover, beside the cognitive benefits, speaking a language can also have social benefits, since language is a cultural tool (Cole, Cole & Lightfoot, 2005). It mediates between human activities, relationships and thinking. These benefits entail the contact with different cultures and the possibility to communicate with other social groups.
Alongside the social relevance of this review, the results of this study are also scientifically and practically relevant. If it can be concluded that watching foreign language television can contribute to learning second languages, this information can be used to develop media-based interventions for (immigrant) children with difficulties learning a new language or the development of new media content, available for everyone, that is based on theories about the effective factors in the second language acquisition through media.
Previous research has been conducted on similar topics. For example, in a meta-analysis by Zhao (2013), it was found that technology-supported language learning improves language education. Another meta-analysis by (Peterson, 2009) presented that playing games is beneficial for effective language learning. However these analyses did not mainly focus on the most popular media altogether. Moreover, many studies on this topic only focused on the effects of language acquisition through media on adults. This created a gap for further research, which can be filled with results and conclusions including samples with children, adolescents and popular media altogether.
Therefore, the main question in this systematic review will be how and to what extent there is a relation between the use of popular media and the acquisition of a second language vocabulary in childhood and adolescence (0-23 years). With sub-questions a) how and to what extent is there a relation between watching foreign language television and the acquisition of a second language vocabulary in childhood and adolescence, b) how and to what extent is there a relation between playing video games and the acquisition of a second language vocabulary in childhood and adolescence and c) how and to what extent is there a relation between listening to music and the acquisition of a second language vocabulary in childhood and adolescence. Based on previous results, it is expected that the effects of popular media on children’s and
In the following, the possible relationships between popular media and second language vocabulary acquisition will be explored. Findings from studies on the relations between popular media and the acquisition of second language vocabulary in childhood and adolescence will be summarized. In the present study, the popular media will only include television, video games and music, since the constructs of these media are relatively clear. This is in contrast with media such as the internet, than can also be used to download programs, series, games and music – which makes it difficult to determine the factors that contribute to learning a second language. Another reason to only include these types of media is the fact that it is only until a few decennia ago that these media are used by the majority of the population, in comparison with books, newspapers and magazines. A reason behind this is the reduced costs of using these media due to the advancement of modern technologies and the possibility to freely download media sources. Furthermore, the current review merely includes second language vocabulary and no other aspects of second language acquisition, because vocabulary can accurately be measured objectively and compared between studies. At the end of this thesis, the results will be discussed and concluding remarks will be given.
Method Selection of studies
Relevant literature was found by conducting a multiple field search in the database of Web of Science and Eric. The extensive search strategy included blocks of root terms related to television (television, TV, movie*), video games (game*, videogame*, computer game*, gaming), music (music, lyrics, song text, song*, sing*), language aspects (vocabulary* and bilingual, second language, foreign language, L2) and childhood/adolescence (child*, childhood, youth, young*, adolescen*, teenage*, student*). During the search process, root terms were added to the initial search, because in the first couple of studies that have been found, it became clearer which terms (and their synonyms) were used in the field.
Consequentially, this yielded more studies and a more exhaustive assemblage of literature. Moreover, references sources of all related articles and related records were checked in order to find potentially relevant studies.
In advance, in- and exclusion criteria were formed. Studies were included if they focused on popular media (television, video games and music) and their influences on second language vocabulary acquisition in childhood or adolescence (0-23 years). Since the
mentioned popular media are relatively new, and only widely used by children for a couple of decennia, not much research has been done yet on the current topic. This is the reason why all studies that fitted the inclusion criteria were used in this review. These criteria were only based on the topic, not on research designs or quality of the studies. As a consequence of this, it should be noted that not all studies are equally comparable and conclusions should be drawn with caution. All the relevant information that is presented in the studies will be summarized and given. If some relevant information is lacking, such as the mean age, it is due to the fact that the authors of the found literature did not mention it. Notes on lacking information will be presented in the discussion.
Studies (or a part of a study) were excluded if at least one of the exclusion criteria was met: studies that only focused on adults, studies that only focused on the effect of popular media on first language acquisition, studies that only focused on other language outcomes such as speech production. Moreover, editorials, commentaries and conference papers were also excluded.
Results
In this systematic review, 20 articles were included. These articles were included, because they matched the predefined inclusion criteria. In total, the results are based on a total sample of 1877 participants.
Several studies regarding the relation between watching foreign language television and the acquisition of second language vocabulary in childhood and adolescence have been found. Two of them mainly focused on the effects of watching foreign television programs and movies that included subtitles. The first study of D’Ydewalle and Van de Poel (1999) was an experiment whereby Dutch-speaking children with an age between 8-12 were exposed to a short subtitled cartoon. Thereafter, the children received a vocabulary test of 20 words, for which the correct translation had to be picked out from a list of three alternatives that all appeared in the cartoon. The sample consisted of 327 children in the third, fourth, fifth and sixth grade of a primary school. They found a positive effect on second language vocabulary acquisition. In their study, they also compared these results with results from adults. In contrast to the critical period hypothesis, children did not learn more words than adults investigated in prior studies. However, children tend to acquire more than adults when the foreign language is in the soundtrack than in the subtitles, which implies that music can be an effective mediating factor.
Results from a study with a similar design by Koolstra and Beentjes (1999) support the previously found positive relation between watching foreign language television and second language vocabulary acquisition. Their study investigated whether Dutch children in grades 4 and 6 (n = 246, M age = 10.7) learn second language English words through watching a television program with an English soundtrack and Dutch subtitles. To measure the
vocabulary acquisition, English vocabulary matching and target vocabulary tests were used. They found that vocabulary acquisition is higher in the experimental group, where subtitles were presented, than in the experimental group, where the same English program was presented, without subtitles. However, both groups outperformed the control group that was exposed to a Dutch television program.
Other studies that have been found focused on the factors quantity and/or quality of watching that could possibly influence the relation between watching foreign language television and second language vocabulary acquisition. High quality watching (e.g. television intended for children, actively watching television, viewing in the presence of elders, and being an relatively older child) is found to be highly related to vocabulary acquisition scores (Hudon, Fenell & Hoftzyer, 2013). Poor quality watching (e.g. television unintended for children, background television, solitary viewing, and earlier age of viewing) is also correlated with vocabulary acquisition, but less. Data were obtained through the Home Literacy Questionnaire, Television Habits Questionnaire and MacArthur-Bates
Communicative Development Inventory. Quantity of viewing was not found to be correlated with vocabulary outcomes. The results are based on a factor analysis, where data of
questionnaires regarding television exposure and vocabulary were summarized (n = 85, M age = 21.3 months). However, these results are in contrast with results from Webb (2010), who analyzed scripts of programs to determine the frequency of exposure to certain words. Results indicated that if movies or programs are watched regularly over a long period of time, it is more likely that significant incidental learning will occur.
Other factors that could possibly influence the relation between watching foreign language television and second language vocabulary acquisition are the content of the program and the motivation to watch. A case-study by Jylhä‐Laide (1994) observed one girl that acquired a foreign language by watching foreign language cartoons on video, without any formal language teaching or contacts with native speakers. Thus, it is suggested that cartoons contain language that is relatively easy to comprehend for the beginning learners, especially combined with an easy to understand visual storyline. It is also suggested that cartoons contain some features that make them attractive to children, such as funny characters and
bright colors. It was stated that these features increases the motivation to watch a show and pay attention.
These results are confirmed by Linebarger and Walker (2005), who supported the importance of content and program type when describing media effects. Using a longitudinal process-product design (n = 51) it was found that at 30 months of age, watching Dora the Explorer, Blue’s Clues, Arthur, Clifford or Dragon Tales resulted in greater vocabularies of children in child care than watching programs without content that is explicitly made to learn a language.
Some of the previous studies have mainly demonstrated the short term effects of watching foreign language television. Kuppens (2007) however, conducted an empirical study in which the effects of long term media consumption of Flemish children, including watching foreign language television, were analyzed (n = 374, M age = 11). This was done by
comparing the self-reported use of English language media with scores on an English vocabulary test. The results state that children who frequently watched subtitled foreign language television and movies, perform significantly better on a vocabulary test. In a later publication by the same author, these results were stated again (Kuppens, 2010).
In short, watching foreign television enhances the acquisition of second language vocabulary. The effects are higher when subtitles are presented, the content is adapted to children and adolescents and when television is frequently watched. Results from case studies are often not facile to compare with results from studies with an experimental design.
However, these results complement each other, which make the comparison more plausible. Video Games
In the following, results from studies regarding the relationship between playing video games and the acquisition of a second language vocabulary in childhood will be presented. In the literature that has been found, a first distinction in the content of the video games could be
made. This is the distinction between games that are created for the explicit purpose of enhancing second language vocabulary acquisition and games without that purpose, but that are played in and mediated by a foreign language. A study by Sundqvist and Wikström (2015) focused on the second part of the distinction. The aim of their study was to examine the relation between out-of-school digital game play and in-school second language vocabulary measures and grading outcomes. Their sample consisted of 80 Swedish teenagers that learned English as their second language (age 15-16; 36 boys; 44 girls). Data were collected from a questionnaire, language diaries, vocabulary tests, assessed essays and grades that measured the frequency of game play (e.g. 0, <5 or >5 hours per week). It was found that frequent gamers (> 5 hours per week) had the highest rated essays and used the most advanced vocabulary. They also had the highest grades and scored the best on vocabulary tests. However, significant correlations were only found for vocabulary tests and essay grades for boys. This can be due to the fact that boys play more video games than girls in general.
These results are in accordance with previous results from a study by Sylvén and Sundqvist (2012). In their paper, they presented empirical evidence that second language English profiency correlates with the frequency of gaming. Data were collected through a questionnaire, a language diary and three proficiency tests. The sample consisted of 86 Swedish children, aged 11-12. From the diary it became clear how much time the children spent gaming. One of the proficiency tests measured vocabulary. It was found that the frequent gamers (>5 hours per week) outperformed moderate gamers and that moderate gamers outperformed non-gamers. This study also had a gender-bias, however, it was suggested that playing video games at an early age can be an important source for second language acquisition.
An example of a game without an explicit focus on enhancing second language vocabulary acquisition is the Sims, which is a realistic simulation game (Ranalli, 2008). In
this game, complex scenarios, dialogue and interactivity are main elements. A study on 9 college students, that aimed to investigate whether or not the game is pedagogically beneficial, used a pre-test to establish the knowledge of the target words. The post-test
consisted of 30 words that occurred in the game and were tested via matching, multiple choice and short answers. Paper-based quizzes were also carried out to measure vocabulary
acquisition, consisting of 10 words identical to the target words of either the pre- or post-test. Statistically significant improvement in vocabulary knowledge after playing the game was found (Ranalli, 2008).
Studies that focused on the first part of the distinction (e.g. games with an explicit purpose to teach vocabulary) also show positive correlations between gaming and second language vocabulary acquisition. It was found that gaming is an alternative and relatively teacher-independent method to enlarge children’s first and second language vocabularies (Segers & Verhoeven, 2003). The Dutch study included immigrant children, beside native children, in the first two years of kindergarten (n = 164, M age = 5). They had to play games that explicitly teach vocabulary on the computer over a period of 15 weeks. The durance of one game was 15 minutes. In the study a control group and pretest were included. Positive effects of the computer and game based vocabulary training were found on a curriculum dependent vocabulary test, wherein a word was orally presented and the child had to choose a photograph from a series of four photographs containing matching semantic content.
A concrete example of a game with an explicit purpose to teach second language vocabulary is HOPSCOTCH (Lucht & Heidig, 2013). HOPSCOTCH is a digital learning game that combined playing and learning. This can be applied to learn a second language, while improving the attitudes towards learning a second language. In a study by Lucht & Heidig (2013) consisting of 55 elementary school students, with a mean age of 10.73 years, a cued recall test and an evaluation questionnaire of the program was used. It was found that
students who learned with HOPSCOTCH remembered the same amount of new vocabulary words as students that learned the words from a teacher. However, the students that learned through gaming, were more motivated to learn the words, enjoyed it and had a better attitude towards second language vocabulary learning. This information can be useful, because there is a positive link between learners’ achievement and motivation, which implies that in the long term, it is more effective to use a motivating way of teaching (Fontecha & Gallego 2012).
Besides exploring content with either the explicit purpose to teach or not, some studies targeted to examine the effects of specific game related characteristics. One of those
characteristics is ‘interactivity’, which means that the player is engaged in the game. An experimental study by Kuwada (2010) investigated to what extent video game interactivity would help the noticing and recall of second language vocabulary. The sample was divided in students that actively played a game and students that only watched others playing (n = 80, age = 18-24). It was found that both the players and watchers recalled the second language vocabulary, but the ones who actively played the game recalled significantly less second language words than the watchers. A reason behind this result is that the additional cognitive load induced by the interactivity could distract the students from focusing on the vocabulary. More characteristics regarding playing video games are presented in a multi-factorial analysis by Agudo, Rico and Sanchez (2015). They focused on the use of games in learning a second language in preschool. It was stated that video games can attribute more effectively to second language vocabulary acquisition if certain criteria are met. These criteria include factors as the educational context, adaptation to cognitive abilities of the children, linguistic constrains, conceptual and psychomotor restrictions.
Overall it can be stated that video games can improve the acquisition of second language vocabulary. These effects were higher for boys than for girls. It can be assumed that
this effect is due to the fact that boys are more engaged in games quantitatively. Both games, with or without the explicit goal to teach vocabulary, were effective. Important factors were motivation to play and not too much interactivity in the game. Moreover, the game is more effective when it is adapted to the age of the child or adolescent.
Music
The last medium that will be discussed in this paper is music. Again, a distinction can be made between music that is explicitly used to teach with and music that is used in
children’s and adolescent’s spare time. A study by Lowe (1998) investigated the effects of integration and implications of music for teaching second languages. The sample consisted of two second grade French classes and followed a program with music lessons to learn a second language. The study had a pre- en posttest design and included a control group. The results of the study indicated that the experimental group knew significantly more second language words than the control group.
However, more studies focused on the effects of music outside the context of a classroom. In a case study by Bae (2006) a 21-month-old Korean child was observed for 10 weeks to study the child’s ability to learn English words and lyrics from watching and listening to musical DVD’s and CD’s. It was found that the child increasingly learned words from the English vocabulary. The reason behind these effects was stated to be the motivation and engagement throughout the learning process that was induced by the music. The
components that were found to be most effective in the learning process were simple, repetitive melodies and rhythms, lyrics with clear, concrete words that could potentially be associated with the pictures and movements of the related video clips on the DVD’s.
These positive results are also found in a study by Chelsy (2011) who investigated the effects on learning second language words through listening to Hip-Hop music. Scores were obtained in a test were one was freely to define a specific target word. Findings based on a
survey amongst undergraduate adolescents showed a positive relation between the amount of hip-hop artists that were listened to and the second language vocabulary scores (n = 168).
On the other hand, contradicting results were found by Kuppens (2010), an author who was previously mentioned in the paragraph about the effects of television. In the same study it was found that listening to music does not significantly influence the second language word acquisition, although a positive trend was found.
Similar findings were stated in an experimental study conducted by Medina (1990). The aim of that study was to investigate the effects of music on the second language English vocabulary acquisition of children. The subjects were 48 second-graders who were not proficient in English. In the experiment, the subjects were divided in four groups. The first group heard a story in its sung version, the second group heard the read version, the third group heard the music and viewed pictures of target vocabulary words at the same time, and the last group heard the oral version and viewed the pictures. Both in the pre- and posttest a vocabulary acquisition measurement instrument, that consisted of a 20-item multiple-choice paper and pencil test was used. There were no statistically significant differences found between groups having music and not having music, between viewing pictures and not viewing pictures, or for the interaction of those variables. However, looking at descriptive differences, it can be stated that for the groups in which either music or illustrations were used, more words were learned. Moreover, they were the highest in the group in which both were used.
This implies that illustrations, combined with listening to music can influence the learning process. Yet, the content of those illustrations is important. This was stated by a study that investigated the impact of sexual media on second language vocabulary (Çetin, 2015). Adolescents were exposed to music video clips for 30 minutes, with either sexual or neutral content (n = 64, age = 17-22 years). The experimental group that was exposed to the
sexual content remembered significantly fewer words than the control group. This was measured by a surprise memory test after the exposure to the content. Thus, sexually loaded media can possibly impair memory for second language vocabulary.
Lastly, one of the studies that investigated the relation between music and the
acquisition of second language vocabulary, did not focus on passively listening to music, but actively singing the lyrics (Good, Russo & Sullivan, 2014). In the study an English passage had to be learned for 2 weeks by Spanish-speaking children (n = 38). The experimental group had to learn the passage by singing the words (M age = 10.4), and the control group learned it as an oral poem (M age = 11.4). It was found that children in the sung condition outperformed children in the spoken condition on recalling words and translate target terms. This effect was still present after 6 months. These results are assumed to be due to the intrinsic motivation, attention focus and joy of learning the words. Moreover, melodies and rhythm can help to recall the text.
All things considered, the effects of music are not indisputable. Although all studies found positive effects, not all effects were significant. Factors that possibly contributed to significance are the motivation to learn, rhythms and melodies that can facilitate the learning process and clear lyrics. Images and videos were found to amplify the effects, when the content of it was relatively neutral.
Discussion and Conclusion
In the previous, it has been endeavored to answer the main question of how and to what extent there is a relation between the use of popular media and the acquisition of a second language vocabulary in childhood and adolescence. The popular media that were explored are television, video games and music. It was found that all three media have a positive relation with the acquisition of second language vocabulary. However, differences in the way these
media affected second language vocabulary acquisition were found, based on specific factors of the medium, content or context.
The studies regarding watching foreign television showed that watching programs and movies with a foreign language contributed more to language acquisition if there were subtitles presented. Moreover, content that is adapted to the age of a person and a high frequency of watching television was also more beneficial in the language acquisition in comparison with random content and watching relatively little television. The screenplay is also a factor that can ease the learning process. For example, in comparison with music, it is easier to understand what happens in the story that is presented, because one can make sense of what happens by only watching at the situation. Moreover, a program or movie mostly is based on a logical and recognizable story, so it is possible to guess what is happening using the foreign language words and the images.
Likewise, for playing video games it can also be said that the effects were higher as the frequency of gaming increased and the content is adapted to the age of a person. Furthermore, the effects were higher as the motivation to play the game increased and the interaction with the game decreased. This last result seems to be contradicting with watching television, where actively watching is better than passively watching. However, this can be due to the fact that watching television does not require as much cognitive load as playing a video game. It could thus be possible that actively watching someone else playing a game is as effectively as actively watching television. Overall, it is important that teachers and game developers tailor linguistic, content and technology adaptation queries for games to be ultimately effective in learning a second language vocabulary.
Motivation was also an effective factor contributing to the positive effects of music on acquiring a second language vocabulary. Moreover, clear lyrics and easy rhythms and melodies also facilitated the learning process. Images and videos were found to amplify the effects,
when the content of it was relatively neutral. This implies that when music is combined with television, the effects on vocabulary acquisition might be higher. These results suggest that games produced for the mass-market can be used as an alternative for learning, since games designed for second language learners are short in supply.
When interpreting these results, it is also important to take alternative explanations or factors into consideration. For instance, moderators as age and gender need to be taken into account. Gender was already mentioned as a moderator in some of the used literature. Gender can influence the frequency of consumption of a specific medium, based on preferences on how to spend spare time. Something similar can be stated for the content of the media that an individual prefers to consume of one’s own accord.
With respect to age as a moderator, it is important to relate to the differences in language development over time. In this paper, a wide range of ages were included, from early childhood to late adolescence. A big age range was used, because there was only little research done on a specific age, which meant that this systematic review would otherwise contain only a couple of studies. The beneficial factors that contribute to second language acquisition can work differently on different ages. On the one hand, this can be due to the cognitive abilities someone obtains (Schaerlaekens, 2008). In general, older individuals can use more fundamental cognitive resources than younger individuals, because their brains are more developed. These abilities influence the learning process of a second language. On the other hand, other factors in relation to age can influence the acquisition of a second language (Schaerlaekens, 2008). For instance, older individuals already master their mother language, while young children are mostly not fluent in their native language. This can influence the pace and ease of learning a second language.
In this review some parts of the question still remain unanswered. Since not all authors presented effect sizes, it is difficult to compare the results of the used literature,
although all relations were found to be positive. Thus, it is not possible to give a concluding remark on the most effective medium and factors regarding second language vocabulary acquisition. However, it became clear that there is a overall positive relation between popular media and second language acquisition in childhood and adolescence.
Furthermore, not all authors presented the (mean) age of their sample. A reason for this can be that age was not a moderator of great importance in their studies. In those cases, the author(s) only mentioned the age group of the sample (i.e. high school student, college student). However, there can be a large discrepancy between individuals in an age group, which makes it unclear to distinct age as a relevant moderator.
It could also be possible that one language is easier to learn than another language, based on the aspects of the language itself and foreknowledge, that can either facilitate or complicate learning another language. In this review all found relations were positive, thus it was not relevant to mention all the learned languages, since they could not be compared without effect sizes. Further study though could explore the differences in learning ease.
Finally, it is questionable whether some aspects in this review can be compared. For instance, the content of the medium was whether or not explicitly created for the purpose of education. However, the educational content can also be used in one’s spare time, because it can be enjoyable. It is thus important to keep in mind that a given effect of a medium included both educational and normal content. Moreover, it is possible that differences in senses (i.e. seeing or hearing) used for consuming the content of a medium have different outcomes in the effectiveness of acquiring a vocabulary.
A suggestion for further research is an attempt to answer the question of which medium is the most effective in acquiring a second language vocabulary. This will need an extensive comparison of effect sizes and thus more research on this topic. Moreover, for practical implications it is also useful to explore the effects of media on other aspects of
language, such as grammar and syntax, because in practice, obtaining a vocabulary is not enough to communicate and understand a language adequately.
All things considered, popular media have presumably a positive effect on the
acquisition of second language vocabulary. This information can be used in the development of media content with an educational purpose of learning a second language vocabulary. It became clear that spending much time behind the television, playing games and listening to music is not merely for recreational purposes, but can also function as an effective teacher.
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