Cucks, Keks, and Pepes: A linguistic approach to studying user migration from the Manosphere to the Alt-Right

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Cucks, Keks, and Pepes: A linguistic

approach to studying user migration from

the Manosphere to the Alt-Right

Supervisor: Marc Tuters

Second reader: Richard Rogers

MA New Media and Digital Culture

27th of June, 2018

Jimi Cornelisse

10591699

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Abstract

This research aims to empirically assess the possible migration of Reddit users belonging to the

Manosphere to the Alt-Right. Numerous researchers have previously theorized that such migration from the Manosphere to the Alt-Right may occur, as both groups consist of tech-savvy young white males who are disenchanted with contemporary society. Furthermore, these groups are known to share similar beliefs, such as their dissatisfaction with the role of feminism in contemporary society.

These different subcultures reside, albeit not exclusively, on Reddit, with both the Manosphere and the Alt-Right consisting of multiple subgroups. In this research, an analysis is conducted on the migration of users from four different manospheric subreddits (TheRedPill, MGTOW, MensRights, and Incels) to the more general Alt-Right subreddit The_Donald. In order to assess the extent of this possible migration, three different methods of analysis are employed:

1. An analysis of the activity of the users on all analysed subreddits; 2. An analysis of the usage of Alt-Right slang by these users; and

3. An analysis of the general discourse of the users on both their ‘own’ subreddits and The_Donald. The findings indicate that it is possible to empirically assess a possible migration of users on Reddit and furthermore prove that there is a definite empirical grounding to the claims of researchers, as users from the Manosphere also became more active on The_Donald as the Alt-Right gained greater popularity online. The contributions of this thesis are thus twofold: It provides an empirical basis for earlier claims regarding this possible migration, and it offers a method for empirically assessing the migration of users on Reddit.

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Table 24: Comments containing “Trump”, from Incels’ top 300 users, in Incels (2017-01) ... 109Table 25: Themes found in word clouds for The_Donald ... 110Table 26: Themes found in word clouds for TheRedPill ... 110Table 27: Themes found in word clouds for MGTOW ... 111Table 28: Themes found in word clouds for MensRights ... 111Table 29: Themes found in word clouds for Incels ... 111

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1 Introduction

WE DID IT

WE MEMED A PRESIDENT INTO OFFICE - Anon, 20161

The above quote was posted on 4chan’s /pol/ forum, an Internet message board, shortly after Donald Trump was elected as the 45th president of the United States. Previously an obscure site, 4chan garnered significant media attention as the elections progressed. This was no coincidence, as, according to Joseph Bernstein, the ‘dark forces of the Internet’ became a counterculture in 2015. These forces, referred to as ‘Chanterculture’ by Bernstein, are an amalgamation of various anonymous and pseudonymous online communities, including 4chan, 8chan, and Reddit. These communities are traditionally populated by young white men who ‘appear to be in the midst of a reactionary upheaval geared at fighting back against the culture of inclusion and diversity that has — in their view — infected mainstream life’ (Singal). The question that remains, however, is how these previously obscure groups successfully emerged into mainstream culture.

This thesis explores how Alt-Right politics found their way from obscure message boards to the

mainstream. The term Alt-Right was initially coined and popularised by Richard Spencer in 2010. Since then, the movement has become increasingly popular and prominent. During the 2016 presidential election, the movement was subject to considerable media attention and controversy. This emergence into the mainstream came long after the Alt-Right’s first appearance, as it can trace its roots to sites such as 4chan and 8chan, platforms upon which users can anonymously post memes that express their ideological views. Over time, however, it has found its way onto more mainstream media outlets, such as Reddit and Twitter.

The so-called ‘Manosphere’ has played a significant role in the emergence of the Alt-Right into the mainstream. The Manosphere comprises various distinct groups, ranging from the ‘men’s rights’ movement to the ‘incels’ (involuntary celibates) to pick-up artists (PUAs — individuals whose goal is essentially to seduce as many women as possible) to Men Going Their Own Way (MGTOW — a community whose members believe there is a systematic bias in favour of women and therefore do not engage in contact with women in any shape or form whatsoever).

These places foster young white males who feel that they have been wronged by modern society. The majority of these individuals feel that modern society, in which women actively seek empowerment, has

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rendered men a marginalised group. These men feel that there is no longer a place for white males, as they believe that social movements intended to improve the lots of minorities have become increasingly influential over time.

These communities advocate a distrust of both feminism and liberal politics and feed into the discourse that female empowerment is synonymous with male disempowerment. A specific subreddit, titled /r/TheRedPill2_{, portrays itself as a forum for ‘discussion of sexual strategy in a culture increasingly}

lacking a positive identity for men’ (Reddit). Among the participants in this subreddit, the general consensus is that feminism has had a detrimental effect on modern society (especially for men). To provide an example of the prevailing opinions within these groups, sex is a subject that members of these groups often raise when discussing how society has made men’s lives more difficult. These men seem to feel as though they have a right to sex, which feminism has taken away from them. In the case of the PUAs, they feel as though they deserve to have sex; thus, they attempt to seduce as many women as possible. In contrast, members of incel groups believe that women are denying them their right to have sex, as they seem to have the impression that women reject them without any valid reason for doing so. Whilst sex is one of the issues that these men address, it is not the only one, as the subjects that they discuss range from female bias in divorce courts to false accusations of rape. Each individual community has its own agenda, a topic that is further discussed later in this thesis.

It may prove interesting to first consider the Alt-Right from a historical point of view, taking into account the Manosphere and the role it plays within the Alt-Right. Furthermore, it is worth investigating how these subcultures have provided ways by which users can express their ideologies and to determine whether they differ in certain respects.

Another interesting factor to investigate is the influence of digital technology on communication. The various platforms upon which people can engage in online conversations and the effect that being online has on communication may affect how members of these groups interact. For example, 4chan and Reddit allow users to remain anonymous and provide specific hubs where like-minded people can interact and express their ideologies. Twitter also provides a similar function but in a more global fashion, as, beyond its timeline feature, it does not feature specifics hubs. This study investigates the manner in which the AltRight and the Manosphere have manifested themselves on the Internet since their emergence, focussing specifically on Reddit. Furthermore, this study assesses whether the discourse of these groups has evolved over time, as it may have been changed to cater to mainstream sensibilities.

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The Alt-Right received enormous media exposure during the election; however, the role that new media played in the emergence of this movement did not receive as much media attention. Furthermore,

investigating the emergence of one specific movement, in this case the Alt-Right, may also provide insight as to how certain ‘obscure’ subcultures could find their way into the mainstream.

Reddit is a useful starting point when attempting to answer this question, as this site is home to numerous subreddits that cater to the Manosphere and Alt-Right. Therefore, the main focus of this research is on analysing Reddit and its manospheric subreddits, in addition to the Alt-Right hub /r/The_Donald. In order to answer this research question, Felipe Hoffa´s BigQuery database, which contains nearly all Reddit comments from 2005 on, is consulted. The most important goal is to empirically assess whether users who participate on subreddits within the Manosphere may have migrated to more general Alt-Right subreddits (/r/The_Donald in particular). Furthermore, this research focuses not only on the migration of users but also on the migration of certain slang terms derived from each individual subreddit to other subreddits. This leads to this thesis’ main research question:

To what extent can empirical research prove that a migration of users has occurred from manospheric subreddits to more general Alt-Right subreddits such as /r/The_Donald?

The reason for attempting to empirically assess whether such migration occurs is that, amongst others, Angela Nagle and Adrienne Massanari have suggested that this may be the case. As Nagle states, ‘[o]ne of the things that linked the often nihilistic and ironic chan culture to a wider culture of the Alt-Right orbit was their opposition to political correctness, feminism, and multiculturalism’ (15). Furthermore, Nagle (17) states that there is a cross-pollinating section within the broader Alt-Right milieu, which is comprised of masculinist and neo-masculinist anti-feminist online subcultures, including the manospheric subreddits mentioned above. Furthermore, as Marwick and Caplan claim, there are clear links between the Alt-Right and the Manosphere, as the authors note that portions of the Manosphere have also started to espouse anti- Semitic and anti-Islamic views (12). Massanari also claims that Reddit’s culture and design ‘implicitly [allow] anti-feminist and racist activist communities to take hold’ (8). Consequently, the relative ease with which these communities can take hold, as well as the ease with which users can switch between such communities, may facilitate these communities to merge or at least to coexist alongside each other. While there is a strong theoretical and anecdotal basis for these claims (with certain prominent Manosphere figures also subscribing to Alt-Right ideology), Nagle and Massanari do not support them with empirical evidence. This thesis strives to either prove or disprove these claims and to furthermore provide a methodological framework for further analysis of similar issues in the future.

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The possible migration is analysed using a number of methods. First, an analysis of the number of comments posted by a certain subreddit’s power users3_{is conducted. This analysis is used to determine}

whether users who participate on a subreddit belonging to the Manosphere also post on a subreddit belonging to the Alt-Right, in this case The_Donald. Second, an analysis of the number of Alt-Right slang words employed by these power users is conducted, as an increase in the usage of slang words belonging to the Alt-Right may indicate that there a migration of ideology has occurred. Finally, an analysis of the general discourse of these users in both their ‘original’ subreddits as well as The_Donald is conducted in order to assess whether discourse differs by subreddit.

Overview

Chapter 2 describes the theoretical basis of this research. First, an analysis of digitally mediated

communication is conducted to provide context for online platforms in general and Reddit in particular. Second, this chapter provides a historical overview of both the Alt-Right and Manosphere. This overview also introduces the subreddits that this research focuses on. Finally, a methodological framework is developed; this framework serves as the basis for the empirical research that is conducted in Chapter 3. Chapter 3 focuses on the empirical research that is essential to this thesis. In this chapter, the research design used at the outset of the empirical research is explained, and the tools used in this research approach are described in detail. The subreddits analysed are then described, and the experiment itself is explained in greater detail.

Chapter 4 presents the research results obtained from the experiment. The research questions are

subsequently answered based on the results. Furthermore, the additional research that proved necessary is described.

Chapter 5 serves as the conclusion of this thesis; in addition, it features a discussion of the possible future research that would be required to further examine the questions and implications that arise during this investigation.

2 Theoretical Framework

This chapter is divided into three different parts, which are explained below: Part I - Digital communication

This part explores numerous factors leading to the behaviour demonstrated on these online communities. For example, the freedom the Internet affords its users in terms of stating their opinions anonymously plays a major role in the emergence of these specific subcultures. Furthermore, phenomena such as online

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disinhibition can affect the manner in which people interact with each other online. Therefore, these effects need to be taken into consideration when analysing online speech.

Furthermore, this part examines the debate over agonism versus antagonism. These different forms of communication can completely transform debates, as agonism is a debate between two parties who acknowledge each other’s legitimacy, whereas antagonism is a debate between two parties who have no common ground (Mouffe 20). Antagonism therefore, regularly devolves debates into smear tactics instead of legitimate discussion. This is also shown by looking at the recent elections, as both the Clinton and Trump campaigns relied heavily on smear tactics. This can in turn be linked to trolling culture, which is prevalent within online communities, particularly upon platforms such as Reddit, 4chan, and 8chan. Part II - Historical overview

This part presents a historical overview of the Alt-Right. Furthermore, the various factions within the AltRight are described in detail. As the Alt-Right can be defined as a multifaceted movement, it is essential to clearly define each of its facets.

Second, this part provides a detailed overview of the Manosphere and its various subgroups. This overview seeks to introduce the widely fragmented subcultures that exist within the Manosphere. These subcultures can differ wildly from each other; for example, the incels and PUAs are completely opposed in outlook, with the exception of their stance on women.

A number of subreddits are also assessed in the historical overview. These subreddits belong either to the Alt-Right or the Manosphere and are the main subjects of analysis within this research.

Part III - Methodological framework

The final part of the theoretical framework focuses on the methodological basis for the empirical research. This section presents various methods and the reasoning behind their use. Furthermore, a part of this framework strives explain the logic behind the analysis of slang terms as forms of linguistic innovation.

PART I - DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

2.1 Online mediated communication

As a preface to the historical background of the Alt-Right and the Manosphere, it is important to explore the influence of the Internet on communication, as online mediated communication is clearly distinct from offline communication. As the Internet provides means of communicating under a (semi)anonymous veil, it enables participants to share their views freely, regardless of the opinions of others or social norms. In some cases, this can facilitate open discourse, but it can also promote trolling. In the following sections,

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the influence of the Internet on communication is discussed with reference to online disinhibition, the use of irony, trolling culture, and the concepts of agonism and antagonism.

2.1.1 Online disinhibition

Simply put, online disinhibition refers to the lack of constraint that a person feels when using the Internet (Suler 321). This disinhibition can manifest itself in two forms: benign disinhibition and toxic

disinhibition. The former is the positive manifestation, in which the disinhibition allows users to be more open and personal, reveal their deepest thoughts and feelings, and go above and beyond to help others. The latter, however, refers to a completely different phenomenon. This form of disinhibition is

characterized by ‘rude language, harsh criticism, anger, hatred and even threats’ (Suler 321). Online hate speech is not a novel phenomenon, but online disinhibition may account for its prominence. Taking Reddit as an example, there are obvious links to hateful subreddits in this regard, as users seem to feel that they can say anything they want under the (semi)anonymous veil mentioned previously. Whereas opportunities for anonymity are slowly diminishing on other platforms (Facebook, for example, requires users to provide their real names in order to post), Reddit still offers ways of remaining anonymous. This can strengthen the online disinhibition effect, particularly within a subreddit that functions as an echo chamber.

As a result of hearing the same arguments and language being repeatedly expressed without accepting any external criticism, an individual may come to believe in what is being said. Furthermore, Rösner and Krämer state that online users tend to alter their vernacular to conform to the social group norm within the online spaces that they participate in (3). In the case of Reddit, this means that users commenting on an Alt-Right or Manosphere subreddit will most likely conform to the general discourse that is presented to them. For example, the members of /r/Incels are known for not accepting any views that differ from their own and shunning people with different opinions.

Use of irony/Poe’s law

As a recent article by the Huffington Post confirms, hate speech is becoming increasingly ambiguous and deliberately manipulative (Feinberg). In addition, Internet users who engage in hate speech often make a deliberate choice to add an element of irony to such content. In this article, Feinberg discusses the style guide of the Daily Stormer, a white supremacist news website. In this guide, the use of irony is

particularly identified as a tool to make the unindoctrinated wonder whether a writer is serious or not. In other words, most people are not comfortable with unfiltered, non-ironic hate speech. As a veil of irony surrounds the vernacular of certain groups, hate speech can become a form of humour that can attract people to these groups. According to Poe’s law, it is impossible to determine whether an online

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conversation is earnest or ironic (Aikin 1). This helps trolls to achieve the goal of spewing hate speech without being held accountable for it.

2.1.2 Agonism/Antagonism

Another factor that plays into online debate or general online discourse is the distinction between agonism and antagonism. Mouffe defines antagonism as a ‘we/they relation in which the two sides are enemies who do not share any common ground’ (2005, 20). Agonism, in contrast, is defined as a ‘we/they relation where the conflicting parties, although acknowledging that there is no rational solution to their conflict, nevertheless recognize the legitimacy of their opponents’ (2005, 20).

As Milner states, antagonism is present on Reddit, particularly when it comes to race and gender (120). An example of one of the many antagonistic communities on this platform is r/MensRights, which

antagonizes feminism and women in general.

According to Mouffe, it is important that conflict should not be a struggle between enemies, and thus not a form of antagonism, but rather a struggle between adversaries, which would be a form of agonism (2009, 551). The fact that certain subreddits provide platforms upon which particular users spew hate and antagonize others is one of the reasons why Reddit’s content policy was updated. In this case, Reddit’s decision to ban purely negative spaces that focus solely on antagonizing other parties seems to have been intended to promote agonism.

This, however, leads to a difficult question, namely how one can identify a conversation as antagonistic or agonistic. This question becomes problematic due to the fact that people experience conversations

differently. Therefore, it is difficult to draw a line between agonistic and antagonistic debate.

Interestingly, during the election, the majority of the debates between Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump were antagonistic in nature. Examples of this are found in both sides accusing the other of employing smear tactics (Sanchez; Jonathan). Furthermore, Clinton denounced Trump’s followers as a ‘basket of deplorables’, while Trump openly stated that he considered Clinton to be a criminal and referred to her as Crooked Hillary Clinton. Considering that even presidential candidates are willing to resort to antagonistic debate tactics, it is not far-fetched to believe that their followers would adopt the same tactics.

2.1.3 Trolling culture

Trolling culture can in some ways be considered to be a result of a combination of toxic online

disinhibition, the use of irony, and antagonism. An understanding of trolling culture is therefore essential to this research. Trolling within the context of the Internet has been framed as one of the most significant obstacles to the formation of online communities. Phillips uses Judith Donath’s characterization of trolling

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as ‘a malicious and deliberately destructive lie’. Furthermore, the existence of trolls, or even the possibility thereof, makes communities less likely to trust outsiders. In other words, trolling can, and in many cases will, incite paranoia, which can have a negative effect on a community (Phillips 20-21). Another definition of trolling is given by Claire Hardaker, who states that a troll is ‘a person whose real intention(s) is/are to cause disruption and/or to trigger or exacerbate conflict for the purposes of their own amusement (237)’. Interestingly enough, this definition also includes the person behind the trolling. Hardaker moves on to state that the most important characteristic of trolling is deception (230-235). Over time, the term troll has taken on self-selective, subcultural connotations (Phillips 22). Phillips states that this shift began on 4chan’s /b/ board4_{; following its creation, Users of this website began to develop}

its own lexicon and behavioural norms. The term troll was consequently appropriated as a point of selfidentification, with users even taking pride in it (22-23). While trolling existed prior to the creation of 4chan, with examples of such behaviour dating back to the mid-1990s, the shift towards the appropriation of trolling as a form of self-identification occurred later, approximately around 2004. Therefore, people who engaged in trolling in the mid-1990s did not identify themselves as trolls or anything else at the time, whereas contemporary trolls do.

As 4chan became more popular, the usage of the word ‘troll’ also grew in popularity , not just within 4chan’s /b/ board but also among other Internet users. In a sense, as Phillips states, 4chan cannot be seen as the creator of trolling, but this site did provide an incubator for ‘a clear, coherent, and immediately recognizable subcultural framing of the term “trolling”’ (24).

4_{4chan has many different boards, functioning similarly to subreddits on Reddit. Example of these boards include}

/a/-Anime, /b/-Random, and /pol/-Politically incorrect.

It is important to note that trolling itself includes a spectrum of behaviours, ranging from extremely aggressive behaviour (such as swatting4_{) to relatively innocent (such as ‘Rickrolling’). Furthermore, some}

trolling is persistent, while other forms of trolling can be ephemeral (Phillips 26).

4_{Swatting is an internet prank/crime where someone finds your address either through your IP or because your name}

and location is known. Then they call 911 anonymously and report a fake emergency. For example, someone can call and say that someone at that address is being held at a gun point or someone is going to commit suicide and a SWAT team would be dispatched to the address. (Urban Dictionary,

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The style of trolling that originated on 4chan can also be applied by communities on Reddit that belong to the Alt-Right and Manosphere, which this research focuses on. Marwick and Lewis note that the style of trolling is characterized by four distinct tendencies (5):

• The use of deliberately offensive speech;

• Antipathy towards sensationalism in the mainstream media; • The desire to create emotional impact in targets; and • The preservation of ambiguity

Offensive speech

Hate speech is frequently employed by trolls, as people take it very seriously and are consequently offended by it. Offending people by utilising hate speech is exactly the type of moral boundary that trolls aim to transgress. Furthermore, hate speech is almost exclusively directed towards racial and sexual minorities, as well as women. Trolls often downplay their use of offensive slurs as being ironically funny or as a means of driving outsiders away from their communities. Finally, as Marwick and Lewis state, hate speech is also tied to an extremist commitment to free speech, which in turn is tied to trolls’ aversion to political correctness (6).

Antipathy towards mainstream media

Marwick and Lewis cite Phillips, who argues that much trolling is reactionary, mainly towards the mainstream media. The majority of such trolling targets the ‘tragedy-of-the-week moral panic perpetrated by talk shows and cable news’ (5). For example, a 4channer once trolled message boards operated by the Oprah Winfrey Show by posing as a paedophile. In an extremely exaggerated post, the user stated that he had ‘over 9000’ (a popular meme on 4chan at the time, originating from the show Dragon Ball Z) penises with which to rape children. This story was noticed by Oprah’s team, leading to Oprah warning her viewers of a paedophile network that ‘has over 9000 penises and they’re all . . . raping . . .children’ (Phillips 66). Trolling mainstream media in order to exploit its tendency to prioritize spectacle, novelty, and poignancy is thus used as a justification for trolling behaviour. The justification for trolling stems from the argument that, through trolling, ‘the hypocrisy, ignorance and stupidity of the mainstream media is…exposed’ (Marwick and Lewis 5-6).

Emotional impact

The goal of the vast majority of trolls is to elicit negative emotional responses from their targets. In order to justify this behaviour, trolls distance themselves from their targets by arguing that the latter deserve abuse. An example of this is provided in the form of trolls who post offensive pictures to memorial pages on Facebook, arguing that the people who visit such pages are ‘grief tourists’ who pretend to care about people whom they do not know. Another justification that trolls can give is that people care excessively

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about the Internet, as it is not ‘real life’. Furthermore, the process of eliciting an emotional response is treated as if it were a game by trolls, who frequently work together to provoke as many responses as possible (Marwick and Lewis 7).

Preservation of ambiguity

Trolls are most successful when their discourse is ambiguous to the point where it is never quite clear whether or not they are serious. This is especially important in the many spaces in which racist speech and content are not necessarily permitted. Trolls therefore have to mask their content in such a manner that it can be interpreted either as the trolling of political correctness or as genuine racism. Determining intent becomes nearly impossible in such cases, especially since the participants are almost always anonymous (Marwick and Lewis 7).

2.1.4 Summary

This section provided an overview of the influence that the Internet has on communication. Online mediated communication has many valuable uses, such as connecting people who otherwise would never have been able to do so. However, it has also supports and encourages negative behaviours.

Examples of such negative behaviours can be found as a result of online disinhibition, which, on the one hand, can encourage people to speak more freely; however, on the other hand, it can also encourage the sharing of online hate speech without repercussions. Furthermore, the Internet´s influence on online discourse also becomes prominent in antagonistic debate, the effect of which can be enhanced by users creating an echo chamber in which no criticism is allowed. Antagonistic debate can also occur in public, as exemplified by the debates between Trump and Clinton; however, in public, it is more difficult to completely disregard opposing opinions.

Finally, trolling culture also has a major influence on online mediated communication, as a subset of Internet users actively cause disruption and/or trigger or exacerbate conflict for their own amusement. As it is often challenging to discern whether trolls are genuine, primarily due to the veil of irony and

ambiguity that they conceal themselves behind, it is difficult to determine whether or not their discourse should be taken seriously. To complicate matters further, even though some trolls, may not be genuine and simply use hate speech because they find it funny, the ingenuine use of hate speech can create an

environment in which actual racist and sexist individuals can spout hateful rhetoric without being challenged.

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PART II - HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

2.2 Alt-Right

2.2.1 Historical overview

A reasonable point of departure for an analysis of the emergence of the Alt-Right into the mainstream is to provide a historical overview of the movement itself. Therefore, this section focuses on the development of the movement since Richard Spencer first coined the term ‘Alternative Right’ in 2008. Spencer emerged as a political writer in 2007, having had his first major article published in the American Conservative. This article focused upon the Duke lacrosse rape scandal, in which numerous members of the university’s lacrosse team were falsely accused of raping an African American women (Hawley 51). In this article, Spencer stated that this scandal had ‘left serious people with a sense that something has gone terribly wrong with Duke’s academic culture’.

Thereafter, Spencer left Duke University, where he was enrolled in a PhD programme, and started working for the American Conservative. However, according to Hawley, Spencer was never a traditional conservative, as he never concealed his atheism and has also praised libertarians, in addition to speaking at libertarian conferences (Hawley 54). Following his termination at the American Conservative, Spencer joined Taki’s Magazine, founded by Taki Theodoracopulos, as managing director. The term Alt-Right finally materialized during Spencer’s tenure at this magazine. Theodoracopulos, who is known as a controversial right-wing writer and a critic of traditional conservatism, felt that the traditional conservative opinion had become stale and required ‘shaking up’. Theodoracopulos thus created Taki’s Magazine in order to provide a counter-voice to the mainstream conservative opinion.

Under Spencer’s reign, the magazine began to advocate an explicit racial agenda. As Spencer took control, the magazine continued publishing work from more mainstream paleoconservatives and libertarian

authors. However, it also started featuring more controversial authors, such as Jared Taylor;5_{this sparked}

controversy, leading other authors to criticize Spencer’s decision. Spencer responded by stating that ‘for a webzine attempting to carve out an “Alternative Right”, and one dedicated to a fearless assault on PC in all its varieties, the topics of “race” and “white identity” are bound to come up’, adding that ‘Takimag is not a “white nationalist” website’ (Spencer). While the magazine veered to the right with Spencer’s arrival, it still published authors with a wide range of perspectives. ‘Alternative Right’ was used as a broad umbrella term to refer to anyone opposed to the neoconservative movement (Hawley 55).

5_{A white supremacist, who is a proponent of scientific racism and voluntary racial segregation, also believing in}

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Spencer subsequently left Taki’s Magazine and founded the website Alternative Right. This website, while not featuring explicitly racist content during its early phases, did move away from mainstream

conservative political theory and towards a theme of identity politics for white people (Hawley 61). Furthermore, the website soon became a hub for openly racist material; however, it did avoid the explicit racist vernacular associated with online hubs of white nationalism (Neiwert 138).

As time progressed, the Alt-Right, whilst initially encompassing a range of authors opposed to mainstream conservatism, shifted towards the aforementioned theme of white identity politics and white nationalism. This became an essential element of the Alt-Right, with Spencer stating that race is the ‘foundation of identity’ and that people have to identify what truly influences who they are before asking questions concerning economics and foreign policy (Hawley 62; American Poverty Law Center).

2.2.2 Decline and resurrection of the Alternative Right

While the website Alternative Right gained an audience after its launch, it did not necessarily become a movement in and of itself. Consequently, after two years, Spencer grew tired of both it and the Alt-Right itself. Therefore, he stopped working on the website, but he undertook to keep it online. Control over content was then taken over by Collin Liddell and Andy Nowicki, and under their reign, more controversial content was posted. Even though Spencer no longer had editorial control, he still had ownership over the website and therefore automatically became associated with content posted on it. A development that was particularly concerning to Spencer was content posted by Liddell; in particular, an article titled ‘Is Black Genocide Right?’ became the straw that broke the camel’s back. As Spencer was still associated with the website, content of this nature was used to criticize his other media venues. This eventually led to Spencer deleting the website in its entirety, without notifying Liddell and Nowicki (Hawley 63-64). Liddell and Nowicki then created their own version of the Alternative Right; however, it never achieved the same circulation as the original and struggled to remain relevant to the white

nationalist movement (American Poverty Law Center).

2.2.2.1 The New Alt-Right

Following these events came a period during which the term Alt-Right seemed to decline in popularity and relevance. Aside from the previously mentioned website launched by Liddell and Nowicki, the term lived on in more obscure corners of the Internet, including 4chan and Reddit. From 2015 on (coinciding with Trump’s bid for candidacy), however, the term gained popularity on social media. While the fundamental premises remained the same, the new Alt-Right adopted a different approach. For example, Spencer’s Alternative Right took an intellectually highbrow approach to white nationalism that avoided the use of racial slurs and explicitly hateful rhetoric (Hawley 67). The new Alt-Right, in contrast, did not conform to

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these standards, as it approached the same issues in a drastically different manner. This approach was characterized by the use of vulgar and offensive language, with an emphasis on irony and humour, and was characterized by the use of Internet memes and trolling to attack opponents and to spread Alt-Right views (Lyons 2).

In contrast to the earlier Alt-Right, the supporters of which at least attempted to substantiate their

arguments, the newer wave made use of the anonymity provided by the Internet to openly propagate white nationalistic symbols. An example of this can be found in the use of ‘1488’, a reference to the white nationalist mantra the ‘Fourteen Words’6_{written by David Lane and ‘Heil Hitler’ (the 8th letter of the}

alphabet being H; Jeffery and West). Additional examples of this approach to spreading the group's ideology are provided in the pictures below.

Figure 1: Illustrations of white-nationalistic modifications of Pepe the Frog (WarriorTang)

These pictures depict modifications of Pepe the Frog, who was originally created as an innocent character in a comic series by Matt Furie in 2006 (Khan). As the character gained popularity, mainly due to its ability to be reworked and placed in any context, it also lent itself to co-opting by Alt-Right.

Consequently, Pepe even became the unofficial mascot of the Alt-Right (Segal).

It is important to note that what distinguishes the new wave from the older is the fact that members of the former uses these symbols not primarily because they agree with them but because they think that doing so is entertaining. The use of these images can be traced back to the culture of trolling that exists on online message boards such as Reddit and 4chan, as well as the Internet’s ability to distribute memes such as these (Segal).

Online and without leadership

The resurrection of the Alt-Right cannot be attributed to any particular individual, and it seems as though there was a growing population of disgruntled white identitarians who did not feel that the term ‘white

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nationalist’ resonated with them. Therefore, the Alt-Right label, as it was already associated with white identity politics, was the most suitable (Hawley 69). This also meant that the movement itself is hard to define, as it lacks a leader; it is essentially a leaderless mob. For example, the mainstream press has bundled all rightist online phenomena, ranging from 4chan, Reddit, and neo-nazi sites, under the banner of the Alt-Right (Nagle 13). Even though these different platforms may share the same views to some extent, the manner in which they propagate themselves differs by platform.

The creation of the Alt-Right as an umbrella term is explained by Hawley during an interview with AltRight podcaster Jazzhands McFeels:

When I came into the movement in late 2014, the term ‘Alt-Right’ was sort of a forced meme that had been loosely applied by some prominent members of the movement. It was sort of a personal choice whether or not to use it. . . . As the movement began to coalesce, predominantly and almost exclusively online, the Alt-Right was used more frequently as a banner under which to rally. Once the media began referring to the movement as the Alt-Right, that was it. (Hawley 69-70)

To summarize, whereas the Alt-Right was previously a movement opposing traditional mainstream conservatism, it gradually shifted towards a theme of white identity politics and white nationalism. As the movement gradually declined in popularity, a sudden re-emergence came in the form of a leaderless mob, consisting predominately of young white men, who were strongly influenced by Internet culture (Anglin 8). Furthermore, as Anglin provides valuable insight into this re-emergence:

The people involved in contributing to and/or consuming the content are on different Alt-Right sites and forums, many are on Twitter, Reddit, 4chan, etc. There are minor ‘leaders’, people who others listen to, but because there is yet to be an officially codified doctrine, no actual leader exists. The mob is the movement. (Anglin 26)

For the purposes of this study, the focus is on the manifestation of the contemporary Alt-Right on Reddit. As this study assesses whether the existence of an overlap between the Alt-Right and the Manosphere can be empirically supported, an analysis of the most prolific Alt-Right communities is essential.

2.2.3 Alt-Right communities on Reddit

2.2.3.1 /r/The_Donald

The subreddit /r/The_Donald was created for supporters of Donald Trump during his bid for the

presidency; at the time of writing, it boasts 594,703 subscribers. This subreddit is essentially the epicentre of Trump-centred discourse on the Internet. More importantly, it is the major hub for Trump’s Alt-Right supporters (Romano).

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The members range from conservatives to memeing teenagers, with one unifying characteristic: anonymity. The community itself is home to Islamophobia and xenophobia in general, trolling of liberal subreddits and users, and bashing of Hillary Clinton (Lagorio-Chafkin). Furthermore, the subreddit is known for hosting AMAs7_{with prominent Alt-Right figures who support Trump.}

The subreddit has become infamous for its incitements to violence, its outspoken white supremacist rhetoric, its appeal to the Alt-Right, and its function as a gateway into more explicit right-wing extremism (u/landoflobsters; Romano). This is exemplified by a stickied post uploaded to The_Donald immediately prior to the Unity the Right rally, a far-right rally with the goal of protesting the removal of Confederate monuments and promoting white nationalism. In this post, The_Donald’s subscribers were urged to march alongside neo-Nazi and far-right groups, since, ‘[i]n this case, the pursuit of preserving without shame white culture, our goals happen to align’ (Romano). This is only one example of The_Donald’s explicit links to the right; however, for the purposes of this study, another characteristic of The_Donald is of particular interest, namely the language that its subscribers have created for themselves. This topic is discussed further below.

Vocabulary

As The_Donald has essentially provided an online club house for supporters of Trump, it comes as no surprise that certain code words have appeared. These words and phrases are often somewhat ridiculous, such as ‘nimble navigators’ and ‘centipedes’, terms originating from YouTube video compilations of Trump footage. In a particular video, footage of Trump participating in a debate was juxtaposed with commentary from a nature documentary about centipedes. The narrator of this video states that ‘[d]espite its impressive length, [the centipede] is a nimble navigator, and some can be highly venomous. Just like the tarantula it’s killing, the centipede has two curved hollow fangs, which inject paralyzing venom. The centipede is a predator’ (Rose). In the context of the quote, it seems that Trump’s supporters on the Internet like to compare both Trump and themselves to a nimble and, most importantly, deadly predator. As previous research has demonstrated, The_Donald does not necessarily have one voice, since there are numerous smaller groups within the community, each of which has its own specific ‘lingo’. Tim Squirrel sheds light on the terminology employed by such groups, which he refers to as ‘the taxonomy of trolls’. The first group are the 4chan shitposters, who commonly use terms such as ‘kek’, ‘Pepe’, ‘deus vult’, ‘tendies’, and ‘God Emperor Trump’. The second group can be defined as consisting of anti-progressive gamers linked to Gamergate. This group most commonly uses terms such as ‘SJW,’ ‘snowflake’,

7_{Ask me anything, these posts can be explained as interviews where public figures answer questions asked by}

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‘pandering’, ‘Tumblr’, ‘feminist’, ‘triggering’, ‘GamerGate’, and ‘virtue-signalling’. The third group, also known as the Manosphere, consists of men’s rights activists; these individuals employ terms such as ‘females’, ‘cuck’, ‘bitch’, ‘Chad’, ‘alpha’, ‘beta’, and ‘omega’. The fourth group are anti-globalists, who employ terms such as ‘globalist scum’, ‘the establishment’, ‘puppets’, ‘elites’, ‘masters’, and ‘cultural Marxist’. Lastly, there is a group of white supremacists, who use terms such as ‘Islam’, (creeping) Sharia, ‘deus vult’, ‘Western culture’, and various racial slurs (Squirrel).

Identity

As the popularity of The_Donald subreddit grew, these different groups coalesced around Trump and formed an collective identity. Whereas these groups may have had individual subreddits to turn to, The_Donald provided a space in which all of them could feel welcome. The groups have also formed a collective vocabulary, adding to their own individual lexicons. This collective uses terms such as ‘MAGA’ (based on ‘Make America Great Again’), ‘based’ (appropriated from rap culture), and the aforementioned ‘centipede’. However, ‘cuck’ is the most important term, as it is important to each individual group. For example, cuck can be used within a racial context (by white supremacists), in a patriarchal context (by anti-progressive gamers), and to demean those seen as liberal (Squirrel). The emergence of new words within communities is explored later in this research, but it is essential to understand the wide variety of groups that have found their way into The_Donald. Each group uses these words both for their own purposes and and directs them against those who they perceive as not being 'with' them.

2.3 Manosphere

The emergence of feminism over the past decades has afforded females more rights and power than has ever been the case previously. This empowerment of females has also given rise to a counterculture of men who argue that it is not women but men who are the true victims in society (Gilmore). Thus, the men’s rights movement (MRM) emerged as a reactionary group, created specifically to counter the feminist influence on society. Therefore, its primary goal is to silence and marginalize this feminist influence (Theriault). The reactionary nature of the MRM finds expression in discussions of issues such as false rape accusations, custody battles, and circumcision and abortion, to name but a few (Haenfler). The Internet has played an increasingly important role in the emergence of the MRM from a fringe group to a well-represented entity on the World Wide Web. The Internet affords large groups of like-minded people the freedom to discuss their views by providing the infrastructure required for networks of blogs, websites, forums and other online platforms such as Reddit and Twitter; through these online networks, the Manosphere has gained popularity. Consequently, the Manosphere has become a global entity and,

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while its members may never meet in person, it has become a significant movement that is still growing rapidly (Poland).

As mentioned previously, the Manosphere consists of numerous subgroups, all of which come from diverse backgrounds and have different opinions, with the exception of the most important connection, which is their resentment of feminism and women in general. Its boundaries, however, are loosely defined and can often shift, as the various subgroups also compete with each other.

Before addressing specific manospheric communities, it may prove helpful to provide a basic overview of the origins of the Manosphere, focusing on its proliferation in the online world.

2.3.1 Origin of the men´s rights movement and the Manosphere

The origin of the MRM stemmed from the men’s liberation movement (MLM) of the 1970s. Ironically, the MLM drew heavily from feminist concepts. The latter’s critique of the roles played by the female sex and traditional views of what a women should be also spoke to some men. The push for female liberation acted as a springboard for men to also vouch for the liberation of men. Therefore, the MLM was born ‘in a parallel critique of the male sex role’ (Kimmel ‘From men's liberation to men’s rights: angry white men in the US’). In this critique, the general consensus was that, if women were to be imprisoned in the home (in accordance with the traditional role of a housewife), men were being banished from the home. The traditional view was that a man should be the breadwinner of the family; men were supposed to work, as their only capacity to nurture was through financial means (Kimmel, ‘From men's liberation to men’s rights: angry white men in the US’).

As the MLM critiqued these institutionalized gender roles, feminism moved from a critique of gender roles towards a critique of male behaviour. This also marked a shift in the form of critique: While previous criticism focussed on abstract ideological constructions, the new critique of male behaviour focussed on actual men acting in accordance with traditional roles. As this shift continued, feminists attempted to make the discussion personal by addressing the elements of rape, harassment, and domestic violence within the framework of gender dynamics; the MLM subsequently diverged. Instead of making the debate personal, the MLM opted to continue arguing that gender roles were equally oppressive to men and shifted the focus to institutionalized instances in which men were discriminated against (Kimmel, ‘From men's liberation to men’s rights: angry white men in the US’).

During this shift, the defining questions for the movement were ‘what causes the male malaise - why are men unhappy?’ According to Kimmel, the ways in which different groups of men attempted to resolve this

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question provided a structure for the contemporary MRM (‘From men's liberation to men’s rights: angry white men in the US’).

Mythopoetic men’s movement

This movement, based on the work of Robert Bly, Michael Meade, and Sam Keen, focused on

encouraging men to search for ‘deep masculinity’. Its leaders claimed that mass consumer society had diluted the authenticity of the male experience (Kimmel, Angry white men: American masculinity at the end of an era, 105-06). Mythopoets were gender separatist and were neither feminist nor anti-feminist. They considered themselves to be masculinists, of men, for men, and by men (Lilly 37).

Pro-feminist men

To pro-feminist men, women’s demand to enter the labour force meant that men were no longer forced to base their identities solely on success in the workplace. Women’s desire to balance their work and family lives consequently meant that men were able to reconnect with their children and partners. Pro-feminist men believed that the feminist goal of complete equality between the sexes would not necessarily represent a negative outcome for men but rather a very positive change (Kimmel, ‘From men's liberation to men’s rights: angry white men in the US’).

Men’s rights

Finally, a third group that embraced what its members referred to as men’s rights emerged. According to Kelly, the group may initially have shared the critique of the oppressive male role. However, as time went by, the group shifted towards celebrating all things masculine, which in turn led to an almost fetishised ideal of the traditional masculine role. The group’s members felt as if they did not need liberating from traditional masculinity but instead needed liberating from those who were attempting to liberate them. The group believed that traditional masculinity, instead of being the problem, was now in need of restoration. Feminism and women had become the sole causes of men’s malaise. The group’s members argued that feminism had transformed normal healthy women into ‘gold-digging consumerist harridans’ (Kimmel, Angry white men: American masculinity at the end of an era, 111).

As far as the Men’s rights activists (MRAs) are concerned, the real victims are men; therefore, they have developed organizations around men’s resentment of feminism. These organizations are focussed on equality and ending sexism, which is why they fought against feminism. From the perspective of MRAs, the fight against feminism is justified, since, according to them, feminism actually gave women more freedom than men, while men were still expected to initiate sexual relationships, go to war, and to pay for child support (Kimmel, ‘From men's liberation to men’s rights: angry white men in the US’). This

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resentment created an interesting contrast, as (white) males still wield most of the power and control in society but nonetheless feel victimized.

2.3.2 Contemporary men’s rights

This feeling of victimization laid the foundation for the contemporary Manosphere. Furthermore, according to Kimmel, three specific social shifts have transformed the members of the MRM, and therefore also the Manosphere, into a considerably more angry and polarized ensemble of men. First, economic shifts in the United States have changed America from a society consisting largely of middleclass families into one consisting of the super-rich and everyone else, thus also undermining the position and identity of middle-class men, which is closely linked to employment and success.

Consequently, these middle-class men are left disillusioned and bitter.

Second, the movement has also gained legitimacy as a result of its connection to the fathers’ rights movement. The father’s rights movement was founded to provide fathers with support and advocacy in legal proceedings involving custody and divorce, primarily since American custody and divorce laws undeniably favour women. For example, Hughes states that ‘across a wide range of jurisdictions the estimates are that mothers receive primary custody 68-88% of the time, fathers receive primary custody 814%, and equal residential custody is awarded in only 2-6% of the cases’. In this case, the inequality between men and women is undeniable, which has helped to fuel the MRM’s discourse.

Finally, and perhaps most importantly, the development of the Internet in its current form has ‘fuelled websites and blogs that keep the conversation going and the blood boiling’ (Kimmel). This development is essentially what created the Manosphere. Prior to the emergence of the Internet, it was never possible to group various movements together, but the Internet has made this possible. Furthermore, as is explained later in this thesis, the Internet also provides a platform upon which men can say what they want, without restriction. The combination of anonymity and online disinhibition creates an environment in which it is not necessary to be politically correct and where these men can release their pent-up frustrations.

2.3.3 The Manosphere online

Today, the MRM exists both online and offline; however, as a direct result of the development of the Internet, it has become increasingly prominent online. There are factors that distinguish the online and offline movements from each other; most importantly, the Internet bestows upon the online movement qualities that cannot be found in its offline counterpart. The Manosphere is heterogenous and vaguely defined, without a leader or central force that regulates all of its subgroups. It is possible for anyone with a working Internet connection to join the debate and add to, contest, and discuss any topic.

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As Blake states, for some, the Manosphere is a place where users can air legitimate grievances concerning bias in family courts or the sexual abuse suffered by men. However, it has also created a network of sites and actors that have taken this ideology in a disturbing direction. To this, Blake adds that, on sites such as 4chan and Reddit, men’s rights forums are a cesspool of misogynistic and anti-feminist vitriol. An

example of this can be found in Gamergate, which refers to an episode in which women in the video game industry were the victims of doxing and both rape and death threats under the guise of exposing ‘unethical collusion between press and feminists, progressives and social critics’.

Sites such as Reddit and 4chan can function as useful platforms for opening up discussion; however, as was demonstrated during the Gamergate incident, they can also prove to be powerful platforms for organizing hateful brigading. Friedman likened sites such as these to ‘a public square for MRAs, a kind of combination of locker room, group therapy and organizing’. Certainly, compared to blogs, where content is created by either one author or a group of people, sites such as these are more open to discussion (Lilly 40). For example, Reddit’s infrastructure allows every user to post and comment on posts, after which other users can up/downvote their posts or comments. Posts and comments with high scores8_{then gain}

visibility, whilst comments and posts with low scores become less visible and may even disappear. Reddit users are free to choose their own user names and can remain completely anonymous if they so desire, which reinforces the perception that anyone can say anything, without restriction. Another interesting and defining feature of Reddit is the concept of subreddits, which are contained communities within the site. These subreddits are completely free to access and easily created. Each subreddit can have its own set of rules, as long as it follows Reddit’s guidelines, and the responsibility for enforcing these rules lies upon the subreddit’s moderators.

The Manosphere is well represented on Reddit, with numerous communities having their own specific subreddits. The following section will provide an overview of a number of the most prominent manospheric subreddits.

2.3.4 Manospheric communities on Reddit

There are numerous communities that belong to the Manosphere, with each specializing in its own niche. In the following section, the most prominent manospheric subreddits are described. Each subreddit has its own guidelines, vernacular, and philosophy; therefore it is important to view them as individual

subreddits.

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2.3.4.1 /r/TheRedPill

According to TheRedPill’s own sidebar, it is a place for ‘discussion of sexual strategy in a culture increasingly lacking a positive identity for men’ (Reddit). In other words, TheRedPill is a community for (aspiring) PUAs to exchange advice and their experiences of interacting with women.

Philosophy

TheRedPill believes that Western culture has become feminist; in particular, its members feel that the sexual marketplace has shifted away from what was taught to them by their parents, television, and the church. As a consequence, those who participate on this subreddit believe that men have lost their identities due to the feminist frame that they perceive as existing around public discourse (u/pk-atheist). TheRedPill attempts to make men aware of the notion that, even though women are rightfully seeking happiness, men should know that they no longer have the influence they used to. They therefore need to make use of evolutionary psychology to once again gain the upper hand. Furthermore, men who

participate on TheRedPill believe that ‘feminism is a sexual strategy’ that aims to place women in the best positions that they are able to find, to select and to determine when they would like to change mates, and to gather the most resources that they can individually achieve.

TheRedPill’s focus

According to TheRedPill’s philosophy, to counter feminism as a sexual strategy, men need to employ their own sexual strategy. This strategy consist of three parts, which are explained below:

1. Mastering Game

Game is stated to be an important aspect of one’s sexual strategy. Even though a number of TheRedPill’s subscribers come from less militant PUA subreddits, such as /r/seduction, TheRedPill redefines the concept of ‘game’. As their philosophy states, within TheRedPill’s framework, game is viewed in a manner different to that of similar subreddits. /u/pk-atheist holds that most sex and relationship forums tend to feminize discussions of game by using politically correct statements in case a female should chance to read then. In this regard, the focus of TheRedPill is on overturning the female imperative that has overtaken game and once again creating a male imperative.

2. Defining the strategy

The second part of the strategy consists of defining what exactly ‘good game’ is. A considerable amount of discussion within TheRedPill therefore consists of discussion of evolutionary

psychology. As TheRedPill states, understanding this psychology not only helps with gaining attention from females, it also benefits future relationships and the likelihood of having children

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and maximizing one’s own happiness in life. Therefore, defining a strategy that goes beyond focusing on 'good game' is an important aspect of TheRedPill’s discourse.

3. Acknowledging Reality

Finally, the third part of the strategy involves acknowledging reality. Subscribers are encouraged to challenge the realities that they perceive and to discuss whether their beliefs line up with the world that they live in. The most important takeaway from this aspect of the strategy is to acknowledge everything, no matter how good or bad it may be. According to TheRedPill, acknowledging everything is the key to becoming happy and successful.

In short, TheRedPill is a predominately male community, the members of which believe that the only way to restore a positive identity for men is to accept the fact that a feminist frame has overtaken public discourse. To counter this, they hold that they should make use of evolutionary psychology to once again gain the upper hand.

2.3.4.2 /r/MGTOW

Another manospheric subreddit is ‘Men Going Their Own Way’. This is a community whose members believe there is a systematic bias in favour of women and therefore do not engage in contact with women in any shape or form whatsoever. According to their sidebar on Reddit, they are ‘[m]en going our own way by forging our own identities and paths to self-defined success; cutting through collective ideas of what a man is’ (u/redpillschool). This community boasts over 50,000 users on Reddit, and there are also websites, such as MGTOW.com, that are dedicated to this cause (Gander).

Philosophy

Members of the MGTOW community believes that the movement is a ‘statement of self ownership; where the individual's sovereignty needs to be preserved above all else’. This essentially means that they believe that men should only think about their own well-being, which, according to them, can only be achieved by completely disconnecting from the other sex (MGTOW). The subreddit is filled with posts ranging from memes about feminist society to encouraging men to leave their wives or users explaining why they no longer have an interest in meeting women.

The general consensus in the subreddit was founded within meninism, which is essentially a

counterculture to feminism that holds that women’s rights actively disadvantage men. The users do not necessarily go out of their way to change the status quo, as user Blue Skies explains; they simply opt out of what they believe society expects them to do. For example, for MGTOW users, dating, getting married and having children are surefire ways of becoming victims of divorce, court battles over child custody, and alimony payments. Therefore, they chose to simply not follow that path.

Cucks, Keks, and Pepes: A linguistic approach to studying user migration from the Manosphere to the Alt-Right