! ! !
MSc!in!Business!Administration!
Entrepreneurship!and!Management!in!the!Creative!Industries!
!The!Effect!of!Intra;Organizational!Audience!Overlap!
in!Popular!Music!Festivals!
!Cesar&Palmeyro&Zapico&&
UVA&ID&10827102& & Supervisor:&Monika&Kackovic& August&31st,&2015& & Word&count:&12,676.& !Statement!of!Originality!
&This& document& is& written& by& Cesar& Palmeyro& Zapico& who& declares& to& take& full& responsibility& for& the& contents& of& this& document.& I& declare& that& the& text& and& the& work& presented& in& this& document& are& original& and& that& no& sources& other& than& those& mentioned&in&the&text&and&its&references&have&been&used&in&creating&it.&The&Faculty&of& Economics& and& Business& is& responsible& solely& for& the& supervision& of& completion& of& the& work,¬&for&the&contents.& & & & & & & & & & & & & & &
Abstract!
This& study& investigates& the& effect& of& the& overlap& between& the& audiences& of& the& artists& featured& in& popular& music& festivals& on& the& events’& attendance& levels.& A& pushUpull& framework& is& used& to& identify& and& understand& the& consumers’& internal& and& external& motivations& towards& festival& attendance& and& to& theorize& about& the& effect& of& intraU organizational&audience&overlap&on&the&appeal&of&a&music&festival.&An&index&of&audience& overlap&is&proposed&based&on&Facebook&users’&data&and&employed&to&calculate&overlap& levels& for& a& sample& of& 22& Dutch& music& festivals.& The& estimated& indexes& are,& in& turn,& contrasted& against& festivals’& attendance& numbers& using& a& multiple& linear& regression& in& order&to&assess&the&influence&of&audience&overlap&on&the&festivals’&appeal&to&consumers,& obtaining& mixed& empirical& results.& Finally,& possible& explanations& for& these& results& are& explored&and&suggestions&for&future&research&are&proposed.&& & & & & & & & & &
Table!of!Contents!
1.!Introduction!...!4& 2.!Literature!Review!...!8& 2.1!Motivations!for!Festival!Attendance!...!11& 2.1.1.&Push&Factors&...&13& Hedonism&...&13& Socialization&...&13& Identity&Building&and&Maintenance&...&15& Agency&...&18& 2.1.2.&Pull&Factors&...&20& The&Musical&Experience&...&20& The&Social&Experience&...&22& The&Festival&Identity&...&25& 2.2.!The!Influence!of!Audience!Overlap!...!26& 3.!Methodology!...!28& 3.1!Research!design!...!28& 3.2.!Research!setting!...!29& 3.3.!Variables!...!30& 3.3.1.&Dependent&Variable&...&30& 3.3.2.&Independent&Variable&...&30& 3.3.3.&Moderator&Variables&...&30& 3.3.4.&Control&Variable&...&31& 3.4.!Data!Collection!Process!...!31& 4.!Data!Analysis!...!39& 4.1.!Correlation!Analysis!...!40& 4.2.!Regression!Analysis!...!40& 4.3.!Regression!Results!...!42& 5.!Discussion!...!44& 5.1.!Possible!Theoretical!Problems!...!46& 5.2.!Possible!Data!Problems!...!48& 6.!Implications!...!49& 7.!Limitations!and!Future!Research!...!51& 8.!Conclusion!...!53& 9.!References!...!56&1.!Introduction!
& “They&think&they’ve&devised&a&science&to&win&games.&They&think&it&resides&in&a& computer.&They&thumb&their&nose&at&fundamentals.&At&tradition.&They’re&card&counters&at& the&blackjack&table&who&forget&the&house&always&wins.”& &This& quote& belongs& to& baseball& journalist& Joe& Morgan& and& it& was& featured& in& the& film& Moneyball,&the&real&story&about&how&the&econometric&analysis&of&players’&performances& revolutionized& the& management& and& coaching& of& professional& baseball& teams.& Clearly,& Joe& Morgan& was& Uand& still& isU& one& of& the& most& fervent& detractors& of& the& dataUdriven& approach& to& baseball& coaching,& in& spite& of& the& substantial& evidence& in& favor& of& the& sabermetrics1&technique.& However,& this& almost& fanatic& attachment& to& “goodUold”& industry& traditions& is& not& exclusive& for& the& sports& industry;& Joe& Morgan’s& quote& represents&faithfully&the&way&in&which&most&music&industry&veterans&think,&especially&in& the&live&music§or.&As&a&matter&of&fact,&when&it&comes&to&selecting&and&booking&artists& for&festivals&or&concerts,&most&of&the&decisions&made&nowadays&are&still&predominantly& based&on&intuition&Uthe&same&“gut&feeling”&that&the&oldUschool&talent&scouts&employed&to& recruit&baseball&players&in&Moneyball.&&& & """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 1"The"term"“sabermetrics”"is"defined"as"the"application"of"statistical"analysis"to"baseball" records,"especially"in"order"to"evaluate"and"compare"the"performance"of"individual"players." This"name"was"coined"by"Bill"James"in"part"to"honor"the"Society"for"American"Baseball" Research"(SABR)."
In& line& with& baseball’s& traditionalist& perspective,& many& alleged& professionals& from& the& music& business& claim& that& dataUdriven& approaches& to& programming& music& events& goes& against&the&very&basic&concepts&of&music&as&an&art&form.&Their&argument&is&that&if&cultural& organizations&offer&consumers&exactly&what&they&want&and&already&like,&there&would&be& no& room& for& broadening& the& consumers’& experiences& and& tastes& or& for& challenging& or& provoking& the& audiences.& But& this& view& is& not& accurate& at& all.& While& an& extreme& customerUoriented&offering&could&certainly&come&at&the&expense&of&artistic&innovation,& however,& a& dataUdriven& approach& to& programming& does& not& necessarily& imply& such& a& radical&marketUcentered&posture.&For&example,&by&providing&a&deeper&knowledge&about& people’s&interests&and&behavior,&data&science&can&be&helpful¬&only&in&the&detection&of& profitable&performers,&but&also&inform&decisionUmakers&about&new&emerging&artists&and& underground&movements&and,&thus,&contribute&to&the&programming&decisions,&whether& the&organization&is&interested&in&maximizing&revenue&or&in&an&avantAgarde&programming.& & The&music&industry&landscape&has&been&radically&changing&over&the&last&15&years,&and&the& live&event&business&has&grown&bigger&than&ever;&while&sales&of&recorded&music&declined& after& the& introduction& of& fileUsharing,& concert& revenues& and& the& number& of& artists& performing&concerts&increased&dramatically&(Mortimer,&Nosko,&&&Sorensen,&2012).&In&the& past&decade,&the&size&of&the&audience&as&well&as&the&number&of&concerts&and&festivals& have& multiplied& noticeably& all& around& the& world,& getting& increasing& attention& from& academics&and&leading&to&the&proliferation&of&specific&music&event&literature&(Leenders&et& al,&2011).&Furthermore,&the&data&explosion&that&resulted&from&the&astronomical&growth&
of& social& media,& digital& downloads& and& content& streaming& platforms,& as& well& as& smart& mobile& devices,& can& actually& provide& event& organizations& and& academics& with& crucial& information& to& take& further& advantage& of& technology& and& seriously& reduce& risks& in& a& business& traditionally& known& for& its& high& uncertainty.& Today,& this& technology& allows& programmers&to&visualize&audiences,&observe&where&they&are,&who&they&are,&how&they& connect& to& each& other,& what& are& their& interests,& monitor& their& social& media& conversations,& detect& influencers,& know& what& they& are& listening& to,& how& often,& if& they& like&it&and&how&much&they&like&it.&For&example,&a&data&intelligence&company&called&Next& Big&Sound&claims&that&based&on&its&social&media&metrics&(a&combination&between&iTunes& sales,& Pandora,& Facebook,& Spotify,& Twitter,& Last.fm,& among& other& sources)& they& can& predict&record&sales&better&than&radio&airplay,&the&traditional&predictor&of&success&in&the& record&business.&&
&
I& believe& that& social& media& dataUdriven& tactics& could& and& should& be& applied& in& the& live& music&business&to&improve&the&attendants’&experience&and&therefore&increase&the&appeal& of&concerts&and&festivals&efficiently.&This&thesis&is&written&with&the&purpose&of&making&a& step&forward&into&that&direction.&In&this&study,&focus&will&be&put&on&music&festivals&and,& specifically,&in&artistic&programming&aspects.&Because&of&the&limited&scope&of&a&Master’s& thesis,& this& study& concentrates& on& one& particular& feature& of& artistic& lineUups& and& its& possible& effects& on& the& appeal& and& performance& of& a& music& festival:& the& intraU organizational&audience&overlap.&In&other&words,&this&thesis&aims&to&propose&a&measure& reflecting& the& similarity& between& the& audiences& of& the& different& artists& featured& in& a&
music&festival&and&examine&the&effects&of&that&variable&in&the&appeal&and&performance&of& the&festival.&&
&
Audience& overlap& in& the& music& festival& industry& has& been& already& examined& but& from& different& perspectives.& Bruggeman& et& al& (2012)& analyzed& the& effects& of& interU organizational&niche&overlap&between&different&festivals&on&competition&and&legitimacy& at& the& industry& level.& However,& what& makes& this& thesis& interesting& is& that& the& intraU organizational& audience& overlap& concept& has& not& been& studied& in& previous& academic& literature&Uperhaps&because&of&the&challenging&nature&of&visualizing&audiences&before&the& emergence& of& social& media& networks.& In& fact,& this& research’s& main& information& source& will&be&social&media&data.&By&analyzing&Facebook&media&audiences&Uinformation&which&is& available&to&anyone&with&a&Facebook&PageU&I&propose&an&index&for&measuring&the&extent& of&similarity&between&the&audiences&of&artists&and&theorize&about&the&effect&that&lineUup& audience&overlap&can&have&in&ticket&sales.&Later&on,&the&hypotheses&are&contrasted&with& empirical&data&of&music&festivals&in&the&Netherlands.&In&sum,&the&purpose&of&this&thesis&is& to&answer&the&following&research&question:&& & How$does$the$overlap$between$the$audiences$of$the$artists$featured$in$a$popular$music$ festival$affect$the$festival’s$attendance?$ &
This& thesis& is& structured& as& follows:& Chapter& 2& features& a& review& of& relevant& academic& literature& about& audiences,& music& consumption& and& festival& attendance& motivators,&
which&constitute&the&theoretical&grounds&upon&which&the&hypotheses&of&this&study&are& supported.&In&Chapter&3,&the&methodology&employed&in&this&study&is&described,&including& the& research& design,& empirical& setting,& data& collection& and& the& method& of& analysis.&& Chapter&4&is&dedicated&to&the&analysis&of&the&collected&data&and&the&results&are&discussed& in&Chapter&5.&Following,&the&Implications,&Limitations&&&Future&Research&and&Conclusion& sections&are&found&in&Chapters&6,&7&and&8,&respectively.&&
&
Hopefully,&this&study&will&contribute&to&a&smarter&event&industry&in&the&future,&one&that& relies& less& on& “gut& feelings”& and& more& on& professional& skills& for& collecting,& curating,& analyzing& and& properly& interpreting& the& increasingly& available& information& on& music& consumer& trends& and& behaviors.& One& where& its& organizations& can& achieve& a& better& understanding& of& their& consumer& needs& in& order& to& provide& better& and& higher& value& products&and&services.&
2.!Literature!Review!
&Popular&music&festivals&can&be&defined&as&a&collection&of&live&performances&by&individual& artists,&djs&or&bands&within&a&specific&setting,&timeUframe&and&order&(or&lineUup)&and&in& which& ritual,& celebratory& and& experiential& elements& converge& in& order& to& provide& audiences& with& entertainment& and& knowledge& (Orosa& Paleo& && Wijnberg,& 2006).& Music& festivals& are& one& of& the& most& widespread& and& popular& forms& of& music& consumption& among&young&adults&(Rowley&&&Williams,&2008)&and&they&offer&unique&opportunities&for&
engagement&with&music&as&well&as&other&people,&potentially&providing&a&context&within& which&peak&experiences&might&occur&(Ballantyne,&Ballantyne,&&&Packer,&2013).&&
&
The&artistic&offering&or&lineUup&is&the&most&salient&attribute&of&popular&music&festivals.&It& constitutes& the& backbone& of& the& event& and& represents& a& central& factor& in& the& festival& experience.&In&an&interview&with&Bertus&Blauw,&head&programmer&for&Mojo&Concerts,&he& mentioned&that&even&wellUestablished&festivals&with&a&solid&reputation&like&Lowlands&or& Pinkpop&need&to&have&an&appealing&selection&of&artists&each&year&in&order&to&attract&the& desired&amount&of&attendees.&Even&though&the&festival&brand&may&be&a&relevant&factor&in& terms& of& obtaining& a& loyal& following& (M.& Leenders,& 2010),& the& popularity& of& a& music& festival& is& strongly& linked& to& the& popularity& of& the& artists& featured& in& its& lineUup.&& Moreover,& the& artistic& selection& across& the& different& editions& of& a& music& festival& has& a& significant&influence&on&its&long&term&reputation/brand&equity&(M.&Leenders,&2010).&& & From&the&previous¶graph,&we&can&infer&that&the&audience&reach&of&a&music&festival& depends&highly&on&the&audiences&of&the&artists&featured&in&its&lineUup.! At&this&point,&it& would&be&convenient&to&define&the&term&“audience”.&Hannan&uses&the&term&“audience”& to&refer&to&“the&potential&takers&of&the&organization’s&offering”&(M.&T.&Hannan,&Carroll,&&& Pólos,&2003).&In&this&thesis,&the&potential&takers&of&an&organization’s&cultural&offerings&are& defined&as&those&subjects&who&have&a&positive&attitude&towards&the&cultural&organization& and/or&its&offerings.&In&other&words,&the&audience&of&an&artist&is&comprised&by&a&set&of&
individuals&who&like&the&artist.&They&have&certainly&more&potential&than&anyone&else&to& take&an&artist’s&offerings.&&
&
However,& defining& the& audience& for& a& festival& can& be& a& complex& task.& Unlike& concerts,& where&individuals&are&generally&drawn&to&hear&and&view&a&live&performance&of&a&specific& artist,&music&festivals&often&involve&a&myriad&of&talent&that&may&or&may¬&address&the& same&kind&of&audiences&(Bowen&&&Daniels,&2005,&p.&155).&&While&technically&the&audience& reach&of&a&music&festival&may&depend&on&the&audiences&of&its&featured&artists,&audience& reach&does¬&provide&substantial&information&about&the&extent&of&audiences’&appeal& towards&that&festival.&For&example,&a&consumer&may¬&be&very&interested&in&a&music& festival&if&there’s&only&one&small&artist&that&he/she&finds&appealing&Uespecially&considering& the& relative& higher& ticket& prices& of& festivals& compared& to& concerts.& In& spite& of& that,& technically&liking&just&one&artist&from&the&festival’s&lineUup&would&make&that&individual&a& part&of&the&reached&audience.&In&this®ard,&the¢ral&idea&of&this&thesis&is&that&the& internal& structure& of& a& festival& lineUup& –the& extent& to& which& the& audiences& of& the& featured& artists& relate& to& each& other–& has& a& significant& influence& on& the& way& in& which& featured&artists’&audiences&can&influence&the&appeal&of&a&music&festival,&and&therefore,& attendance.&&&&
&
Previous& research& have& addressed& the& influence& of& lineUup’s& internal& configuration& on& the& performance& of& festivals& by& studying& the& contained& genres& as& a& measure& for& audience& scope& (Leenders& et& al.,& 2011).& However,& this& can& be& problematic& for& several&
reasons.&First&of&all,&categorization&is&a&qualitative&endeavor&and¬&an&exact&science,& giving& way& to& inconsistencies& in& the& classification& done& by& different& actors& (Kuijken,& Leenders,& Wijnberg,& && Gemser,& 2013).& Moreover,& festival& programmers& must& choose& between& artists,& not& genres.& Especially& in& modernUday& festivals,& several& artists’& influences&can&be&traced&to&a&lot&of&different&genres,&making&the&task&of&labeling&them& into& wellUdefined& boundaries& more& difficult.& Besides,& it’s& not& uncommon& that& artists& from&the&same&genre&appeal&to&very&different&audiences&and&on&the&other&hand,&some& artists& from& different& genres& appeal& to& the& almost& the& same& audiences.& For& these& reasons,&the&approach&used&in&this&study&will&estimate&and&analyze&the&festivals’&intraU organizational& audience& composition& using& social& media& network& research& instead& of& genre&categorizations.&
&
Nevertheless,&in&order&to&understand&better&how&the&lineUup&structure&can&shape&a&music& festival’s& audience,& it& is& crucial& to& understand& first& what& makes& consumers& have& a& positive&appeal&towards&a&festival.&With&that&goal&in&mind,&the&motivations&for&festival& attendance&will&be&discussed&in&the&following§ion.& & 2.1!Motivations!for!Festival!Attendance! ! There&is&plenty&of&literature&trying&to&uncover&the&reasons&behind&festivals&attendance& (Ballantyne&et&al.,&2013;&Becker,&1991;&Botha,&Viviers,&&&Slabbert,&2012;&Caldwell,&2001;& Crompton& && McKay,& 1997;& De& Serpa& && Faith,& 1996;& Earl,& 2001;& Leenders& et& al.,& 2011;&
Nicholson& && Pearce,& 2001;& Pegg& && Patterson,& 2010).& & A& great& variety& of& factors& and& motives& (along& with& different& classification& criteria)& have& been& proposed& over& the& last& decades& with& the& objective& of& explaining& one& of& the& most& puzzling& questions& in& the& consumer&behavior&literature:&Why&do&people&go&to&music&festivals?&&
&
The& pushUpull& concept& originated& in& tourism& research& can& be& a& useful& approach& to& analyze&the&motivations&for&music&festival&attendance&(Crompton&&&McKay,&1997).&In&a& seminal& paper,& Dann& distinguished& between& “push”& and& “pull”& factors& influencing& the& decision&process&of&tourists&(Dann,&1977;&Uysal,&Li,&&&SirakayaUturk,&2008).&“Push&factors”& are&defined&as&those&internal&motivations&within&the&individual&that&act&as&a&catalyst&for& attendance&(Arcodia&&&AbreuUNovais,&2013).&In&the&music&festival&framework,&the&push& factors&Uthe&needs&and&wants&of&the&individualU&are&the&reasons&why&consumers&might& want& to& go& to& a& music& festival& in& the& first& place.& Pull& factors,& on& the& other& hand,& are& understood& as& the& external& forces& that& are& evoked& by& the& event& attributes& and& that& encourage& consumers& to& participate& in& a& particular& festival& (Arcodia& && AbreuUNovais,& 2013;&Uysal&et&al.,&2008).&Hence,&according&to&this&perspective,&individuals&attend&music& festivals& because& they& are& pushed& by& their& own& internal& forces& and& simultaneously& pulled&by&the&external&forces&of&a&music&festival&and&its&attributes&(Uysal&et&al.,&2008,&p.& 414).& In& the& following& section& I& will& discuss& relevant& push& factors/internal& motivations& presented&in&the&event&attendance&motivation&literature.&Following,&focus&will&be&put&on& the&pull&factors,&and&how&they&can&be&connected&with&push&factors&in&order&to&influence& the&consumer’s&decisionUmaking&process&to&attend&a&music&festival.&&&
2.1.1.!Push!Factors!
Hedonism$
&
First& of& all,& attending& a& music& festival& is& a& form& of& hedonic& consumption.& Hedonism& is& understood& as& the& pursuit& of& affective& gratification& from& sensory& attributes& and& the& arousal&of&specific&feelings,&emotions&and&sensations&(Gursoy,&2006).&Music's&ability&to& induce&emotional&experiences&is&likely&the&most&important&driver&for&the&attendance&of& music& festivals& (Laiho,& 2004).& This& is& especially& reinforced& by& the& audiences’& acquaintance& with& the& performing& artist& and/or& its& repertoire,& as& familiarity& increases& the&intensity&of&emotional&responses&to&music&(Ali&&&Peynircioglu,&2010).&&Listening&to& music&from&a&performer&for&which&there&is&already&an&appointed&preference&combined& with& the& thrill& of& the& physical& proximity& with& that& admired& artist& can& denote& a& hedonically&valued&festival&experience&for&attendants&(Crompton&&&McKay,&1997;&Earl,& 2001;&Gursoy,&2006;&Leenders&et&al.,&2011;&Oakes,&2003;&Packer&&&Ballantyne,&2011)&& $ Socialization$ $ Ample&sources&point&out&that&social&interaction&plays&a&crucial&factor&in&the&music&festival& experience&(Ballantyne&et&al.,&2013;&Botha&et&al.,&2012;&Caldwell,&2001;&De&Serpa&&&Faith,& 1996;& Deserpa,& 1994;& Gursoy,& 2006;& Laiho,& 2004;& Nicholson& && Pearce,& 2001).& & Besides& hedonic& attributes,& the& second& most& important& motive& for& attending& music& festivals& is& socialization&(Gursoy,&2006;&Nicholson&&&Pearce,&2001).&Music&festivals&are&social&events& and,&as&such,&attendees&are&at&the&same&time&consumers&and&inputs;&social&interaction& plays& an& important& role& in& the& structure& of& live& events& demand& as& the& presence& and&
behavior&of&others&during&the&event&is&an&important&part&of&the&festival&experience&(De& Serpa& && Faith,& 1996;& Deserpa,& 1994).& Crompton& and& McKay& distinguish& “known& group& socialization”& as& well& as& “external& interaction/socialization”& and& “gregariousness”& as& crucial& forces& determining& the& attendance& of& festivals& (Crompton& && McKay,& 1997).& Nicholson& and& Pearce& also& stress& the& importance& of& the& socializing& factor& in& terms& of& motives& like& “so& I& could& be& with& my& friends”,& “be& with& people& who& are& enjoying& themselves”,&“because&I&enjoy&festival&crowds”,&“observe&the&other&people&attending&the& event”,& and& “be& with& people& that& enjoy& the& same& things& I& do”& in& festival& attendance& (Nicholson&&&Pearce,&2001).&Providing&greater&opportunities&for&participants&to&connect& with&their&friends&on&a&deeper&level&is&thus&one&way&to&improve&the&benefits&likely&to&be& gained& by& music& festival& attendees& (Ballantyne& et& al.,& 2013,& p.& 80).& & Furthermore,& Deserpa& and& Faith& (1996)& describe& the& influence& of& “the& mob& effect”& in& music& events& (not&to&be&confused&with&bandwagon&effects,&explained&later&in&this§ion)&suggesting& that& the& collective& character& of& festivals& often& results& in& positive& group& externalities& affecting&its&consumption:&crowd&behavior,&spontaneous&applause,&raucous&enthusiasm,& collective& singing,& cheering,& putting& lighters& up& during& a& ballad& song& and& even& certain& uninhibited& reactions& can& actually& make& the& musical& experience& more& enjoyable& than& the& isolated& consumption& of& the& same& performances& (De& Serpa& && Faith,& 1996;& Earl,& 2001).& Caldwell& describes& “Friendship/Family& Bonds”& (building& and& maintaining& attachments& within& a& close& social& circle)& as& one& of& the& main& motives& for& festival& attendance.&Also,&the&sharing&of&experiences&is&a&particular&form&of&socialization&(Chacko& && Schaffer,& 1993)& and& an& environment& that& offers& ample& opportunities& to& socialize& is&
suggested& as& a& reason& why& people& are& motivated& to& attend& a& festival& performance& (Botha& et& al.,& 2012,& p.& 27).& What's& more,& consuming& music& actually& requires& social& interaction&to&gain&meaning&and&deploy&its&inherent&cultural&value.&As&Ruud&puts&it:&“It&is& all& the& talk& about& music& which& gives& it& it's& meaning;& it& is& the& discourses& about& «authenticity»,& taste,& style,& genre& and& the& discourse& about& «quality»,& which& together& give&music&its&cultural&content.”&(Ruud,&1997).&Laiho&affirms&that&music&has&the&ability&to& evoke&feelings&of&unity&and&belonging;&going&to&a&festival&with&friends,&singing&together,& dancing&and&jumping&synchronized&with&a&group&of&other&people&represent&chances&for& shared& feelings& and& experiences& and,& through& these& collective& emotional& experiences,& attendees& can& feel& deep& involvement& and& connection& among& them& (Laiho,& 2004).& Certainly,&these&experiences&can&result&in&positive&social&benefits&or&wellUbeing&for&the& individuals,& such& as& social& acceptance,& integration,& actualization,& coherence& and& contribution&(Keyes,&1998).&&
&
Identity$Building$and$Maintenance$ $
Another&important&motive&in&the&consumption&of&music&events&(although&related&to&the& socialization& factor)& is& the& development& and& maintenance& of& a& personal& identity.& Individuals’& quest& for& identity& is& related& to& existential& motives& such& as& the& search& for& meaning,& connectedness,& empowerment,& and& immortality& (Ashforth& && Mael,& 1989).& Indeed&identity&is&strongly&related&to&the&social&environment.&Musical&taste&patterns&and& behavior&communicate&belonging&and&connections,&but&also&boundaries&between&us&and&
others,&a&way&of&drawing&lines,&which&strengthen&the&feeling&of&being&unique&and&distinct& from& others& (Laiho,& 2004;& Ruud,& 1997).& According& to& Yoganarasimhan& (2012),& people& have& paradoxical& needs& of& wanting& to& be& similar& to& their& social& counterparts& (group& cohesion)& and& at& the& same& time& portray& distinctive& positive& qualities& (differentiation).& Music&represents&one&of&the&most&conspicuous&forms&of&consumption&and,&as&such,&it&is& one& of& the& strongest& markers& of& identity& (Macdonald,& Hargreaves,& && Miell,& 2009).& Cultural& tastes,& opinions,& and& consumption& patterns& are& part& of& a& broader& vision& on& moral,& social,& and& cultural& values,& thus,& people& use& their& music& preferences& to& communicate&status&to&others&(van&Eijck,&2001).&Indeed,&one&can&tell&very&much&about& someone&by&his/her&musical&consumption&behavior,&including&personality,&fashion&style,& social&status,&income&level,&political&views,&etc.&In&the&words&of&Caldwell:&
“Attending&certain&types&of&performing&arts&has&traditionally&been&used&to& communicate& status.& People& position& others& in& the& social& hierarchy& based& on& observations& of& their& consumption.& They& also& consume& them& ostentatiously&to&communicate&their&own&socialUclass&positions&or&the&class& with&which&they&wish&to&identify”&(Caldwell,&2001,&p.&507).&&
&
Moreover,&Caldwell&postulates&“Distinction”&as&the&one&main&motive&for&performing&arts& consumption;& feeling& different& than& others& (uniqueness),& experiencing& the& power& of& choice& (selfUdetermination),& being& better& than& others& (superiority),& and& comparing& oneself&to&others&(social&comparison).&She&also&mentions&the&relevance&of&three&types&of& conspicuous& consumption& effects& related& to& social& positioning& and& identity& signaling:& Veblen& effects& (based& on& expensive& items’& signaling& power& to& show& off& access& to& financial&resources);&Snob&effects&(positive&valuation&of&socially&scarce&products&with&the&
ability& to& signal& distinction& and& cultural/subcultural& capital);& and& Bandwagon& effects& (valorization&of&a&product&as&the&demand&for&it&increases).&&
Certainly,& people& consume& music& forms& (including& music& festivals)& as& a& means& to& formulate& and& express& their& individual& identities,& present& themselves& to& others& in& a& particular& way,& make& statements& about& their& values& and& attitudes,& and& express& their& views& of& the& world& (Ballantyne& et& al.,& 2013).& In& the& same& way& that& Yoganarasimhan& (2012)&describes&fashion&as&a&social&device&that&allows&people&to&signal&their&good&taste& and&sophistication&while&enabling&them&to&fit&in&with&peers,&music&festivals&can&definitely& perform& the& exact& same& functions.& Music& festivals& provide& a& great& environment& for& individuals& to& form,& maintain& and& exteriorize& their& tastes,& where& they& can& see& and& be& seen,&distinguishing&themselves&from&the&rest&as&well&as&expressing&their&(aspirations&to)& belonging&to&certain&social&groups.&According&to&Social&Identity&Theory,&people&tend&to& classify& and& locate& themselves& and& others& in& the& social& environment& and,& therefore,& social&identification&is&the&perception&of&oneness&with&or&belongingness&to&some&human& aggregate& (Ashforth& && Mael,& 1989).& Artists,& musical& styles,& fan& communities& and& even& events&can&be&construed&as&social&referents&that&provide&examples&of&possible&identities,& in&terms&of&which&individuals&can&define&themselves.&Artists&and&cultural&organizations& (like& music& festivals)& often& offer& attractive,& meaningful& and& authentic& social& identities& that& help& consumers& satisfy& their& selfUdefinition& needs.& Authenticity& also& plays& an& important&role&here;&people&search&for&authenticity&in&the&objects&they&consume&in&order& to& authenticate& themselves& (Beverland& && Farrelly,& 2010).& Only& perceived& authentic& objects& (like& artists,& events,& songs)& are& useful& “building& blocks”& to& construct& an&
individuals’& authentic& identity.& To& sum& it& up,& individuals& look& for& ways& of& exploring,& constructing,& and& strengthening& the& concept& of& self& as& well& as& a& way& of& reflecting& the& self,&its&structures&and&relations&with&environment&(Laiho,&2004).&
&
Agency$ $
Several& articles& point& out& that& music& consumption& can& also& contribute& to& achieving& certain&psychological&personal&goals&(Ballantyne&et&al.,&2013;&Croom,&2015;&Earl,&2001;& Laiho,& 2004;& Lamont,& 2012;& Packer& && Ballantyne,& 2011;& Tarrant,& North,& && Hargreaves,& 2001).& Laiho& (2004)& calls& this& psychological& theme& “agency”& and& related& it& to& being& in& control,& competency,& achievement,& selfUdetermination& and& selfUesteem;& a& feeling& of& being&the&commanding,&competent,&and&successful&actor&of&one's&own&functioning.&To& put&it&shortly,&having&the&impression&our&life&is&manageable&contributes&greatly&to&our& wellUbeing.&In&this®ard,&music&consumption&can&have&a&significant&impact&in&people’s& sense& of& agency& and& selfUesteem.& Music& is& a& way& of& controlling& the& environment& and& music&festivals&can&give&experiences&of&learning,&mastering,&and&achieving&which,&in&turn,& feed& selfUesteem& (Laiho,& 2004).& Moreover,& opportunities& for& free& and& relaxed& activity& and&selfUexpression&are&ways&of&selfUdetermination&(Korpela&et&al.,&1996;&Laiho,&2004).& Music&festivals&are&indeed&opportunities&to&accomplish&things&and&feel&mastery&of&the& environment.& Familiar& music& and& certain& festival& situations& can& give& an& experience& of& being&in&control&and&support&the&feeling&of&"being&somebody",&serving&as&a&psychological& and&cultural&platform&(Ruud,&1997).&Making&sense&of&the&festival&identity,&knowing&the&
performers&and&their&songs,&learning&about&new&bands&and&being&acquainted&with&the& ritualistic&activities&can&all&be&manifestations&of&mastery&over&the&(festival)&environment,& leading& to& feelings& of& control& and& achievement.& This& kind& of& expertise& requires& the& investment& of& time& and& effort,& and& even& though& it& can& be& guided& or& mentored,& the& mastery& of& these& activities& are& selfUdetermined& (Beverland& && Farrelly,& 2010).& Accomplishing&and&learning&new&things,&like&festival&etiquette&dos&and&don’ts,&including& the&perception&of&how&to&dress,&what&to&bring,&how&to&behave&in&the&crowd&(i.e.&picking& up& the& fallen& in& the& mosh& pit,& holding& lost& items& above& your& head,& obtain/take& drugs)& among& other& festivalUrelated& skills& Ueven& the& mere& act& of& being& thereU& can& result& in& positive& psychological& outcomes& related& to& achievement,& acceptance& from& peers& and& mastery& of& physical& and& social& skills& that& add& to& their& selfUdetermination& and& selfU confidence.& Also,& control& over& one's& own& particular& states& of& mind& is& vital& to& the& perception&of&selfUdetermination.&As&indicated&in&the&previous¶graphs,&music&has&the& ability&of&affecting&our&emotional&situation.&Therefore,&employing&music&consumption&to& determinate&moods&and&states&of&mind&is&one&way&to&practice&selfUcontrol&that&affects& selfUesteem,&as&moodUinductions&influence&perceptions&of&selfUcompetency&and&agency& (Laiho,& 2004).& However,& since& agency& factors& do& not& necessary& lend& themselves& to& cognitive& evaluations& (Uysal& et& al.,& 2008),& it& is& not& entirely& clear& if& these& factors& are& actually&taken&into&consideration&by&individuals&when&making&their&purchase&decisions.& &
In&conclusion,&the&internal&motivations&(or&push&factors)&for&attending&music&festivals&can& be& classified& in& four& basic& categories;& hedonism,& socialization,& identity& and& agency.&
Knowing&these&motives&is&important,&since&motives&are&a&precursor&of&satisfaction&and&a& factor& in& decision& making& (Bowen& && Daniels,& 2005)& but& the& actual& challenge& is& to& link& them&to&the&pull&factors&or&perceivable&attributes&of&a&festival.&&In&the&next§ion&the& external/pull& factors& will& be& identified& and& connected& to& the& internal& motivators/push& factors.& & 2.1.2.!Pull!Factors!! & The$Musical$Experience$ $ Pull&factors&have&been&characterized&in&terms&of&the&features,&attractions,&or&attributes& of&the&leisure&activity&itself&(Klenosky,&2002)&such&as&the&artistic&offering&characteristics,& food&options,&appeal/personality&of&the&venue,&admission&price,&extraUmusical&activities,& marketing&stimuli,&etc.&However,&artist&lineUup&is&the&festival’s&most&salient&attribute&and& the& cornerstone& of& the& musical& experience& of& a& festival& upon& which& everything& else& is& built.&For&popular&music&festivals,&the&music&is&the¢ral&aspect&of&the&experience&and& the& common& ground& that& brings& the& attendants& together& (Ballantyne& et& al.,& 2013;& Gursoy,& 2006;& Holbrook,& 2006;& Leenders& et& al.,& 2011).& As& a& matter& of& fact,& the& artistic& offering& of& a& festival& defines& simultaneously& its& range,& identity,& featured& genres& and& target& audience& (Leenders& et& al.,& 2011;& Orosa& Paleo& && Wijnberg,& 2006).& Moreover,& a& recent& survey& published& by& the& ticketing& company& Ticketed& about& the& Spanish& festival& market&affirms&that&the&most&important&driver&behind&music&festival&attendance&is&the& lineUup& (Mayo,& 2015).& & Price& and& transaction& costs& also& play& a& big& role& since& the&
‘perceived& value& for& money’& can& also& influence& demand& (Botha& et& al.,& 2012,& p.& 24).& Festivals&constitute&the&opportunity&to&watch&the&live&performances&of&several&artists&for& an& admittance& price& that& is& significantly& inferior& compared& the& price& of& watching& the& featured&performances&individually&in&different&venues&and&dates&(headline&shows),&due& to&substantial&reduction&in&decision&and&transaction&costs&(Frey,&2000).&At&the&same&time,& festivals’&ticket&prices&are&normally&several×&the&price&of&an&average&headline&show,& suggesting&the&relevance&of&the&relationship&between&admission&price&and&the&amount&of& “liked”&artists&from&the&lineUup.&The&more&artists&an&individual&knows&and&likes&from&a& music& festival& lineUup,& the& better& his/her& valuation& of& the& musical& experience& of& the& festival& will& be& and,& therefore,& the& higher& probabilities& of& purchase& intention,& ceteris& paribus.& Indeed,& several& studies& confirm& that& the& familiarity& and& reputation& of& the& performers& are& the& most& important& factors& contributing& to& festival& ticket& purchases& (Botha& et& al.,& 2012,& p.& 36).& One& way& of& interpreting& the& familiarity& and& preference& of& audiences&towards&the&lineUup&of&a&festival&and&its&musical&experience&is&examining&the& overlap& between& the& particular& audiences& of& the& featured& artists& in& a& music& festival.& After& all,& the& greater& the& number& of& audiences& a& person& belongs& to,& the& greater& the& amount&of&artists&from&the&lineUup&that&he/she&likes&and,&thus,&the&higher&the&festival’s& appeal&to&that&person.&In&conclusion,&liking&multiple&artists&from&the&lineUup&is&usually&a& very&important&pull&factor&in&the&consumption&of&music&festivals.&&
&
In& terms& of& the& agency& factor,& it& is& also& important& for& individuals& that& the& lineUup& is& somehow&familiar,&controllable,&and&understandable&(Laiho,&2004).&In&a&way,&the&control&
over& music& gives& them& a& feeling& of& selfUcontrol.& Significant& audience& overlap& suggests& that& the& individuals& located& in& the& overlapping& areas& are& familiar& with& multiple& artists& from&the&lineUup,&contributing&to&the&agency&goal&of&being&in&control.&
&
The$Social$Experience$ $
Assuming& that& the& lineUup& of& a& festival& is& relevant& in& defining& its& target& audience,& the& artistic&offering&has&a&significant&effect&on&the&socialization&factor&as&well.&&As&a&matter&of& fact,& the& mentioned& Ticketea& research& also& indicates& “attendance& of& friends”& as& the& second&most&important&factor&for&music&festival&attendance.&The&principle&of&homophily& says&that&people&who&are&similar&in&socioUdemographic&characteristics&are&more&likely&to& interact&with&each&other&than&people&who&are&dissimilar&(Mark,&1998,&p.&454)&and&several& studies&suggest&that&persons&who&are&similar&on&any&of&a&large&number&of&characteristics& are&more&likely&to&be&friends,&associates,&or&spouses&than&chance&predicts.&This&concept& implies&that&tastes&for&certain&artists&and&types&of&music&are&localized&in&specific®ions& of&the&social&space.&&Indeed,&music&consumption&patterns&tend&to&be&a&good&reflection&of& wider& aspects& of& our& actual& (or& aspired)& lifestyle& and& people& who& like& the& same& music& usually& tend& to& be& “similar”,& understanding& similarity& as& sharing& socioUdemographic& characteristics.& The& music& experience& provided& by& the& artistic& offering& provides& the& common& ground& on& which& the& social& experience& is& built,& facilitating& a& sense& of& connection&among&the&festival&attendants&(Ballantyne&et&al.,&2013).&
Social&similarity&and&social&distance&between&communities&are&inversely&related&concepts& (M.& Hannan& && Kovács,& 2011).& The& coUoccurrence& approach& can& be& used& to& explain& similarity& and& distance& between& artists& via& their& audiences.& Similarity& between& artists’& communities& is& construed& as& a& function& of& the& common& elements& of& their& audiences.& Artists&whose&audiences&have&a&considerable&amount&of&shared&elements&are&considered& to&be&similar&and&their&audiences&lie&close&to&each&other&in&the&socioUdemographic&space,& while&those&with&less&overlap&between&their&audiences&are&distant&(M.&Hannan&&&Kovács,& 2011).&Because&the&probability&of&social&interaction&between&two&persons&is&negatively& related&to&the&distance&between&them&in&the&social&space&(Mark,&1998,&p.&456),&a&lineUup& comprised& of& artists& with& neighboring& audiences& will& motivate& more& social& interaction& than& a& lineUup& with& dissimilar,& distant& artists’& audiences.& In& other& words,& a& festival& featuring& significant& overlap& between& the& audiences& of& its& featured& artists& will& have& increased& chances& of& attracting& friends& (and& friends& of& friends)& as& well& as& other& individuals& (not& necessarily& friends)& with& akin& tastes& and& similar& socioUdemographic& characteristics.&Smaller&overlapping&areas&between&the&audiences&or&“catching&areas”&of& the& featured& artists& suggest& a& reduced& social& similarity& between& their& audiences& and,& therefore,& an& increased& social& distance& among& them,& which& in& turn& decreases& the& probabilities& of& social& interaction& with& friends& or& other& potential& associates.& & In& sum,& both&“knownUgroup”&and&“external”&social&interaction&is&more&likely&to&happen&among& people& with& similar& tastes& and,& as& such,& people& who& are& similar& and& lie& nearby& in& the& socioUdemographic& space.& Moreover,& the& attendance& of& friends,& acquaintances& and&
people& from& the& same& socioUdemographic& space& can& also& contribute& to& feelings& of& control&and&mastery&of&the&environment,&and&thus,&to&a&perception&of&agency.&
&
In& conclusion,& a& festival& lineUup& with& significant& overlap& between& the& audiences& of& its& featured&artists&leads&to&a&cohesive&social&space&focused&on&certain&socioUdemographic& areas&which,&in&turn,&increases&the&probabilities&of&social&interaction&(both&knownUgroup& and&external).&&Hence,&the&bigger&the&internal&audience&overlap,&the&bigger&the&chances& that&individuals&and&their&friends&like&multiple&artists&from&the&line&up,&tapping&in&both& the&individual/hedonic&as&well&as&the&social&interaction&motivators/push&factors.& & & Figure&1.&Audiences&distances/overlap&in&social&space.&
The$Festival$Identity$ $
Audience&overlap&can&also&be&related&to&the&identity&building/maintenance&functions&of& music&festivals.&Festivals&offer&opportunities&for&participants&to&engage&in&identity&work&–& to& define,& develop& or& reflect& on& their& understanding& of& themselves,& and& cultivate& new& expressions&of&selfUidentity&(Packer&&&Ballantyne,&2011,&p.&165).&Because&musical&tastes& are&manifestations&of&one’s&cultural&capital&and&position&in&society&hierarchy,&the&highly& conspicuous&and&symbolic&aspects&of&music&festivals&make&out&of&them&great&means&to& these&ends&(Yoganarasimhan,&2012).&Festivals&can&indeed&be&great&places&where&to&signal& one’s& type& and& interpret& that& of& others.& Sophisticated& consumers& are& eager& to& send& signals& to& others& “in& the& know”& about& their& good& taste& and& even& to& learn& from& each& other.& Just& like& fashion,& festivals& constitute& attractive& social& devices& that& play& the& dual& role&of&allowing&people&to&both&fit&in&with&their&peers&and&differentiate&themselves&by& signaling& their& good& taste& or& access& to& information/cultural& capital& (Yoganarasimhan,& 2012).&For&this&reason,&a&strong&festival’s&identity&is&vital&in&the&quest&for&developing&and& maintaining&personal&identities&(Ashforth&&&Mael,&1989)&and,&in&order&to&be&useful&in&this& way,&the&lineUup&must&contain&a&coherent&selection&of&artists&whose&audiences&exhibit& coherent&specific&socioUdemographic&characteristics&such&as&income&level,&social&status,& educational&level,&cultural&capital,&etc.&An&incoherent&lineUup&composed&of&artists&with& dissimilar&audiences&and&tastes&(little&to&no&internal&niche&overlap)&will&result&in&a&festival& with& a& weak& or& incoherent& identity& and,& thus,& an& ineffective& social& device& to& build,& maintain&or&signal&identity.&Moreover,&it’s&very&likely&that&a&music&festival&with&a&lineUup& in&which&artists&have&different,&nonUoverlapping&audiences&will&be&difficult&for&people&to&
make& sense& of.& As& Hsu& (2012)& points& out,& organizations& that& mix& categories& are& more& difficult&to&make&sense&of&than&category&‘purists’&and,&as&a&result,&are&often&ignored&or& explicitly& devalued& by& targeted& audience& members& (Hsu,& Negro,& && Perretti,& 2012,& p.& 1428).&&& & 2.2.!The!Influence!of!Audience!Overlap! ! In&conclusion,&the&theoretical&framework&examined&in&this&chapter&supports&the¬ion& that&the&extent&of&overlap&between&the&audiences&of&the&artists&featured&in&the&lineUup& can& influence& consumers’& decisions& of& attending& the& music& festival& by& enhancing& external/pull& factors& (the& musical& experience,& social& experience,& festival& identity)& and& therefore,& tapping& better& into& consumer’s& internal/push& factors& (hedonism,& socialization,&identity&building,&agency).&Audience&overlap&increases&the&“pull”&of&music& festivals& by& improving:& a)& the& audience& reach& of& consumers& with& positive& attitude& towards&multiple&artists&from&the&line&up,&leading&to&the&perception&of&a&better&musical& experience;&b)&the&probabilities&of&attendance&of&interconnected&and/or&socially&similar& individuals,&resulting&in&expectations&of&a&better&social&experience;&and&c)&the&perception& of& a& festival& with& a& coherent,& well& defined& identity,& and,& therefore,& an& effective& social& device&to&build,&maintain&and&signal&identity.&
! Figure&2.&PushUPull&Diagram.&
Based& on& the& exposed& arguments& along& this& literature& review& chapter,& the& following& hypotheses&are&proposed&in&order&to&analyze&the&effects&of&intraUorganizational&audience& overlap&in&music&festivals:& & Hypothesis!1!(H1):!Music!festivals’!attendance!is!significantly!and!positively!influenced! by!the!audience!reach!of!the!artists!featured!in!their!line;ups.! !
Hypothesis! 2! (H2):! The! influence! that! the! line;up’s! audience! reach! has! on! a! music! festival’s!attendance!is!moderated!by!the!extent!of!overlap!between!the!audiences!of! artists!featured!in!the!festival.!
3.!Methodology!
& Along&this&Methodology§ion,&the&research&design,&empirical&setting,&data&collection,& and&method&of&analysis&will&be&presented.&& & 3.1!Research!design! !The& goal& of& this& research& is& to& find& an& objective& measure& of& the& intraUorganizational& audience&overlap&of&music&festivals&and&understand&how&it&could&possibly&moderate&the& influence& that& lineUup& has& on& a& music& festival’s& appeal& and& attendance.& A& quantitative& analysis& using& data& from& social& media& networks& will& be& used& in& order& to& quantify& and& map&the&audiences&of&different&artists,&estimate&the&magnitude&of&the&audience&overlap& between& of& the& artists& featured& in& the& analyzed& festivals,& and& elaborate& concrete& indicators&of&average&audience&overlap&for&each&festival.&These&overlap&measures&will&be,& in& turn,& contrasted& with& venue& capacity& (as& a& proxy& for& attendance& level)& in& a& crossU section&analysis&and&controlled&by&the&brand&equity&of&the&examined&festivals.&
&
The&research&design&of&this&thesis&is&mainly&exploratory&as&a&new&angle&is&proposed&to& analyze&the&influence&of&lineUup&in&music&festivals’&appeal&to&consumers.&&This&research& will&use&primary&quantitative&data&from&social&media&network&research&as&well&as&festival& data& collected& through& official& festival& websites.& Artist’s& audience& information& and& overlap& will& be& gathered& and& calculated& using& Facebook’s& Marketing& API& (Application&
Facebook&Ads&campaigns.&Facebook&was&chosen¬&only&because&it&is&the&most&popular& and&biggest&social&network&in&the&world&but&because,&at&the&same&time,&it&is&the&social& network& that& most& clearly& focuses& on& the& expression& of& preferences& and& tastes& of& its& users;&the&“thumb&up”&and&“like”&features&are&certainly¢ral&to&the&platform’s&raison& d’etre.&& & 3.2.!Research!setting! ! The&empirical&setting&of&this&analysis&is&the&Dutch&Festival&industry.&The&data&collected&for& this& thesis& corresponds& to& the& 2015& editions& of& 22& Dutch& festivals& from& different& organizations,& sizes& and& styles.& These& festivals& are:& Pinkpop,& Zwarte& Cross,& Lowlands,& Mysteryland,& North& Sea& Jazz,& Sensation& Legacy,& Paaspop,& Fortarock,& Best& Kept& Secret,& Huntenpop,& Indian& Summer,& Pitch,& Bospop,& Straf_Werk,& Down& The& Rabbit& Hole,& Dekmantel,& Where& Wild& Things& Are,& Dauwpop,& DGTL,& WooUHah,& Into& The& Grave& and& Speedfest.&The&lineUups&and&venue&capacities&of&these&festivals&were&collected&from&their& respective& official& websites& or& from& their& promoter’s& officials& websites& and& used& as& inputs&in&the&scrapping&program&especially&coded&for&this&research.&&
3.3.!Variables!
3.3.1.!Dependent!Variable!
$
In& the& absence& of& concrete& sales& data& from& festivals,& the& best& available& indicator& of& festival&attendance&is&the&capacity&of&the&venues&where&the&festivals&take&place.&&Venue& capacity&is&normally&the&organizers’&best&estimation&of&the&ticket&sales&of&a&festival.&
3.3.2.!Independent!Variable!
$
The& independent& variable& of& this& study& is& the& festival’s& lineUup& audience& reach.& This& variable&is&defined&as&the&combined&audiences&of&the&artists&featured&in&the&lineUup&of& the&festival.&However,&this&variable&is¬&constructed&by&the&direct&aggregation&of&the& artists’& individual& audiences.& Instead,& the& festival& audience& is& estimated& through& the& Facebook’s&Marketing&API&and&it&represents&the&cardinality&of&audience&members&who& like&any&of&the&artists&entered&as&interests&within&the&territory&of&the&Netherlands&and& the&16U65&age&range.&To&put&in&Set&Theory&terms,&the&festival&audience&reach&represents& the&“union”&of&the&different&audiences&of&the&artists&from&the&lineUup,¬&just&the&simple& addition&of&them.& 3.3.3.!Moderator!Variables! $ The&moderator&variable&of&this&model&is&the&intraUorganizational&audience&overlap.&The& central& idea& behind& this& thesis& is& that& the& extent& of& audience& overlap& between& the& featured& artists’& audiences& moderates& the& effect& that& the& combined& artists’& audiences& have& in& the& festival’s& appeal& and,& therefore,& in& the& festival’s& attendance& levels.& The&
