Object Hybridity and the Diagnostic Process in Conservation
–
A case-study of an Islamic ceramic elephant from the collection of the
Gemeentemuseum Den Haag
- MA thesis -
Jamilla Anna Maria Peeters
University of Amsterdam (UvA), Amsterdam
Thesis supervisor: Mandy Slager (UvA)
Second reader: Tamar Davidowitz (UvA)
June 2019
Samenvatting
Door een snel groeiende interesse van het Westen in de 19e en 20e eeuw voor de Islamitische kunstgeschiedenis, is een grote vraag naar Islamitische keramische objecten ontstaan. Omdat er geen grote aantallen complete archeologische objecten uit de Islamitische geschiedenis waren, is een bloeiende markt voor vervalste objecten ontstaan. Veel hybride objecten zijn gemaakt door antieke scherven afkomstig van vele verschillende objecten te combineren met lijmen,
vulmaterialen en retouches en vervolgens verkocht aan Westerse verzamelaars en musea als antieke Islamitische objecten. Vanwege de grote aantallen hybride objecten die op deze manier in Westerse collecties terecht zijn gekomen, kunnen hybride objecten als een op zichzelf staande objectgroep gezien worden. Ze vormen het tastbare bewijs van een lange periode waarin mensen zijn misleid en representeren de Westerse kijk op de Islamitische (kunst)geschiedenis die in de 19e en 20e eeuw gold. Vanwege deze historische waarde verdienen dit soort hybride objecten overtuigend hun bestaansrecht in museumcollecties.
In dit onderzoek is de invloed van de hybriditeit op het diagnostisch proces onderzocht, met als doel de randvoorwaarden te schetsen voor de benodigde benadering van de restaurator in het restauratieproces van hybride objecten. Het diagnostisch proces van hybride objecten is veel complexer dan dat van niet-hybride objecten, vanwege de afwijkende ontstaansgeschiedenis en culturele biografie. Ook de vragen die in het diagnostisch proces worden gesteld, het doel ervan en de interpretatie van de onderzoeksresultaten zijn anders bij hybride objecten. Als voorbeeld voor de mogelijkheden om hybride objecten te onderzoeken en om de moeilijkheden en valkuilen te tonen, is een hybride Islamitische keramische olifant van het Gemeentemuseum Den Haag onderzocht in een case-study. Visuele inspectie, microscopisch onderzoek, Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI), ultraviolet fotografie (uv-fotografie), draagbare röntgen fluorescentie spectroscopie (pXRF), röntgenfotografie, computertomografie (CT-scan) en Fourier-Transform Infrarood spectroscopy (FTIR) zijn gecombineerd en onderzocht op hun toepasbaarheid in de diagnostiek van hybride objecten. In het diagnostisch proces van hybride objecten worden ten opzichte van het diagnostisch proces van niet-hybride objecten andere vragen gesteld, verschilt vaak het doel en worden
onderzoeksresultaten anders geïnterpreteerd. Hierdoor bleek het onder andere lastig om
onderscheid te maken tussen de materialen van de originele constructie en latere toevoegingen, met name bij de materialen die normaal gesproken als restauratiematerialen worden gebruikt bij
keramiek. Verder onderzoek naar de mogelijkheden in het determineren en dateren van de verschillende fases van de culturele biografie van het onderzoek wordt aangeraden.
Summary
Due to a fast-growing interest of the West in the 19th and 20th century in Islamic art history, a large demand for Islamic ceramic objects evolved. As complete archaeological objects from Islamic history are not numerous, a flourishing market for fakes and forgeries developed. Many hybrid objects were made combining historic sherds from many different objects with adhesives, fill materials and retouches, and they were sold as antique Islamic objects to Western collections. Because of the large numbers of hybrid objects in Western collections, hybrid objects can be seen as an object group on its own. They form the tangible evidence of a long period of deception and represent the Western view on Islamic (art) history that was common in the 19th and 20th century. With these historical values hybrid objects convincingly deserve their right for existence in museum collections.
In this research, the influence of the hybridity on the diagnostic process is researched to find the preconditions of the conservators’ approach needed in the conservation process of hybrid objects. The diagnostic process of hybrid objects is more complex than that of non-hybrid objects because of their deviating genesis and cultural biography. Also the questions posed in the
diagnostic process, the aim and the interpretation of the research results are different for hybrid objects. To provide an illustration of the possibilities to research hybrid objects and the difficulties in the interpretation of the results, a hybrid Islamic ceramic elephant from the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag has been investigated as a case-study. Visual examination, microscopic examination, Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI), Ultraviolet photography (UV-photography), portable X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (pXRF), x-radiography, Computed Tomography (CT-scanning) and Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) are combined and evaluated for their relevance in the diagnosis of hybrid objects. It is concluded that the diagnostic process for hybrid objects is different from the diagnostic process of non-hybrid objects in the questions posed, often in the aim, and in how the research results are interpreted. It proved difficult to differentiate, especially for the materials that are common as restoration materials in ceramic objects, between the application of materials in the construction phase and the application of materials during later repairs and restorations. Further research in the possibilities for determining and dating the different stages of the objects cultural biography is suggested.
Contents
Introduction
6
Chapter 1
9
Object: History and Context
Chapter 2
16
Object Hybridity
2.2 Restoring, faking and forging Islamic ceramics
19
2.3 Object hybridity and conservation
21
Chapter 3
25
The Conservation Diagnostic Process and Hybrid Objects
Chapter 4
30
Methodology
4.1 Visual Examination
30
4.2 Digital Microscopic Analysis
30
4.3 Reflectance Transformation Imaging – RTI
31
4.4 Ultraviolet Fluorescence Photography – UV-photography
31
4.5 Portable X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy – pXRF
32
4.6 X-radiography
33
4.7 Computed Tomography Scan – CT-scan
34
4.8 Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy – FTIR
35
Chapter 5
36
Results and discussion
5.1 Visual Examination
36
5.2 Digital Microscopic Analysis
46
5.3 Reflectance Transformation Imaging – RTI
54
5.4 Ultraviolet Fluorescence Photography – UV-photography
56
5.5 Portable X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy – pXRF
59
5.6 X-radiography
62
5.7 Computed Tomography Scanning – CT-scan
66
5.8 Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy – FTIR
68
5.9 Evaluation
72
Conclusion
74
Acknowledgements
76
List of figures
77
List of tables and graphs
80
Bibliography
81
Appendix I: Translation old object inventory card
87
Introduction
The Gemeentemuseum Den Haag has a large collection of Islamic art consisting of many objects made from different materials, dating from the last decades of the Roman Empire well into the 19th and 20th century. It is a diverse collection with architectural elements, fine art and applied art. Some of the larger groups of objects include glass, tapestries and ceramic bowls and plates. The collection also has a group of animal figures of which most are made of ceramics and some of metals. According to the museum inventory information the ceramic animals are made of fritware (also referred to as faience, quartz-grit and stonepaste ceramics), which generally is a mixture of ten parts of crushed quartz, one part glass fragments and one part of white clay. The animal figures 1
are thought to have their provenance in Iran and are dated to the Seljuk period between 1100 and 1300 AD. 2
One of the objects is an elephant figure with dimensions of approximately 38x14,5x31cm (lxwxh). The head of the animal is detached allowing a look inside the hollow body of the object (fig. I.1). It can be seen that this object consists of many ceramic sherds held together with adhesives and fill materials. In the interior the sherds all have a different appearance; some have a glaze layer, the majority does not, and there is a range of different ceramic colours (fig. I.2). The different sherds do not seem to belong to the same original object and is clear that the elephant form the object now has, was never sculpted from wet clay and fired by a ceramicist. This
Mason, Tite 1994, 77; Tite e.a. 2011, 570. 1
Information on the Islamic collection of the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag is taken from its online catalogue 2
on the website: ontdek de collectie > deelcollecties > kunst uit de wereld van de Islam. Accessed 25-03-2019. Fig. I.1: The ceramic elephant of the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag. The head is
phenomenon will be referred to as ‘object hybridity’.
The fact that this object is a hybrid object, gives challenges in defining and interpreting the object. One of the main problems in defining and interpreting is that the object has a multiple layered-history; the cultural biography of the object significantly deviates from non-hybrid objects. The history of a hybrid object essentially starts already well before it is constructed, since the different sherds had their own ‘life’ and context in their original object. Besides, materials present in 3
the object may be interpreted differently than in non-hybrid objects. Fill materials, for example, may be part of the original construction of the elephant where in most other ceramic objects fill materials are often linked to repair- or conservation treatments. These issues affect how the conservator approaches the research and treatment of the object.
For the conservation diagnostic process, this hybrid nature of a ceramic object also brings challenges. The challenges are partly linked to the complex cultural biography of the object and the difficulty to reconstruct this biography. However, some challenges also derive from the hybrid state, meaning that it is difficult to understand the relationship between the different sherds, adhesives, fill materials and other materials present. These confusions lead to the following research question:
“What is the effect of object hybridity on the diagnostic process in ceramics
conservation?”
In order to be able to answer this main research question, the object will serve as a case-study and will be further introduced, including what is known about the history and context of the object. Then a definition is given for the term ‘object hybridity’ and it is explained what the position is of hybrid objects in Islamic museum collections. The diagnostic process in conservation will also be discussed as it is a crucial step in the preservation of cultural heritage which in this case-study is highly influenced by object hybridity. The research section starts with visual analysis to collect information on the structure and the construction of the object. The appearance of the joins and fills will be elaborated on as well as other features on the surface of both the interior and exterior of the object.
Instrumental analysis is used to identify sherds with a similar provenance used to construct the object, to identify differences and similarities in composition and morphology of the individual
The theory of a cultural biography is after Kopytoff 1986. 3
Fig. I.2: The inside of the body of the animal reveals many different materials; ceramic sherds both glazed and unglazed, fill materials and adhesives
sherds and glazes, and to identify differences and similarities between the various adhesives and fill materials present. Microscopic analysis, Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI), ultraviolet (UV) fluorescence photography, x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), x-radiography, CT-scanning/3D x-radiography and fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) are discussed as possible tools in the diagnostic process of hybrid objects and their options for determining the way the different fragments and materials are combined to create the object.
The results of the analytical analysis provide information on the object from a material point of view. In the discussion and evaluation sections the influence of the hybridity on the
interpretation of the object from a conservators’ point of view is discussed. In these sections the consequences of the hybridity for the interpretation of the material aspects and the influence of the hybridity on the interpretation of the cultural biography of the object and the authenticity of the object are discussed. The discussion leads to the conclusion, where the main question is answered.
Chapter 1
Object: History and Context
In this section the object, its history and context will be elaborated on. A description of the object is given as well as an introduction to the historical timeframe the object is thought to date to. The Islamic collection of the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag, which forms the context of the object at present, is further discussed and some attention is paid to the genesis of Islamic collections in the West and of the formation of the Islamic collection of
the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag in particular. The most important object-specific data is summarised in table 1.1.
The object has the shape of an elephant with the long trunk and tusks pointing right to the front. The two ears are pointing back where a small rider is positioned in between, just behind the head in the neck (fig. 1.1). The cylindrical body rests on four legs which all have a slightly different shape and height. The hoofs are attached to a flat base of approximately 0.7 mm thickness. A relief decoration is seen on the haunches, possibly indicating a blanket or horse cloth, and a small tail is present in relief on the hind part (fig. I.1). The head is detached from the body offering a view inside the object. The inside clearly shows the object has been constructed from many sherds with different origins put together with the aid of fill materials and adhesives (fig. I.2). The exterior has been smoothed
Fig. 1.1: Top-view of the head of the elephant. Between the ears a rider can be seen. Image: Gemeentemuseum Den Haag.
Table 1.1: Summary object specific information.
*As specified in the current museum inventory catalogue; however, this information proves to be not fully correct and will be elaborated on in the thesis.
Object specific information
Object inventory number 0405130/OC(I)17-1983
Object description Statue in the form of an elephant with a rider, constructed with
adhesives and fill materials of many sherds originally not belonging together
Date and provenance 1150-1300, Iran*
Measurements ± 31x27x13 cm
Materials fritware (“kiezelaardewerk”)*, adhesives, fill materials, retouches
Damage head detached, several different cracks, arms of the rider show
Object Hybridity and the Diagnostic Process in Conservation
with the fill materials and retouched with a colour very similar to the glaze of the ceramic sherds hiding the fragmentary state of the object. This hybrid nature possibly explains the differences in shape and height of the four legs. The shape of the body seems to be a bit odd for an elephant. Fig. 1.2 shows a photograph of an elephant showing that the front and hind legs are positioned fairly close to each other. Also, the front legs are a bit longer than the hind legs. In the object the legs are positioned with more space between front and back, and the hind legs are longer than the front legs slightly resembling the figure of a horse (figs. 1.3-4).
The object is thought to date to the Seljuk period (late 11th-13th c.), named after the Seljuk family reigning the first Turkish empire that reigned most of Anatolia. During the Seljuk period many developments in both ceramic techniques and decoration were made, including the technology of fritware, a hard whitish type of ceramics which could be glazed in different colours but is found most often monochrome turquoise. A migration of potters from Cairo 4
took place from west to east who brought the techniques of alkaline glazing, lustre painting and knowledge on the sculpting of an artificial ceramic body. The empire reached its heydays 5
at the end of the 12th century and early 13th century and became one of the most powerful and richest states of Middle Eastern history. The empire weakened again in the 13th century after the Mongol invasions and the Seljuk rule ended at the end of this century. 6
To be able to better understand the object, its’ appearance, the context and the meaning, both
Korn 2010. 4 Grube 1965, 215. 5 Peacock 2010. 6
Fig. 1.4: Horse. Image: Manege De Volte, http://devolte.nl.
Fig. 1.3: The hind legs of the elephant are higher than the front legs.
AZIATISCHE
OLIF
ANT
ANT
OLIF
AZIATISCHE
pag 3 pag 2 WA AR K UN JE D E A ZIA TIS CH E O LIF AN T A AN H ER KE NN EN ? Indische olifan t • kleiner e oren • bolle rug • slurf heeft 1 vinger aan he t uiteinde • k orter e slagtanden, bij vr ouwtjes zel fs vaak niet zich tbaar • 5 nagels aan voor -, 4 aan achterpo ten • minder groo t en zwaar (to t 6.000 k g) Afrik aanse olifan t • gr oter e oren • a flopende, holle rug
• slurf heeft 2
vingers aan het uit einde
• langer e slagtanden, zow
el vr ouwen als mannen
• 4 o f 5 nagels aan voor , 3 aan achterpo ten • gr oter en zwaar der (t ot 7 .000 k g) Slurf …en toen kw am er een olif ant me t een lange
snuit en die blies het hele verhaal tje uit….
waarmee dan ? Met zijn lange slurf
. Eigenlijk is
de slurf een samengr oeiing van de heel
lange neus en de bovenlip . De slurf is heel gevoelig. Olifan ten pakk en er v oedsel mee op om he t naar de bek te br engen. Ze zuigen er w ater mee op (w el 6-10 liter). Z e spuiten he t in hun bek om te drink en of o ver hun rug. Lekk
er a fkoelen en
schoonspoelen. De slurf is superst erk. Er zitt en wel 40.000 spiertjes in. En ruiken en voelen ? Wee t je nog? Neus en lip samen. Dus ja, ook
ruiken doen z e met hun slurf
.
Door de slurf lopen de reukk
analen die eindigen
in de neusgaten. Olif anten kunnen heel
erg goed ruiken. Maar ze kunnen ook heel goed voelen met he t uiteinde van de slurf . Als je van dich tbij
kijkt zie je één uitsteek seltje aan de slurf . Dat lijkt
net een klein st omp vingertje.
De slurf is dus héél belangrijk! Als een olif
ant aan
de slurf ge wond is is de k ans groo
t dat hij dood
gaat. Tanden Een Aziatische olif ant hee ft tw ee slagtanden. We noemen he t ook w el st oottanden. Bij de
man kunnen ze best lang wor
den maar bij de
vrouw blijven z e kort. Soms z o kort da t ze nie t zichtbaar zijn als de olifan
t haar bek dicht hee
ft.
De tanden van de man kunnen heel
verschillend
van vorm zijn, door dat er bijvoorbeeld één telk ens gebruikt w ordt om in de gr ond te grav en. Die slijt dan sneller.
Kiezen
Ver der hebben olif anten 4 gr
ote, dw ars
gerib-belde kiezen; 2 in de onderk aak en 2 in de bo
ven
-kaak. E en kies bestaat uit een
flink aan tal pla ten
ivoor die met een soort c
ement aan elk aar
zitten. Z o krijg je allemaal ribbels. E
en
pas-geboren olif antje hee
ft al kiez en. In het begin
zijn die nog bedekt door tandvlees.
Wij mensen wisselen één k eer in ons le ven onz e tanden en kiezen. E en olifan t wissel t zijn kiezen vijf k eer tijdens zijn hele le ven. Bij ons duwt een
nieuwe kies de oude naar boven
to t hij uitval
t.
Bij olifan ten duwt de nieuw e kies de oude langzaam naar de voork ant. Dez e versle ten kies brokk elt langzaam a f en val t er in stukjes uit. De eerste kies is z o groo
t als een lucifer doosje,
de laatst e zo gr oot als een flinke bak steen. Wanneer de laatst e kiezen versle ten zijn, is de olifan t meestal ook
aan het eind van zijn le ven.
Huid
Olifan ten hebben een dikk e huid met heel
veel rim pel s e n p lo oie n. T och is di e h uid er g g evo elig .
In de diepe huidplooien zitten veel lastige insec-ten . O ok olif ant en kun nen lu ize n h ebb en. N ee, gee n h oof dlu is, w ant ze he bbe n n iet zo ve el h aar , alle en maa r a an de sta art pun t e n o ogw im per s e n enkele verspr eid over
hun lijf. Die luiz en jeuken!!!
Afrik aanse olifan
t t Indische olifan
Fig. 1.2: African elephant. Image: Blijdorp Zoo, Dierenpaspoort van de Aziatische Olifant, 2.
literary and archival research is needed into the history of the object and into (the history of) Islamic art collections in Western museums. In 1983 the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag has acquired two objects for their Islamic collection. The first object being a 30.5 cm high jug made of fritware with a green glaze (fig. 1.5). The 7
second object is the elephant that forms the case study for this thesis. The elephant was presented in the auction catalogue of Sotheby/Mak van der Waay B.V. in Amsterdam on November 16/17, 1983, in the section with Asian art objects from private collections as number 2110. The description of the object in the catalogue says: “Persia. Blue-glazed earthenware elephant. Repairs.” The description of the object is 8
accompanied by a black-and-white image of the elephant; the head is still attached to the body and no serious damage can be seen from the photograph (fig. 1.6).
It is unsure whether the jug was acquired from the same auction. Since the museum records do not tell the exact details of the acquisition and not all objects in the auction catalogue were accompanied by a picture, nothing can be said with absolute certainty about the two objects being acquired together or separately. In the same section as the elephant though, a listing is made in the auction catalogue of a jug with object number 2107: “Persia. A conical, blue glazed earthenware jug with handle and spout, also a decoration in black with geometrical motives. Gorgan. Repaired.” This description 9
may well list the jug as acquired by the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag in 1983.
Gemeentemuseum Den Haag, Online Collection Catalogue; Lambooy, e-mail message to the author, March 7
14, 2019.
Sotheby/Mak van der Waay 1983, 41. Translation from Dutch to English by the author. 8
Sotheby/Mak van der Waay 1983, 39. Translation from Dutch to English by the author. 9
Fig. 1.5: Iranian jug, nr. 0405149, 30,5x15,6 cm (hxw), fritware, c. 1200-1300, Iran. Image: Gemeentemuseum Den Haag.
Fig. 1.6: Elephant as published in auction catalogue. Image: Sotheby/Mak van der Waay 1983, cat. 2110.
No receipts or notes about the acquisition, except for the inventory cards listing the year of acquisition, have been found in the archives of the museum. This means no information is 10
available about the exact price that has been payed for the elephant and/or the jug. However, the auction catalogue includes a page with expected amounts for the objects; object no. 2110 (the elephant), was estimated to bring in around 1000-1500 Dfl (Dutch guilders) and object no. 2107 (possibly the jug) between 700-900 Dfl. 11
The fact that the head is not detached on the image in the auction catalogue, means that it came off only after the auction, giving the incident a terminus post quem of november 1983. The old object inventory card of the museum lists briefly the information specific to the object, but does not mention anything about damage and/or the head being detached (fig. 1.7). This suggests that the head was still attached to the body at the time the inventory card was written. However, the date of the inventory is unknown, meaning that more precise information on when exactly the head has come off, is not available.
Lambooy, S., e-mail message to the author, March 12, 2019. 10
Sotheby/Mak van der Waay 1983, 149. 11
Fig. 1.7: Old museum inventory card of the elephant. Image: S. Lambooy. A translation of the inventory card is added as appendix I. A mahout is the elephant rider, the ankousha (English: ankus) is a whip for taming elephants.
The Islamic art collection of the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag includes ceramics, metals, glass, tapestries, wooden doors and musical instruments from most of the Orient. The objects vary from 12
objects for use to animal figures, and from decorations with calligraphy to geometric patterns. Because of verse 42:49 of the Quran stating that the creation of the heavens and earth and the living creatures are signs of God, some muslims perceive the images of animals in art as an ode to God’s creation. Also the relationship between humans and animals is often expressed in art. Hunting scenes are present and many horses and some dromedaries are shown as domesticated animals. Also more exotic animals as giraffes and sometimes elephants appear in art as these animals were given as diplomatic gifts to the rulers. During festivities these were taken in a procession through the cities of which artists took advantage to study them. 13
The Islamic collection of the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag was founded already in the late nineteenth century. From the early nineteenth century interest from the West in the Orient grew as a result of the colonialism and growing global orientation. 14
Orientalism followed Romanticism in art and literature and more and more people travelled to the Islamic world. Museums started collecting objects from the Islamic world and so did the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag. Remarkable enough, other important museums in The Netherlands at the time did not start an Islamic collection. Only the Rijksmuseum had Islamic art in their collections policy under director Adriaan Pit (director from 1898-1917), but decided to discontinue it after he left the museum. The Gemeentemuseum Den Haag, however, kept Islamic art in it’s collections policy because of its belief that Dutch and European contemporary art was in a crisis and that it could draw
Provenances of the objects are: “Afghanistan, China, Egypt, India, Irak, Iran, Italy, Morocco, Spain, Syria 12
and Turkey”. Tempel 2018, 3. Islamic objects from the Indies are not included in the collection probably due to a colonial view and collecting at the time. Tempel 2018, 7.
Mols 2018, 269. 13
Huygens 2018, 256. 14
Fig. 1.8: Elephant aquamanile from the Khalili collection. POT1285, 29.5x20.5x13cm (hxwxd), 12th/early 13th c. Iran. Image: Grube 1994, cat 286.
inspiration from Islamic art until the innovation would emerge again from art itself. This resulted in the collection from the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag being the only publicly accessible collection with Islamic art in The Netherlands. 15
Outside The Netherlands more museums have Islamic collections, amongst others the Louvre and the Metropolitan
Museum. Also private collections were formed of which the Khalili collection is an important published collection. The collection includes 16
an aquamanile in the form of an elephant (fig. 1.8). This elephant features a mahout (rider) just as the elephant from the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag, but it also features a howdah (a seat with canopy for multiple people) with three human figures. Other ceramic elephants from several 17
collections dating to the same period all seem to include a howdah, including a second elephant from the collection of the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag (fig. 1.9). Only the elephant from the 18
Metropolitan Museum does not have a howdah with canopy, but does include passengers on the back of the animal. The elephant from the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag therefore seems to be unique in featuring just a mahout and no other human figures. Also the trunk pointing straight forward instead of hanging down is a unique feature not seen in other elephant depictions from this time (fig. 1.10). 19
The Islamic collections mostly consist of a combination of objects of use as plates and bowls, and decorative animal figures. Especially birds seem to have been of special interest in the
Hoijtink 2018, 259. 15
See Grube, E.J. 1994, ‘Cobalt and Lustre, The First Centuries of Islamic Pottery’, vol. 9 in: J. Raby, The 16
Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, London.
Tonghini 1994, 250-251, cat. 286. Most Islamic ceramic figurines from the Seljuk period originate from 17
Iran and only very few from Syria are known. This object is thought to originate from Syria. Tonghini lists a few known objects. Tonghini 1994, 250 n.6.
18
One elephant published in Christies 2010, cat. 1027, has a trunk that goes down and up again. 19
Fig. 1.9: Elephant with howdah from the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag. Nr. 0405131, 24,5x18x11,4 (hxwxd), fritware, 1175-1250, Iran. Image: Gemeentemuseum Den Haag.
Fig. 1.10: Trunk of the elephant points straight forward. Image: K. van Lookeren Campagne.
collections (figs. 1.10-11). Tonghini estimates the number of ceramic elephants existing worldwide on a total of about 10 pieces , but as Mols remarks correctly, she did not make notion of the two 20
elephants from the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag meaning that there must exist at least more than 10. However, it still seems to be a relatively unique phenomenon. The elephants all vary largely 21
in size, design and decoration. 22
Tonghini 1994, 250. 20
Mols, L., e-mail message to the author, March 15, 2019. 21
Tonghini 1994, 250. 22
Fig. 1.10: Hoopoe, nr. 0405123, 48,5x20,8x17,8 cm (hxwxd), fritware, 1100-1300, Iran. Image: Gemeentemuseum Den Haag.
Fig. 1.11: Partridge, nr. 0405147, 20,3x16,8x9,4 cm (hxwxd), fritware,
1150-1200, Iran. Image: Gemeentemuseum Den Haag.
Chapter 2
Object Hybridity
2.1 Definition of the term ‘object hybridity’
The point of departure for this section is the definition of the term ‘hybridity’. Hybridity is a term that is in use for several different phenomena. The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) gives the following definitions for the term hybrid as a noun: 23
1. The offspring of two animals or plants of different species, or (less strictly) varieties; a half-breed, cross-half-breed, or mongrel.
2. Anything derived from heterogeneous sources, or composed of different or incongruous elements; in Philology a compound formed of elements belonging to different languages.
As an adjective the meaning of hybrid is clarified for geology, computing, physical chemistry and meteorology. The term hybridity is defined as “hybrid condition”. 24
The dictionary shows that the term hybrid is not reserved for one specific context but rather for a phenomenon. The two definitions given and the different clarifications all focus on elements from different sources meeting together in a new form, it being an object, particle or living creature. The phenomenon of hybridity therefore seems free to be used to describe anything which has elements derived from heterogeneous sources.
In archaeology the term hybrid is used in post-colonial thinking to describe cultures in relation to situations of intense cultural contact between groups of different origins. Hybridity can be 25
described as groups adopting certain cultural habits or characteristics from other groups. Crielaard takes a next step in analysing cultural contacts not as contacts only between groups, but focusing on individuals interacting with other groups and cultures by studying a number of Bronze Age and Iron Age Mediterranean tombs showing features that are of non-local nature and are uncommon in comparison to the graves that accompany them. He links hybridity to creolisation in which there 26
is no blending of cultures or languages causing the fall of the originals, but rather the creation of new cultural expressions that continue to live next to the original. 27
For the archaeological definition of the term hybrid it can be said that it is a very neutral term, also to replace older more traditional and sometimes colonial terms. The term hybrid does not present any values to itself nor to its different origins, it just represents the melting together of aspects from different origins into a new concept.
The melting together of aspects from different origins is not uncommon in heritage objects. In the most wide definition even many modern conservation- and restoration treatments result in a
"hybrid, n. and adj.". OED Online (accessed March 24, 2019). 23
"hybridity, n.". OED Online (accessed March 24, 2019). 24
Crielaard 2018, 202. 25
Crielaard 2018, 196, 202. 26
Crielaard 2018, 202 footnote 44, referring to Kapchan, Turner Strong 1999, 241. 27
melting together of the object with new materials such as adhesives, fills and replacements of lost parts. This way of blending-in non-original material is generally accepted as long as the treatment is performed within the (ethical) standards for conservators-restorers as formulated by E.C.C.O. or AIC. Acceptance of the blending-in becomes 28
more complicated if for example lacunae are filled with sherds originating from different objects. Elston discusses four ancient Greek ceramic objects with ancient repairs using sherds from other objects. The repairs range 29
from inserting a sherd in a relatively small lacuna in an area without decoration (see fig. 2.1, a sherd of roughly the same thickness and appearance is inserted in a round lacuna) to the replacement of complete body parts of the object (see figs. 2.2, 2.3, the foot of the kylix originates from a different kylix and is adapted to fit although the X-ray shows that the inside of the foot does not fit the kylix). The inserted 30
fragments are referred to as alien fragments to stress their non-original roots. 31
Objects with replacement parts from different origins are referred to with a range of different terms. The Allard Pierson acquired a so-called Amlash bull in 1988. Although this object was approved to be antique by
thermoluminescence dating, it soon turned out to consist of just an original fragment of the body completed with many other non-original sherds (fig. 2.4). The publications of the 32
museum refer to this object as being a ‘pastiche’. According to the OED the term 33
pastiche is “A novel, poem, painting, <musical composition,> etc., incorporating several different styles, or made up of parts drawn from
See E.C.C.O. Professional Guidelines, I-III; AIC Code of Ethics and Guidelines for Practice. 28 Elston 1990, 63-65. 29 Elston 1990, 63-64; Dooijes/Düring 2016, 103-104. 30 Koob 1998, 55-56. 31
Berg, van den 1989, 21. 32
Berg, Van den 1989, 21; Crouwel 1989, 14. 33
Fig. 2.1: Attic red-figure pelike, 79.AE.174, J. Paul Getty Museum. Image: Elston 1990, fig. 21.
Fig. 2.2: Attic red-figure kylix, PC 94, National Museum of Antiquities, Leiden. Image: Dooijes, Düring 2016, fig. 7.
a variety of sources.” The OED definition implies not so much a melting together of original 34
aspects taken from different origins but more a melting together of elements inspired by different sources.
Navarro lists other terms in use for objects repaired with fragments originating from different objects: composites, assemblages/assemblies, marriages and Chimaera. She explains 35
that the term marriage, for example, can be used for a glass cup of which the lid is gone missing, but completed with a lid originally belonging to another cup. The cup and lid are brought together to form a unit, but without any further work carried out. If the lid would be taken away, the cup in
"pastiche, n. and adj.". OED Online (accessed March 27, 2019). 34
Navarro 2017, 460. The term Chimaera refers to a Greek mythological creature that was a lion with three 35
heads in the forepart, a goat in the middle and a dragon or snake in the hinder part. See Hes. Theog. 320; Carpenter 1991, 107.
Jamilla Peeters – 2019 !18 Universiteit van Amsterdam
Fig. 3: X-ray of PC 94.
Fig. 2.3: X-ray of PC 94, National Museum of Antiquities, Leiden. Image: Dooijes, Düring 2016, fig. 8.
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Fig. 2.4: Amlash bull, original body fragment with dismantled non-original sherds. APM11789/1-24, Allard Pierson. Image: Kroese 2013, fig. 2.
itself still forms a complete object. The term is therefore not found suitable to define objects that are repaired or altered with non-original fragments. Navarro finally introduces the term all-glass 36
hybrid to define “glass repaired or altered with glass that did not belong to it originally” , and 37
inspired by this Gilbert introduced the term all-ceramic hybrid to describe ceramic objects repaired or altered with pieces that do not originally belong to it. Both Navarro and Gilbert primarily use 38
the term ‘hybrid’ for objects with an original segment repaired or altered with fragments originating from other objects.
The object that is analysed in this thesis as a representative of a wider phenomenon, concerns an object that is not repaired or altered with non-original pieces, but it concerns an object that is fully constructed using sherds with different origins brought together with adhesives and fill materials. It represents a group of objects for which each individual is a result of an assembly of elements from heterogeneous sources. Because this description of the phenomenon is very much in line with definitions given by the OED for the term hybrid, the phenomenon studied in this thesis will be called ‘object hybridity’. The definitions of hybridity of Navarro and Gilbert are respected but must not be confused with the concept as the case-study object of this thesis manifests it.
It must be noted that the term object hybridity does not imply any interpretation nor any value attributed to the object. Hybridity is taken as neutral as it is in its definition in the earlier discussed context it has in archaeology. It solely refers to the complex nature with different parts having different origins. The term does not say anything about the intention with which the object is made, sold or acquired, nor does it say anything about whether it should be valued as a piece of art or craftsmanship, or as a fake or forgery.
2.2 Restoring, faking and forging Islamic ceramics
The creation of hybrid objects, specifically of hybrid ceramic objects, has a context of its own. As explained in the previous chapter, Islamic history and medieval Middle Eastern objects came in interest in the West from the 19th c. onwards. Collectors were mainly interested in figural designs and lustre wares and preferred objects to be whole which resulted in a flourishing market for ‘doctored objects’, as Graves calls them. Depending on how much the objects were doctored, one 39
can doubt to call the object a fake or a forgery. The term ‘fake’ is usually used for authentic objects that have been improved or completed to give them a more pristine condition or to re-establish part of the integrity of the object. The term forgery is generally reserved for objects made with the 40
deliberate intent to make a deceptive object and to give it false value. The history of faking and 41
forging Islamic ceramics is long and acquisitions by museums of questionable objects date back as
Navarro 2017, 460. 36 Navarro 2017, 460. 37 Gilbert 2018. 38 Graves 2018, 99. 39
Podany 1994, 38; Watson 2004a, 517. 40
Pease 1958, 236; Watson 2004a, 517. 41
far as the 1870s, but workshops with piles of sorted sherds in Tehran were still reported in the 1950s and 1970s. 42
Watson distinguishes four different methods of faking and forging Islamic ceramic objects. The first method is completing a broken and fragmented object with painted plaster fills 43
to finish both the shape and the pattern of the object. This is what Watson and Pease still perceive as restorations, although they rightly note that in case of extensive completion the intent of the restorer should be questioned. Another method is inserting sherds from similar objects to fill 44
missing areas. This practice is found ranging from inserting one small sherd, via the addition of handles or foots to the complete construction of new objects from scratch. A third method is the 45
construction of so-called ‘sandwich-sherds’ or the inlaying of sherds. In this method the front of one sherd and the back of another sherd are combined to create a previously not-existing fragment that matches both the front and the back of the object it is inserted in. An even more sophisticated 46
method is the manufacturing of ceramic replacement sherds with corresponding wall thickness, glaze properties and a convincing decoration. The development of these techniques and the 47
extravagant effort involved in faking and forging the pieces is seen as a direct result of the art market and collection cultures. 48
This all results in a multi-layered cultural biography of the objects. The biography of a hybrid 49
object starts at the time the sherds are dated to; the sherds are still in their own original context in the original objects. In the second phase of their cultural biography the original objects the sherds belonged to, are broken, disposed off and/or buried. The sherds are often damaged (broken, scratched) and are prone to weathering; stains, encrustations and other dirt is picked up. A third phase starts in the 19th or 20th century when the sherds are excavated (often illegally ) and 50
combined to create a new object made to look old. Fill materials, adhesives and overpaint are used extensively to create an aesthetically pleasing object in an attempt to forge an original medieval object. After its creation the object may have one or more extra phases in which it may have been repaired, restored or altered taking away or adding material to the object. The last phase is the object at present. The hybrid object is constructed of old sherds originating from multiple original objects, possibly containing new sherds manufactured especially to fit the hybrid object and 51
completed with fill materials, adhesives and overpaint. It means that the original state of the hybrid object lies in the third phase, the construction, of its biography, while the origins or the original objects of the ceramic sherds lie in the first phase of the biography. This leads to the conclusion that
Graves 2018, 99; Norman 2004a, 74; Watson 2004a, 524. 42
Watson 2004a. 43
Pease 1958, 236; Watson 2004a, 521. 44
Norman 2004; Watson 2004a, 521. 45
Norman 2004, 78-79, 83-85; Watson 2004a, 522. 46
Koob 1998, 59-61; Koob 1999; Watson 2004a, 522. 47
Graves 2018, 103; Pease 1958, 240. 48
After the theory as described in Kopytoff 1986. 49
Watson 2004a, 521. 50
Gilbert 2017, 58-64. 51
there are two main differences between hybrid and non-hybrid ceramic objects concerning their cultural biography. Firstly, the biography of hybrid objects has a history already before the object itself comes into existence. Secondly, the original state of the hybrid object and the origin of the ceramic sherds date to a different period each with their own context.
2.3 Object hybridity and conservation
Conservation ethics have changed in the history of conservation. It was only after the 1970s that conservators-restorers organisations worldwide formulated ethical codes that were in line with each other. Until then, institutes and museums all had their own ethical codes resulting in the situation 52
that approaches to treatments differed. This late development indicates that the process of raising 53
awareness amongst conservators about the different natures of objects, the different approaches and the consequences of decisions in the conservation process, is only a relatively young field of thought. This young history of conservation ethics also means that thoughts about the influence of authenticity and intention of the artist on the conservation of the object, is a field that is still in evolution.
Concerning hybrid objects, it means that only little theorising has been done to present and there is not yet a set of guidelines developed on how to approach and perceive hybrid objects. Repairs with alien fragments have been performed from at least the 6th c. BC well into the 20th c. 54
From as early as the late 19th century the idea developed that in ancient Greek statues for example, only the original marble core could be seen as authentic. Accordingly, Reinhard Kekulé von Stradonitz, former director of the Collection of Antiquities in Berlin, removed early 19th century additions from the Berlin Aphrodite (SK 1459). Contradictory, he also left some of the earlier additions (possibly for aesthetical reasons) and added the plinth, meaning that after the restoration he presented not the pure ancient core but rather his idea about the authentic statue. 55
Later, in 1985, restoration works on the large Italian maiolica ware collection started in the British Museum (BM) in preparation of an exhibition in 1987. Most of this collection was still 56
in the condition in which it arrived in the museum in the 19th and early 20th c. and at the time of the restoration project it was still normal practice to dismantle, clean and re-restore the objects. 57
During the treatment of the first three objects however, it was found that all three had been
reconstructed using alien sherds. One jug had enough original material to be able to reconstruct the object without alien fragments, but there was simply too little original material left for the other two objects to be able to make a reconstruction. It was during this project that questions were 58
raised about the validity of the re-restoration of museum objects, simply because this resulted in
e.g. AIC Code of Ethics (1961), Venice Charter (1964), E.C.C.O. Professional Guidelines (II) (2003). 52
Grevenstein-Kruse, Van 2005, 22. Awareness about the relevance of ethics and the need for ethical 53
standards was raised much earlier already. See e.g. Viollet-le-Duc 1854; Brandi 1963. Koob 1998, 55. 54 Fendt 2009, 45. 55 Norman 1998, 134. 56 Norman 1998, 138. 57 Norman 1998, 139. 58
objects undesirable for display, and perhaps even more important, tangible evidence of past restoration treatments was lost once the fill materials and adhesives were removed. In 1994, Dr. 59
Andrew Oddy, former conservation scientist of the British Museum, stated that “(…) under normal circumstances <restoration of one object that has been carried out with bits of another> should always be dismantled, although the full documentation is important for the history of
conservation.” This quote contradicts the conclusions from the above described BM restoration 60
project and indicates that the unique character and integrity of hybrid objects was still not fully respected.
Norman describes in her 2004 article objects from the al-Sabah collection that were 61
worked on by conservators in the preparation of the catalogue the article is part of. She notes that 62
there is an increasing tendency to perceive restorations as part of the object’s history. However, for all of the objects discussed in the article, she explains that at least part of the old restoration is removed (both overpaint and alien fragments). The decision for dismantling the objects that have 63
alien fragments in an early attempt to fill small lacunae, may be justified for restoring the
authenticity of the object, however, for objects that only contain a marginal percentage of original material, one may question whether it is even possible to restore the authenticity of the object. 64
One of the objects Norman discusses is a 9th-10th century bowl (LNS 277 C) which appeared to be a composition of at least 5 different objects and consists of less than half of the original object (figs. 2.5, 2.6). The overpaint was removed from the exterior because of discolouration, the 65
overpaint from the interior was removed “to make the object’s true condition quite clear.” In an 66
object like this the question is whether the original object is the late 9th-10th century bowl of
Norman 1998, 139, 141. 59
Oddy 1994, 5. 60
Published in: Watson 2004b. 61 Norman 2004, 69. 62 Norman 2004, 69-89. 63 Norman 2004, 69. 64 Norman 2004, 75-76. 65 Norman 2004, 76. 66
Fig. 2.5: LNS 277 C, before treatment, al-Sabah collection, 10.5x22.6cm (hxd), 9th-10th c., Iran. Image: Norman 2004, 75.
Fig. 2.6: LNS 277 C, after treatment, al-Sabah collection, 10.5x22.6cm (hxd), 9th-10th c., Iran. Image: Norman 2004, 75.
which not even half is present in the object, or if the original object is the hybrid object as it came to the al-Sabah collection. The hybrid object has been damaged by removing the paint. Norman states: “it was decided to keep the bowl intact, as dismantling would serve little purpose.” Clearly, 67
Norman did not perceive the hybrid object as authentic because she calls the object “intact” even after the removal of the paint that is part of the hybrid state of the object.
A similar case is provided by a 9th century earthenware dish (LNS 98 C) (figs. 2.7-10). This dish appeared to consist of the fragments of at least 20 different dishes and was dismantled
Norman 2004, 76. 67
Fig. 2.7: LNS 98 C, before treatment, al-Sabah collection, 2.5x38.3cm (hxd), 9th c., Iraq. Image: Norman 2004, 83.
Fig. 2.8: LNS 98 C, after dismantling, al-Sabah collection, 2.5x38.3cm (hxd), 9th c., Iraq. Image: Norman 2004, 84.
Fig. 2.9: LNS 98 C, after adhesion, al-Sabah collection, 9th c., Iraq. Image: Norman 2004, 86.
Fig. 2.10: LNS 98 C, after reconstruction, al-Sabah collection, 2.5x38.3cm (hxd), 9th c., Iraq. Image: Norman 2004, 86.
completely and reconstructed with the sherds belonging to one original object only and completed with plaster fills in the missing areas. Although the treatment may be well documented and the 68
alien sherds may be kept with the object, it could be argued that the integrity of the hybrid object has not been respected and broken down.
Only recently more awareness was raised about the dismantling of objects consisting of less than 50% of original material. Gilbert reflects in her thesis on a number of conservation treatments of ceramic hybrid objects and rightly points out that the desire for authentic objects has played an important role in the past treatments. She explores the concept of authenticity and what in a hybrid can be called authentic. Thinking of the quote of Muñoz-Viñas, “According to the argument of 69
tautology, the only authentic state of an object is that which exists, even if we prefer one state to another,” Gilbert concludes that the dismantling and re-restoration of these hybrid objects is often 70
done when the present state is not corresponding with our ideal, rather than aiming for
authenticity. The authenticity of such hybrid objects, in which less than 50% of the object can be 71
assessed to be original material, comprises not only the original ceramic sherds, but also includes the alien fragments, newly fabricated fragments, fill materials, adhesives and retouches/overpaint; all materials that have been used to create the hybrid object. This unique property of having fragments with different origins combined with fill materials, adhesives and other materials in one object, should be taken into account and respected as the authentic nature of hybrid objects.
Norman 2004, 83-86. 68
Gilbert 2017, 74-75. 69
Muñoz-Viñas 2012, 7. Translation by the author. 70
Gilbert 2017, 76. 71
Chapter 3
The Conservation Diagnostic Process and Hybrid Objects
During the conservation process several different steps are taken by the conservator, starting with a first global, visual inquiry, via in-depth study and possibly treatment, to preventive measures in the object’s context. The diagnosis of an object is one of the most crucial stages within this process as it forms a baseline or zero measurement. The diagnosis is then used as a basis of knowledge for taking decisions on conservation treatment and/or preventive conservation measures. 72
Although the diagnostic process is such an important step in the conservation process as it theoretically leads to the diagnosis, little has been published about the complete diagnostic process, what the aim exactly is and which steps it should consist of. One of the most prominent sources is the well-known and widely used theory of the characterisation grid by Appelbaum, which provides a well-thought and constructive tool for characterising objects (see fig. 3.1). The grid consists of 73
four quadrants; quadrant I and II contain the material aspects for the object-specific information and the non-object-specific information, respectively. Quadrant III and IV respectively contain the non-material aspects of the object-specific and non-object-specific information. The idea is that 74
filling out and completing the grid will guide the conservator in the research of the object and make sure that all the important information about the object is included. The aim of drawing up and completing the characterisation grid is expressed as follows: “By gathering the information defined
Davison 2003, 227. 72
Appelbaum 2007, section 1, chapters 1-5. 73
Appelbaum 2007, fig. 1.1. 74
in all four quadrants, we assure that all appropriate information is at hand before decisions are made.” Appelbaum thus clearly sees the characterisation grid as a tool for forming a firm basis of 75
all knowledge required for taking validated decisions in the conservation process. These decisions should involve a realistic goal of the treatment for which also the choice for the ideal state of the object is important. 76
The characterisation grid forms a solid basis for conservators to know what to investigate or what fields of information to research in the diagnostic process of an object. However,
conservation always demands research, decisions and treatment customised to the needs of the individual object, meaning that also the diagnostic process and the object characterisation cannot be standardised and supplying for all objects. One aspect that is not explicitly included in Appelbaums characterisation grid, for example, is the meaning or message of the artwork, which is, especially for modern and contemporary art pieces, highly important and a distinctive argument in the decision-making process. Another thought is that the grid includes research on observed
phenomena and their interpretation, as damage, deterioration and dirt on the one side (quadrant I), and the history of the object with the function(s) it had, the way it was used and the value it had in society on the other side (quadrant II), but guidelines or a methodology on how to combine these material and non-material aspects in one diagnosis is not provided. Directions on how to
differentiate between damage inherent to the object and/or its function, and damage and deterioration caused or initiated by external factors, are not given, although this is an important aspect of the diagnosis as it requires a different approach from the conservator. Similarly, the theory does not support in the characterisation of hybrid objects, and the interpretation of their dual or hybrid identity and what this hybrid identity means for the diagnosis and the decision-making process.
Davison presents a guideline on how to examine and diagnose glass objects in her book about glass conservation. She pleads for always commencing the documentation and examination together, and therefore gives a list of the seven subjects that should ideally be present in all condition- and conservation reports according to her including information on the archaeological context and details of the manufacture. She then discusses step-by-step the examination process of glass 77
objects starting with observing the surface and all deposits on top, subsequently analysing the body and proceeding to the fabrication techniques. She continues with verifying the material
identification and investigating evidence of previous repairs and restorations. Davison’s approach 78
gives a more structured direction for conservators on how to examine objects, but the explanation for the several steps is so focussed on glass objects that except for the order of points of
investigation, not much help is offered for the examination of objects made with other materials.
Appelbaum 2007, 10. 75 Appelbaum 2007, 171. 76 Davison 2003, 227. 77 Davison 2003, 228-230. 78
Mougain, former student in conservation at the French cultural heritage institute , has developed a 79
different scheme in which she presents guidelines for the diagnostic process, or as she calls it “the observation and analysis of ceramic objects” (fig. 3.2). The scheme first asks for an investigation 80
of the object history in which also information such as the archaeological stratigraphy (if applicable) and the history of the collection are considered to be important. In section 2, the 81
knowledge section, general information about the art history and fabrication technology, and information from visual analysis with the naked eye are collected. She then proceeds to the third 82
section for in-depth and analytical analyses in which three main themes play a role; determining the authenticity, identifying the materials and techniques of the fabrication, and assessing the condition
Institut Culturèl du Patrimoîne. 79 Mougain 2005, 77-82. 80 Mougain 2005, 78. 81 Mougain 2005, 78-79. 82
Fig. 3.2: Mougains object investigation scheme. Image: Mougain 2005, fig. k, translated and reproduced by the author.
or (conservation) state of the object. To collect the information for these three themes, the different research methods are divided in seven groups according to their possibilities, their relevance for the three themes is indicated by the arrows. Mougain realises that this scheme only presents a guide 83
and not a waterproof system for diagnosing objects and therefore she complementary gives a set of topics to consider in the diagnosis of the 12th/13th century hybrid Iranian plate she studies in the thesis. She divides the diagnosis of the hybrid plate in four sections: in section 1, the fragmentary 84
state, she aims to find out how many fragments make up the plate and if there are groups of fragments present. In section 2, the lacunary state, she estimates roughly how much (in %) of the individual objects is complete. Section 3, the state of the surface, is mostly about the appearance of the object and aims in answering why the object appears as it does. In section 4, the earlier
interventions, Mougain investigates what kind of interventions were done to the object and for what reason. She aims to complete the diagnosis by going step-by-step through the stages of the scheme and additionally investigating the extra set of four sections.
The aim of the diagnostic process is described more or less the same by Appelbaum, Davison and Mougain, namely to collect all the information needed for the decision-making process. Where Appelbaum mostly gives an overview of what themes of information are needed, Mougain takes it a step further by providing a three-step method for conducting the research of the diagnostic process, and Davison gives a more practical outline with steps for the different aspects of the object to examine. All three theories however, seem not to incorporate the thought that the final aim of the general conservation process is of influence on the diagnostic process. In museum collections for example, all are taken care of to preserve them. Depending on the object, the interest of the museum and the socio-political context of the museum and the museum collection, it may be decided that some objects are not suitable for display while at the same time they do have value for the collection. These objects should be taken care of just with the same intention of preservation as the objects for display. The main question for the diagnostic process is probably whether the condition of the object is stable and will continue to be stable. The objects for display will additionally also have the question of whether the object visually expresses the information it represents, or if the information communication should be assisted by for example a (partial) reconstruction or retouches for which additional information in the diagnosis is required about details of the original object.
In the same line of reasoning, the nature of the object just as well influences the diagnostic process. Where in the diagnostic process of non-hybrid ceramic objects questions are raised as where does the object come from, when was it made and which materials are part of the work, in hybrid ceramic objects additional questions should be asked as how many objects were combined, what parts of the objects were combined and what was the reason for this. Since hybrid objects generally have a longer and more complicated cultural biography than non-hybrid objects,
Mougain 2005, 79. 83
Mougain 2005, 9-11. 84
and factors as dating, provenance and artist/creator are also more complicated but very important for the final diagnosis, the diagnostic process may concentrate much more on the role of the individual sherds and materials in the object, their former context and the present context in the hybrid object.
Next to the different questions raised in the diagnostic process, also the interpretation of results from the analyses may be very different for the diagnostic process in hybrid objects than from the diagnostic process in non-hybrid objects. This starts with the classification of materials; fill materials, adhesives and retouches are generally later additions from repairs or restorations in the case of non-hybrid objects. In the case of ceramic hybrid objects these materials often form part of the original hybrid construction and in later treatments extra fills, adhesives and retouches may have been added or replaced. This means that, if relevant for the decision-making process, research in the diagnostic process needs to aim at differentiating between non-ceramic materials from the original hybrid construction and non-ceramic materials as later additions or alterations.
Next to the fact that non-ceramic materials in ceramic hybrid objects may bring up the need for customised interpretations in the diagnostic process, also other features such as cracks, the morphology of break edges and many more aspects require a different approach during the
diagnostic process. The distinction between manufacture-related features and damage is not obtained in the same way as it is with non-hybrid objects. The next chapters in this thesis will provide a deeper investigation of possibilities within, and properties of, the diagnostic process of ceramic hybrid objects.
Chapter 4
Methodology
In chapters 1 and 2 all the information found in literary and archival research has been presented to reconstruct as far as possible the history and the context of the object. It has been investigated how the object came in the collection of the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag and how the Islamic
collection of the museum was built and in what tradition this took place. Also the concept of object hybridity has been explored and in what contexts object hybridity is found. It has been explored what aspects are important for diagnosis and the diagnostic process in conservation to be able to understand what is different in this phase for hybrid objects compared to non-hybrid objects. Now it is important that the object itself is analysed further to get a full understanding of the materials incorporated, the construction of the object and all details and phenomena visible. Conducting part of the diagnostic process, this hybrid object serves as an instrument to get familiar with the
diagnosis of hybrid objects, its particularities and the differences from the diagnosis of non-hybrid objects. The intention is not to fully complete the diagnostic process, as the aim of the thesis is not to provide a complete diagnosis of the object, but rather to study the influence of its’ hybrid nature on the diagnostic process.
4.1 Visual Examination
Examination of the object with the naked eye is the first step in the analysis and examination of the object. Photos were taken with a Nikon D750 digital camera with a Nikon AF-S Micro NIKKOR 60mm f/2.8G ED lens. One LED photography spot and daylight were used together for the illumination of the object. Pictures from the inside of the body were taken with a 12 megapixel phone camera with a dual-LED dual-tone flash. The object was viewed from all angles to try to understand the object, its structure and its condition. Anomalies were noted down, vulnerable areas were investigated and trace marks for the production/construction were looked out for. A thorough visual examination provides the conservator with a good first impression of the objects character and properties. The visual analysis will also show that some things cannot be analysed by the bare eye and additional analysis is needed. The aim of the visual examination is therefore not only to get as much information from the object, but also to investigate what information is desired but cannot be perceived without additional (analytical) analysis. This then leads to questions for further investigation in which different examination techniques are specified, such as certain imaging techniques and/or analytical analysis.
4.2 Digital Microscopic Analysis
Microscopy was used to further investigate the object after the visual examination. For the
microscopic analysis a Dino-Lite Digital Microscope of the Edge series type AM4115ZT was used. It has a resolution of 1.3 megapixel and a magnification rate of 20x ~ 220x. This adjustable
magnification allows for detailed examination of specific areas or features on the object that are otherwise difficult or impossible to perceive with the naked eye. 85
The aim of microscopy is to document small details of the object and better understand the
different features in different areas of the object. The crazing pattern in glazes could be studied and compared just as the weathering patterns on the glazes and retouches. This allowed for
differentiation between areas in the object, which aids in distinguishing between materials and possibly discriminating areas that have been worked on in later stages. Microscopic analysis can also locally identify differences between overpainted surfaces and naked glazed areas.
4.3 Reflectance Transformation Imaging – RTI
RTI was used for visualising surface relief; both decoration and unintentional reliefs. This digital photographic technique reveals invisible or difficult to perceive surface structures. Multiple photos of the object were taken with a camera in the same position but with varying, but controlled, light positions. The photos were stacked and rendered by the software with an algorithm resulting in an image in which the surface details could be enhanced by virtually changing the light direction. 86
The virtually controllable raking light images made surface reliefs better visible. 87
A Nikon D750 digital camera with a Nikon AF-S Micro NIKKOR 60mm f/2.8G ED lens was used, mounted on a tripod. A lightbulb with visible light has been used for illumination, a black reflective plastic sphere of ca. ø 2.5 cm was used for calibration. In the RTIBuilder software the image was rendered, in the RTIViewer software the image could be viewed and the light-position adjusted. 88
The RTI technique is used in particular to visualise the decoration patterns of the ears, the sides and the haunches of the animal to assess whether the relief sherds may have the same or a comparable origin. The images can be rendered in different modes of which the normals visualisation and the specular enhancement are most suitable for this purpose.
4.4 Ultraviolet Fluorescence Photography – UV-photography
UV-photography was used for studying the different materials on the surface of the object. Each material emits a different frequency of radiation upon electron excitement caused by the UV-light, resulting in different fluorescent colours. Materials can now be distinguished by their fluorescent colours. 89 Buys/Oakley 1993, 43. 85 Caine et al. 2019, 98. 86 Artal-Isbrand/Klausmeyer 2013, 339-340. 87
The RTIBuilder and RTIViewer free software is made available by the non-profit corporation Cultural 88
Heritage Imaging. Stuart 2007, 75-76. 89
