Leadership among sex worker
organizations.
A qualitative study into effective leadership within the global sex worker community.Lise Woensdregt (6033040) lise_woensdregt@hotmail.com
Bachelor thesis Cultural Anthropology and Development Sociology Mw. Dr. Yolanda van Ede
Mw. Dr. Marie-Louise Janssen Word count: 12.665
List of Abbreviations AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrom BtG Bridging the Gaps
HIV Human Immonudeficiency Syndrom
LGBTI Lesbian Gay Bisexual Transgender and Intersex NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NSWP Global Network of Sex Work Projects SUSO Stepping Up Stepping Out
Abstract
This thesis provides theoretical grounding for leadership training among sex workers organizations. Drawing on modern trait theories and interviews with nine leaders traits and activities associated with effective leadership among sex worker organizations has been defined. Findings suggest that leaders of sex worker organizations are ambitious, have passion and a motivation to lead. They have experience in sex work and are determined to improve the situation of sex workers. It takes incredible strong and forceful personalities to take on leader roles for stigma and discrimination are experienced on a much higher level in these positions. Qualifications are considered of little importance but leaders should, however, have the intention to educate themselves. In order to secure sustainability of organizations it became clear that training should especially focus on improvement of programmatic skills and the identification of potential new leaders. It has been suggested that the sex worker community identifies these new leaders themselves and that needs assessments will be conducted in order to promote successful outcomes.
Key words: leadership, sex worker organizations, traits, skills, training 1. Introduction
Globally sex workers have a marginalized social position: sex work is criminalized in most countries and sex workers around the world are continuously plagued by social discrimination, legal ambivalence, police harassment, physical abuse and occupational health hazards (Lim 2008:324). In the face of these challenges and because of the sex worker’ rights movement that took off in 1973 sex worker activism in the past decades has been growing and sex worker rights organizations emerged all over the world.
Even though the first of these organizations originated in North America in
Europe, their emergence in the past decades extended to other continents as well. These organizations aimed at improving sex workers’ rights and health and their growth has been substantial (Kempadoo and Doezema 1998). At this point in time there is an increased attention for these organizations. This is the result of influential global actors such as the WHO and UNAIDS creating policies on inclusion of target groups in the response to HIV/AIDS. It has been argued that capable, strong and viable sex work organizations and networks are a cornerstone in controlling HIV/AIDS and therefore
should be included in all HIV/AIDS responses (WHO 2012; UNAIDS 2012). Within this global approach to sex worker organizations there is a growing focus on leadership. It is believed that strong leadership contributes to effective organizations and therefore efforts are being made for the development of a new generation of leaders and the provision of appropriate support to current and future leaders of these communities (WHO 2013).
The Dutch based NGO ‘Soa Aids Nederland/Aids Fonds’ partners with sex
worker-led organizations and has planned group training and/or individual sessions to enhance sex workers’ leadership and skills for 2014. But what is good leadership within a sex worker context? How can you best enhance leadership and what is needed in order to do so? By answering these questions this thesis intends providing insight in the different elements of good leadership in sex worker organizations. By means of defining these elements this thesis is to offer a theoretical grounding for development of
leadership training. Methods
This study is based on both a literature review and qualitative data analysis.The body of literature represents relevant studies and current knowledge regarding the sex worker rights movement, sex worker organization and the challenges of leading an organization as such. Studies on leadership in general and leadership in social movements have been included as well and all of this literature was found through databases such as ‘Taylor & Francis Online’, ‘JSTOR Current Journals’ and Google Scholar.
Besides a literature review I decided on interviews for I strongly believe in the value of experiences and insights from the field as a complementation of theory. I think that talking to people is important in order to understand them to discover insights that are often not revealed by theory. I believe that only by means of talking to sex workers it is possible to understand the perspective of the sex workers. I believe that developing training for sex workers can be done best by inquiring sex workers what they want and what they need. This idea is grounded in more generalized ideas on development interventions. The anthropologist Nichter (2008: 127) argues that communities have relevant knowledge and that their local representations should be taken into regard in order to generate sustainable and successful interventions. Another reason to inquire sex workers is the fact that one of the principles of the sex worker rights movement is
‘nothing for us without us.’ This motto relies on the principles of participation and sex workers to achieve full participation and equalization of opportunities for sex workers have used it. Rather than being regarded ‘vulnerable’ populations sex workers demand participation. They want to influence over initiatives and increase participation in dialogue and decision-making that concerns them (NSWP 2014).
This study is based on qualitative data derived from nine in-depth (Skype) interviews that were conducted with (leaders of) sex worker organizations worldwide. The participants have been recruited through the network of the prostitution team of ‘Soa Aids Nederland’. They were informed about the nature of the research and the idea of developing training on leadership. All respondents occupy leadership roles in
organizations that are either part of the SUSO- or BTG Program of ‘Soa Aids Nederland’. Participation of sex workers is a key principle of these programs and therefore sex workers themselves take the lead in initiatives that concern them as much as possible. Seven respondents are involved in a local organization whilst two respondents have grown into their role and currently regional and global coordinators within the sex worker movement.
In order to create a flexible interview process the interviews that were conducted are semi-structured. A list of topics and questions to be covered was
prepared. This list functioned as a guide for a casual conversation that allowed room for the respondents to pursue topics of particular interest to them. 1 The interviews were
conducted over the course of two weeks. Eight interviews were conducted in English, one in Dutch and the author of this thesis does the translation regarding this latter interview. One other was done by using an interpreter.
The interview transcripts provide insight in the existing leadership roles and forms that exist among sex worker organizations. I asked them, however, about their more general ideas on leadership as well. An analysis of both literature and interviews will reveal the gaps that exist between ideas on effective leadership and the realities on the ground.
Even though there are numerous theories on leadership I have chosen to use the model of Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991) as guidance for analyzing my interviews. I believe that leaders are born with capacity to become leaders and that additional factors are necessary to actualize this potential. This corresponds to the ideas of
1 Find the questionnaire in Appendix I
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Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991).2 The authors furthermore provided in a clear model that
enabled me to systematically review the interview data. It should be noted that because of privacy concerns I have provided the respondents with invented names.
In the following sections I will provide in background information on sex worker organizations, their character and ideas on their effectiveness.
1. Theoretical Framework 2.1. Sex worker organizations Organizing sex workers
Before I continue writing on leadership within sex worker organizations I think it is important to provide background information on the sex worker community. This is important for I believe that character of the community and organizations both influence leadership style and requirements.
Literature suggests that organizing sex workers into collectives and
organizations might be challenging. Asthana and Oostvogels (1996: 133) write on community participation among sex workers in Madras India and identified frustrating factors in mobilization. They address the heterogeneous character of sex workers as a group. Sex workers hail from diverse backgrounds, they argue, operate in a wide range of establishments and outlets and have varying access to formal and informal support structures. They furthermore address structural constraints to participation by sex workers such as poverty and suggest that ability to mobilize is also limited due to the fact that the vast majority is locked into unequal power relationships with brothel-owners, madams and pimps. They argue that sex workers are too isolated and even powerless to act individually or collectively (1996: 135-137).
Other authors have proposed difficulties with mobilizing and organizing of sex workers as well. Campbell and Mzaidume (2001) argue that community feeling and social cohesion among the sex worker community is limited and reported trust among sex workers is low. Fonner et al. (2014: 2) regret this lack of social cohesion among sex workers for social cohesion is associated with potential for collective action. They argue that similar backgrounds make it more likely that members share similar views on various issues such as vision, objectives and type of desired leadership.
2 The theory of Kirkpatrick and Locke originates from 1991 already but provides in the most thorough
model in trait theories thus far. Find more information here: http://www.skillsyouneed.com/lead/trait-theory.html
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Stigmatization of sex workers is furthermore proposed as a phenomenon that ‘fundamentally hampers self-organization’ among sex workers (Vanwesenbeeck 2001: 277). Sex workers across the world are severely stigmatized and the harsh reality of stigma is that stigmatized individuals internalize the perceptions that others have of them (Goffman 1963). Cornish (2006a: 462) states that stigmatization and
discrimination against social groups raise obstacles to the participation of their members in community services. Internalized stigma and a lack of empowering
experiences promote fatalistic expectations that little can be achieved. Vanwesenbeeck (2001: 277) argues furthermore that as a result of stigma many sex workers are
unwilling to public identify oneself as a professional worker and reluctant to associate with a sex worker organization.
But despite the challenges there are also prospects related to the organization of sex workers. It has been argued that sex workers express a strong sense of solidarity with fellow sex workers (Ghose et al. 2008: 316). Barker et al. (2001) suggest
furthermore that whenever a group has opponents this gives them unity. Sex workers are defined by their place in political, social and cultural conflict and together they exist in relation to what they would like to see changed. Furthermore hopeful is the fact that NSWP, the international network for sex work projects, today includes at least 100 projects and groups from across the world (NSWP 2014). This number illustrates that across the world sex workers do, however, mobilize and are able to sustain
organizations. The next section will elaborate on the character of the existing organizations and provide insights in their philosophies.
Empowerment and Participation
The first sex worker organizations emerged in the 1970s in North America and Europe as outcome of the sex worker rights movement. Among these first organizations were Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics (COYOTE) in San Francisco (1979) that later became USPROS, the Italian Committee for the Civil Rights of Prostitutes (1982) and the Dutch Red Thread (1985) (Kempadoo 2008: 146). These organizations were established mainly as support groups for se workers in order to protect them from public
designations of deviance and legal and social control systems. The organizations aimed at public acceptance of sex workers and emphasized the activities of women as sellers of sex rather than men as buyers of sex. The organizations promoted the idea of
prostitution as work and introduced the term ‘sex work’ which is now standard in public health, social sciences and other academic disciplines (Ditmore 2011: 111). Even though the first organizations mainly emerged in North America and Europe their existence soon spread across the world. Kempadoo (2003: 146-147) provides an overview and describes for example how organizations in Ecuador (1982), South Africa (1994) and the Dominican Republic (1996) have been formed. Kempadoo (ibid) states that organizations in the Global South are very active and busy taking action against the injustices they face.
Organizations that qualify as sex worker organizations demand human, civil, political and social rights for sex workers. An important characteristic of sex worker organizations is their focus on empowerment and participation (NSWP 2014).
Empowerment is a widely used concept and development approach that originated in the women’s movement in the 1970’s. The approach is sustained in the idea that when power not given to the oppressed a collective mobilization needed to claim control and change the existing power relations within society (Bathiwala 2007: 60). Most sex workers suffer multiple forms of disadvantage, including stigma, poverty and exploitation of police, clients or agents of the sex trade. Given such an context it is common for interventions to take a community development approach in order to address the wider issues of security and support as well as the specific issues of HIV (Cornish 2006b: 302). Empowerment approaches emphasize power, collective agency and transformation and is defined in terms of community members collectively
developing a critical awareness of their problems and routes to their solution
(Wallerstein 1992). For development approaches to have an empowering effect they have to contribute to the conscientisation of the powerless and to the creation of spaces in which they can mobilize and discuss their positions (Bathiwala 2007: 60).
Empowerment is a widely, and sometimes uncritically, concept that is used in a variety of disciplines and currently dominant in international development discourse. The other concept that is promoted by sex worker organizations and in the international development discourse is participation. For some years now there is widespread
support for the promotion of community participation in planning, implementation and management of health projects in development countries (Ashtana and Oostvogels 1996: 133). The NSWP argues that it is crucial that sex workers represent their own realities and fully participate in dialogues and decision making about issues that affect
them. Therefore the NSWP (2014) argues that it is important that sex workers organize at local, national, regional and international levels. According to the NSWP organizing helps to identify the actual issues faced by sex workers and enables sex workers to respond trough action with the local communities and authorities that discriminate against them (NSWP 2014).3
Because of popular international development ‘empowering’ and ‘participating’ activities are currently prominent in interventions with sex workers. The emergence of HIV/AIDS in the 1980s changed the climate and practice of sex worker organizations for sex work became increasingly associated with this disease. As a result sex worker organizations became increasingly focused on programs and activities related to HIV/AIDS (Ditmore 2011: 111). But due to HIV/AIDS development organizations became increasingly focused on sex worker organizations as well. Within development discourse sex workers active engagement and ownership of local development are promoted and therefore sex worker organizations are seen as cornerstones in the response to HIV/AIDS. At this point the WHO (2012) and UNAIDS (2012) among others stress that the that experience and technical expertise of sex workers is much needed in the global response to HIV/AIDS and create all sorts of policies and funding on inclusion of these target groups.
Effectiveness of sex worker organizations
Sex worker organizations, thus, are considered a powerful mechanism in organizing struggle and raising visibility of sex workers. The organizations are furthermore considered a powerful mechanism in order to create participation of sex workers in decisions and interventions that concern them. But despite this hopeful development up and till now literature displays a negative image of sex workers organizations and focuses mainly on the failure of these organizations to mobilize (Weitzer, 1991; Mathieu, 2003; Beer, 2010).
Beer (2010: 36) describes how it has been argued that organizations have arguably been unsuccessful in challenging anti-prostitution discourses and laws. The work of Weitzer (1991) and Mathieu (2003) on sex worker organizations in
respectively the United States and France illustrate this. These authors both analyze the outcomes of sex worker organizations and conclude that these have made very little
3 Find more information about NSWP here: http://www.nswp.org/page/our-work
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impact on public opinion or law reform. Weitzer (1991) and Mathieu (2003) argue that due sex workers precarious living conditions, their lack of preexisting networks or subcultural foundation; material assets and the political competence that is necessary for bolstering constituency sex workers the organizations fail to achieve changes. Vanwesenbeeck (2001: 77) furthermore says reluctance to publicly identify as sex workers, fear of police surveillance, and a lack of preexisting networks creates organizations that have the tendency to be entrepreneurial rather than mass-based.
It is believed that enhanced leadership contributes to more effective
organizations. It has been argued that leadership indeed is crucial to social movements and organizations that arise from them. Leaders inspire commitment, mobilize
resources, create and recognize opportunities, devise strategies and frame demands and influence the outcomes of a movement (Morris and Staggenborg 2004: 171-172).
However, there has not been written much on leadership among sex worker organizations yet for this is a relatively new field of study. Therefore up and till now it has been hard to define good and effective leadership. Mathieu (2003:38) in an
historical overview on the ‘internal organization in the world of prostitution’ attempts to explain why some sex workers in history have been acknowledged as legitimate leaders by their mass base. She addresses two kinds of legitimacy, one that can be called internal, and the other external. Sex workers who have the highest status in the
hierarchy of their social world share internal legitimacy. There are several reasons why they might be considered the best because they have a long experience of sex work, pursue the most legitimate and best-paid practices, have the most clients, are richer or enjoy the best living conditions. Mathieu says that they gain authority over their
colleagues from the fact that they seem to better personify the stereotype of
‘prostitution excellence’. The external legitimacy is seen in sex workers whose influence and authority are based according to criteria peculiar to the ‘normal’ world, such as educational qualifications, high-class roots, or a short time in prostitution. It is the fact that they are different from the majority of their colleagues and can aspire to a better social position that gives them their legitimacy: they seem better able to challenge and overcome the barriers between the world of prostitution and the rest of society.
In the following sections I will explore what other aspects contribute to
leadership in sex worker organizations. I will first provide in a broader perspective on
leadership by considering more general academic ideas on leadership after which I will present the results of data.
2.2. Academic Ideas on Leadership
There has been much academic interest in the area of leadership. In the past 60 years leadership has become increasingly the focus in a wide variety of disciplinary
backgrounds. People have long been interested in leadership and wonder what exactly makes a good leader.
Among the first scholars who studied leadership in anthropology was Frederik Barth. Barth studied political leadership among the Swath Pathans (1965). He argues that social networks determine effective leadership. Maurice Godelier (1986) studied power among the New Guinea Baruya from a Marxist approach and argues that leaders can derive legitimacy from the largest amount of money and capital. More recently the anthropologist Jones (2005) summarizes the anthropological perspective on leadership by arguing that it is the unique cultural traditions that create and determines leadership styles. The sociologist Max Weber (1968) asserts that leaders possess power by virtue of tradition, personal charisma or a position within a bureaucratic structure.
Leadership has, however, been approached through a wide variety of theoretical lenses and by now many leadership theories have emerged. Cherry (2014) argues that while many different leadership theories have emerged, most can be classified as one of eight major types.4 I decided to approach leadership by means of trait theories, which
focuses on personality traits that make people better-suited to leadership roles, but other theories are focused for example on behavior and skills, environmental factors and participation. In the next section I will elaborate on trait theories and present Kirkpatrick and Locke’s (1991) model.
Trait theories
Trait theories suggest that effective leaders are different from other people and that certain personality endow persons with the capacities to become leaders. Trait theories focus on the personal attributes of leaders such as physical and personality
characteristics, competencies, and values that contribute to effective leadership. Implicit in this approach is the assumption that traits produce patterns of behavior that are consistent across situations (Fleenor 2011: 830).
4 Find all eight theories here: http://psychology.about.com/od/leadership/p/leadtheories.htm
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Trait theories are among the earliest theories of leadership and can be traced back to the 19th century. By that time ‘great man’ theories of leadership were popular.
These theories asserted that leadership qualities were mainly inherited by people from the upper class (Chemers 2000: 27). In the 20th century the ‘great man’ theories evolved
into trait theories. These theories did not make assumptions about whether leadership traits were inherited or acquired but simply asserted that leaders’ characteristics are different from non-leaders (Kirkpatrick and Locke 1991: 48). Up until the 1950s the trait theory was the only theory on leadership considered valid. However, researchers in 1948 noticed that leaders in one situation are not necessarily leaders in other situations. He introduced a more behavioral approach to leadership and trait theories for a while were neglected (Chemers 2000: 28). In the 1990s, however, researchers started to look at trait theories again. This time the approach is more nuanced and considers whether there are aspects of personality that make people more likely to become and succeed as leaders and which additional factors are needed in order to develop these people into actual leaders. It has been argued that combinations of traits and attributes, integrated in conceptually meaningful ways, are more likely to predict leadership than additive or independent contributions of several single traits (Zaccaro 2007: 6).
Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991: 56) have argued that leadership traits endow people with the potential for leadership and that additional factors are needed to actualize this potential. Kirkpatrick are among the few that developed a model for trait theories that includes both traits and necessary activities for leaders. This model has been developed already in the 1990s but evidence suggests that it is still relevant. 5
According to the authors the key traits of effective leaders are:
o Drive: this refers to a constellation of traits and motives reflecting a high record of achievement, being strongly motivated and ambitious, being able to take the initiative and having energy and tenacity
o Leadership motivation: this is the desire to lead others and is not about the desire for power in itself but often results from the development of a clear vision of where the company or organization should be.
5 Find more information here: http://www.skillsyouneed.com/lead/trait-theory.html
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o Honesty and integrity: this is about presenting an honest picture of yourself, so that your followers will respect you.
o Self-Confidence: this is often associated with emotional stability o Cognitive ability: also described as intelligence
o Knowledge of the business: this is thought to be essential for credibility.
This is not to say that traits proposed by Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991) are the definite traits for effective leadership. The other traits that have been suggested are for example charisma (Weber 1969) and social intelligence (Goleman 1995). Riggio (2009)
furthermore discusses extraversion, being bold, assertive and risk-taking. After considering many different traits I think, however, that all traits suggested by other scholars in the end can one way or the other be classified as one of the six categories that were proposed by Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991).
But traits alone are not sufficient for successful leadership. Traits are considered a precondition and possessing the appropriate traits only makes it more likely that such conditions will be taken (Kirkpatrick and Locke 1991: 48). In order to be successful the leaders who possess the requisite traits must take certain actions. The before
mentioned aspects help leaders to take these actions and to take the necessary steps to implement their vision. The necessary steps according to Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991: 56) are the following:
o Structuring
o Selecting and training o Motivating
o Managing information o Team building
o Promoting chance and innovation
Again, this is not to say that these are the only necessary activities for effective
leadership. Similar to traits numerous other important activities for leaders have been suggested as well. Among these activities are for example: identifying and solving problems and reflecting on one’s own and other work (Gardner et al. 2005).
In the following sections the results of my qualitative study into leadership 12
among sex worker organizations will be presented. The data of the interviews that have been conducted has been analyzed by means of the trait-model or Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991).
3. Results
For this research I conducted interviews with nine people that have a leading role in sex worker organizations. Lili, Quy and Kim are involved with organizations in Asia. Hope, Veronica and Precious are involved with African organizations and Christy is a former leader within a European organization. Anna is a global-, and Grace a regional
coordinator within the sex worker movement. 3.1. Traits of leaders
Drive and leadership motivation Drive
Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991: 49-50) argue that leaders have a high desire for achievement, are very ambitious about their work, have a lot of energy and take the initiative. When thinking about leaders in sex worker organizations Anna thinks about vibrant people that are full of energy and born out of fire. She herself comes from an activist background and says that her own birth as a global advocate was one of
absolute fire as well. She tells me that in the 1990s she felt that the needs and rights of the sex worker community were underrepresented. She demanded more attention on a global level and says that this action created her pathway into the position of global coordinator that she’s currently in. She has been organizing numerous international conferences on sex worker rights from 1990 on, became involved in several
organizations and steering groups and very active in global and regional advocacy. At this point she can legitimately be named one of the leaders of the sex worker rights movement.
Ganz (2004: 223) explains why such a drive is important for leaders. According to Ganz, drive is of major importance for leaders because it influences creative output. Motivated people are able to focus on their work, to concentrate for extended periods of time; they have persistence willingness to take risks, and ability to sustain high energy. As a consequence motivated individuals are more likely to do the work required to acquire the needed knowledge and skills. Literature suggests that it is especially
revolutionary leaders in social movements that share an uncommon devotion to their cause: ‘They live for it, are willing to suffer and inspire others to do the same’
(Aminzade 2001: 129). Precious can be regarded a ‘revolutionary leader’ as such for her devotion seems to be immense. She says she cannot think about anything other than being involved in a sex worker organization:
I mean I’m too much of a sex worker like everything is sex work to me. All I think of is sex work so I wouldn’t be happy doing something just for money just for salary and at the end of the day I don’t enjoy what I’m doing (Precious).
The fact that the organizations of my respondents have been established in face of challenges sex workers confront illustrate drive as well. Kim tells me that his
organization was established in 2009 in face of high HIV/AIDS prevalence among sex workers in his country. There was a program for sex workers but HIV rates among sex workers were increasing each year. He assigns this to the fact that the program was run by non-sex workers and says that his fellows felt dire need to do something himself. Quy tells me that her organization started as a support group where sex workers could talk with each other about their situation and support each other. Hope tells me she decided to establish an organization because she felt the need to do something in order to improve the situation of sex workers. The fact that respondents decided to take
responsibility for their situation shows drive and the establishment of the organizations is the outcome of this trait.
Leadership motivation
But effective leaders must not only be full of drive and ambition, they must want to lead others as well. Respondents bring to the fore that leaders must be able and must have the willingness to assume this responsibility for leading others. Taking the words of Anna into account, this motivation is very important among sex workers. Leaders of sex worker organizations operate in a very hostile and politically challenging environment and must be able and willing to take on this position. It takes strong people, Anna says: ’When you step up for the sex workers rights you will be accused of being many many bad things. And you face the stigma and the discrimination at a much higher level and therefore it takes incredibly strong people.’ It turns out that my respondents themselves
decided to take on their positions out of feelings of responsibility. The quote of Lili illustrates these feelings. She says: ‘I need to take the responsibility for the community. I think not about myself, who I am… I want to think about the long-term and the
community benefit.’ Related to this responsibility is the idea that leaders should have the intention to bring the sex worker community to another level. Leaders need to work for the community and must make sure that the voice of sex workers is heard. Precious says that leaders should think about their community and what the sex worker
movement needs as a whole.
Honesty and Integrity
Honesty and Integrity have to do with presenting an honest picture of yourself.
Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991: 53) argue that by means of these traits people will respect and follow you. Honesty and integrity are in fact virtues in all individuals and have much to do with personality but have special significance for leaders and without these qualities leadership is undermined. Respondents in this study stress that it is important that people can have trust in leaders, can believe in them and appreciate them. They prefer people with open personalities who share their stories with staff. It is
furthermore important that leaders are able to listen to others and are transparent in their activities and finances. Leaders should furthermore not being selfish and
represent the voice of the community. Christy says that in order to represent this voice it is important that leaders consult the community and do not operate with the desire to decide on everything themselves. It is therefore important for leaders to acknowledge the fact that other people must and will have their say as well.
Christy tells me that sex workers among each other have difficulties with when they are together and often fight each other. She tells me furthermore that sex workers often disagree with each other. Often there is a lot of fighting, screaming and shouting. She explains that sex workers among each other sort of segment and fragment:
When something goes wrong, someone gets killed or there is violence or something than you’re together. But when it gets personal your each other’s competitor. And when it comes to attention, mostly in the media, than there is a lot of fighting (Christy).
This quote confirms the idea that sex workers among each other on the one hand have a strong sense of solidarity but on the other know little cohesion. Drawing on the work of Mathieu (2003) on the internal organization of sex worker collectives it seems as if only particular people will be acknowledged as legitimate leaders within these groups. Therefore it might be even more important, and challenging, for leaders to gain trust and respect from the community. And this indicates that good leaders as a matter of fact stand out from others for they gained this trust and respect from the community. Self Confidence and Cognitive Ability
Self-confidence is important for leaders. Being a leader is a very difficult job and often a great deal of information must be gathered and processes, a constant series of problems must be solved and decisions made. Followers have to be convinced or guided into specific courses of action. Challenges have to be overcome, competing interests have to be satisfied and risks have to be taken in the face of uncertainty. It has been argued therefore that a person riddled with self-doubt would never be able to take the necessary actions or to command the respect of others (Kirkpatrick and Locke 1991: 54).
Self-confidence seems of great importance in order to lead a sex worker organization as well. As was mentioned before, leaders have to face challenges that come with sex work on a much higher level and only a self-confident person will be able to handle this. As with any person, confidence among sex workers is something that grows over the years. This is a process that can be detected among the
respondents as well and I think that they are confident now because of the successes they have gained in the past. Lili for example says that before had not read any book before occupying her leader role: ‘But I learned from my experience. I learned from my work and of course people have a strong experience and they can become leader one day.’ Looking at the personal histories of the respondents it turns out that most of them already had some experience in related positions. Precious, for example, tells me that five years ago she was one of the founding members of her organization but that it was only last year that she took over leadership. In the meantime she learned about the organization and leadership position and therefore she became confident to take on the leader role herself. Both Grace and Lili were involved with sex work projects before. Kim tells me volunteered for a NGO and the LGBTI movement before
establishing his own organization. It can be assumed that this sort of experience challenges stigma and insecurity. This experience might have empowered my respondents and increased their abilities in becoming a leader.
Evidence suggests that self-confidence is an issue for sex workers and this is a phenomenon that can be ascribed to stigma on sex workers. Precious notices that sex workers and groups often lack self- confidence and have a fear for working with qualified or educated people. She tells me that many sex workers have little self-esteem, do not believe in themselves and always feel small before educated people. She added, however, that she feels sex workers should be proud and confident:
It is the hardest work where you need a lot of skills to be able to do it...so once you’re a sex worker I believe you can do anything... sex work is the hardest work where you need a lot of skills to be able to do it... it gives you communication skills because you cannot be a good sex worker if you cannot communicate with the clients.. And negotiating skills... yeah and the self-esteem like you approach a client thinking yes I must have this client and I must have this amount of money from him... that you know strong and that energy and believing in yourself at which most women and most people lack (Precious).
Cornish (2006a) argues that through community mobilisation interventions in India sex workers became increasingly confident through evidence of their positive
achievements. In this project sex workers were shown their recent success on matters related to health and rights and argues that this challenged stigma. Lili confirms this idea by saying that the stigma of leaders within a sex worker community will slowly fade away. This indicates that it is probably by means of positive and successful experiences that sex workers in leader roles become more confident and that this will enhance their abilities to perform leader roles.
Knowledge of the business
Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991: 55) state that effective leaders have a high degree of knowledge about the organization they are involved with. Barker, Johnson and Lavalette (2001) write on leadership in social movements and state that leaders need a deep understanding of their community’s circumstances and experiences in order to be
effective. They argue that cognitive ability is needed in order to gain such a thorough understanding.
Understanding of the business of sex work cannot be gained through formal education, my respondents believe, and can only be learned by experience. Precious tells me that in her organization they only hire individuals that either have been, or still are, sex workers. She herself got her position also because she had experience in sex work. There were other people that had good skills, some ‘good books and papers’ but since they did not have experience they were not hired. When asked why this is
important she explains:
What has this person to talk about who grow up in a very nice family, went to school, and then came on sitting in offices... whatever they know is what they red in books or newspaper or watched on TV.. This is all the experience they have... like it cannot really push the person, they will always come with theory and the technical parts of it but the real feeling of being a sex worker he don’t feel it (Precious).
The idea of a non-sex worker leading their community is unacceptable, mainly for such a person lacks experience with the challenges that sex workers confront. In order to serve the sex worker community one needs to have felt what it means to be a sex worker. Speaking with the words of the respondents this implies that leaders of sex workers must have experienced stigma, discrimination, violence and stereotyping from the public in order to understand. The respondents in fact do not think that non-sex workers are able to run programs for sex workers effectively. Taking the story of Kim into regard this is exactly the reason why he and his fellows felt the need to establish their organization. His country faces high HIV/AIDS prevalence rates among sex workers despite the fact that the government developed all sorts of interventions. Kim addresses the failure of these programs to the fact that they were run by non-sex workers. Quy is furthermore afraid that non-sex workers might have conflicting interests in leading their organizations:
I prefer the sex worker. Because you know in our experience we saw many non- sex worker in the conference or meeting room and they are very nice to us and say oh we will support you, oh we will be with you... Oh we will hug you... but on the other
hand they don’t care to us. They do not look to us. They always look down. So I prefer to the community (Quy).
The respondents thus suggest that leaders mainly need knowledge of sex work and the associated challenges. Other knowledge people can learn by additional training or education and is therefore considered less important.
What became clear from the interviews was that my respondents do have a lot of additional knowledge as well. Leaders need to know how to manage and how to run the association. They need to coordinate everything and should be able to organize
meetings. This is knowledge that is a more practical matter and enables them to run their business effectively. Think for example also of knowledge of languages, knowledge of financial matters and support for other sex workers. These aspects could be learned but I think that leaders to some extent are already equipped with knowledge as such. 3.2. Activities of Leaders
To provide in a complete understanding of leadership among sex worker organizations analysing leadership traits only is not sufficient. Leadership traits only endow people with potential for leadership and additional activities are necessary in order to make this potential prosper. According to Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991: 56) creating a vision is the most important activity that refers to a concept of what the organization should be. The respondents do not talk about vision literally but they most certainly do have a vision of what the organization should be and do. With their organizations they aim at an improved situation for sex workers and increased access to health, rights and public acceptance. Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991: 55) argue that implementing the vision requires at least the following six activities:
Structuring
Organizational structuring defines how activities are directed towards the achievement of organizational aims. Both Anna and Grace stress that structuring is an important task for leaders in sex worker organization. Grace tells me that since most of the
organizations in her region have been established quite recently structuring is an important aspect. She says that in many cases organizations started as informal groups. The organization of Quy is an example as such. This organization started as a self-help
group where sex workers came together, talked and helped each other. When they tried to organize ideas and wanted to run activities and programs they decided they needed more structures. Grace confirms this need for structures. She says that when groups want to run programs and activities structures are especially needed in order to pass the diligence process for funders. When I ask her whether she thinks formalizing is favourable to the sex worker groups she answers affirmative. Structures will provide in a more sustainable process and will enable future staff members to run the
organizations effectively. Ganz (2010: 4) argues, however, that formalizing a social movement requires learning to manage the core tensions that are at the heart of the movement. In this a deep desire for social change must be coupled with the capacity to make a change. Ganz (ibid) argues that if you want to make a change structures must be created to create space within which growth, creativity, and action can flourish without slipping into the chaos of structurelessness. In this a challenging task for leaders of sex worker organizations can be found. Another challenge that was indicated by the
respondents is the donor requirements on participation of target groups (WHO 2012, UNAIDS 2012). Being a sex worker organization can results in funding these days and therefore it is favorable to be an organization as such. Precious says these new policies are very challenging to her organization because now there are a lot of organizations claiming to work with sex workers. And even though the respondent questions the integrity of these organizations she says that they are often very qualified and good at writing proposals. She experiences this as very challenging to her organization for she does not know if they will be able to compete with them. Veronica and Anna also talk about this challenge. Veronica says that it is very important that her staff becomes more capable in programmatic work for they have to be able to compete with other ngo’s ‘to stay in the game’.
Selecting and Training Selecting
Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991: 56) argue that leaders must make sure that people are hired whom have the traits needed to accept and implement the vision. Leaders must select people they want to work with. For the respondents the main criteria in hiring staff is experience in sex work for it is believed that in order to reach any goals sex
workers need to be involved. Grace says, however, that even though she ideally would like to hire sex workers capacity is an issue:
We want to have a sex worker but if you can’t get someone who is qualified then we hire a non-sex worker. But at least someone who is able to work and to engage with the sex worker community without exercising stigma or discrimination towards sex workers (Grace).
This quote illustrates that in some cases qualifications are considered more important than experience in sex work. Qualifications are only important when it comes to
finances and it turns out that in most of the organizations extern persons are hired to do these jobs. Precious explains that this is due to the fact that donors do not allow them to have persons in finances that have no papers.
Training
Grace says that most roles that leaders occupy are around mobilization, advocacy and peer-education and that these are their major strengths. However, she says, there are not many leaders that manage the programmatic work yet. Hope confirms this idea by saying that she is very good at resource mobilization and networking but not good in writing proposals and reporting. However, she considers both important mainly because ‘leaders must need to show what they are doing.’
The respondents believe that leaders of sex worker communities have many qualities and capacities but agree on the importance of further learning. They stress the important of developing programmatic skills and further organizational development. Hope says that she believes that leaders are born but that all leaders need more training to develop their leadership skills. Quy says something similar and thinks even though leaders are born that this is only one part of being a good leader. The other part is influenced by how the leader can educate him- or herself.
As was said, leaders need to know how to manage and how to run the association. They need to coordinate everything and should be able to organize
meetings. Training in leadership, organizational development and programmatic work therefore was considered very useful by all the respondents. Skills training, computer training for example, leadership and management, monitoring and evaluation, and the managing of income generating activities have furthermore been suggested.
But besides indulging in training it is believed that leaders should conduct training in order to pass knowledge and skills on to the staff and community as well. Quy says that leaders should have the intention to educate themselves on the
knowledge that is of relevance to the community. In order to gain this knowledge she herself attains all sorts of workshops but organizes workshops for her outreach workers as well. In these workshops she trains her staff in teamwork, outreach,
psychology counselling, anger management, speaking skills and how to get information from the client. The organization of Kim organizes similar workshops and Precious tells me that her organization there is a mentorship program in which whatever skills you have you pass them on to another person. Her organization and staff is as such involved in a constant and ongoing process of learning. At this point she is for example learning how to present herself in speeches for example and working on improving her English whilst she teaches others about working with the computer.
Motivating
Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991:57) in their model stress the fact that leaders cannot achieve their vision alone and must stimulate others to work for it too. They must generate enthusiasm, commitment and compliance. Kirkpatrick and Locke (ibid) argue that besides communicating the vision, effective leaders use at least six other
procedures to motivate followers. These are practicing formal authority, providing specific and challenging goals, being a role model, building the subordinate’s self-confidence and delegation of authority. From the interviews it appears that among sex workers especially the latter two are of importance.
Building the sub-ordinates self-confidence
Building self-confidence is seen as one of the principle activities of leaders in
organizations. Respondents speak about this principle as a responsibility for leaders in sex worker organizations. They do not speak, however, about building
self-confidence but mention empowerment, which illustrates that respondents have internalised international development discourse as well. The respondents think of empowerment as very important within a sex worker organization. Lili explains why empowerment is so important: ‘If we have the empowerment than we have the confidence, with the confidence empowerment make a lot of to make a lot to grow up
and make strong.’ Precious tells me about the importance and possible effects of empowering:
They really need to know that they have basic rights to health and like any other human being and give them the confidence for demanding what rightfully belongs to them. This gives them the power to negotiate, to talk to health workers and to demand for respect and good services. Yeah I think it’s primarily empowerment is number one. Because there is no way like even if you work or with health workers but when the sex worker self is not empowered he will not be able to get the services (Precious).
Kim tells me that due to their societal status it is really hard to influence the society to support them. Therefore empowerment is furthermore important because stigma influences the organizations on a higher level as well. Kim feels that sex workers as a community need to be empowered in order to fight their societal position together:
So we need to increase the capacity of the members so we can voice it out together to the society... We are focus on advocacy and also empowering the sex workers to build the sex worker critical thinking and to engreat the involvement of sex worker in the AIDS and HIV program and also human rights fulfilment and all things that regarding to sex worker profession (Kim).
Kim says that it is only through empowerment that the community can become
stronger. He thinks that the development of critical thinking is important and therefore organizes workshops and meetings. In these meetings they talk for example about self-acceptance, bargaining positions, condom negotiating and HIV treatment. He tells me that many sex workers self-stigmatize and as such identify themselves with the culture that convicts them. They think that sex work is a sin and immoral. By means of
developing critical thinking on sex work this self-stigma can eventually diminish for sex workers can learn how to accept and become proud of themselves.
Delegating of authority
The other important aspect is delegating. Delegating interpreted as empowerment of the staff. Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991) say that delegation of authority creates empowerment. Delegating authority helps the subordinates becoming capable of attaining organizational goals. Bednarz (2011) argues that when leaders delegate the workplace and personal performance will improve. In order to be able to delegate the leader should not think of him or her as the only important one but needs to assign autonomy and responsibility to others as well. By doing this the subordinates will increase their knowledge and Bednarz (ibid) argues that this will equip them to make better decisions, solve problems and generate more productive end results. He
furthermore argues that when managers delegate effectively they help build positive experiences for their subordinates which works to motivate them to achieve at higher levels.
Both the global and regional coordinator tell me about leaders of sex worker communities that have problems with delegating. Delegating is, however, very important they think and leaders should share responsibility with the other staff members in order to motivate them to work. Delegating seems especially favourable in sex worker organizations because the respondents frequently have referred to the importance of shared instead of isolated leadership roles. Therefore it is important that leaders are rooted in their community and consult this. Quy provides an example of this and explains that whenever there are ideas within the community or staff they sit together, brainstorm and talk about activities and what they are going to do. Leaders should be involved in the community group, in the services that are provided and connect with them. Veronica says that connecting with the community and sex workers on the ground is very important and Hope says that it is important that she as a leader is physically close to the organization ‘otherwise that will affect the organization when I’m not there.’
It has been argued by both the regional and global coordinator that leadership is in fact only effective when a leader is rooted in his or her community. In order to
become ‘rooted’ respondents say that leaders should try to meet up with sex workers and co-workers, should work together with-, and consult them. This is, however, not common in all organizations. Anna tells me that in some organization so-called ‘divas’ arise who think they know it all and don’t work with their colleagues. But according to Anna history shows that such leaders that isolate themselves and rather operate on
their own will be rejected by the community and alternative platforms and
organizations will be established. Drawing on the work of Mathieu (2003) this indicates that leadership based on authority in sex worker organizations will not be sustainable. The community wants to be involved and have their say as well.
Managing Information
In order to be an effective leader communication with subordinates is very important. It is important that leaders disseminate information widely on the one hand so that
followers understand the reasons for decisions that are made and how their work fits into the organizational goals (Kirkpatrick and Locke 1991: 57). Leaders on the other hand can influence their subordinates or groups through communication as well for meaning (related to vision, activities or whatsoever) can be transmitted from leader to subordinates (Barrett 2006: 385).
The respondents all stress the fact that leaders need to communicate with the community and staff members. It is important that leaders are open and share their stories, that leaders share information about organizational aspects such as activities and finances. Also because of the structuring that only recently was introduced in most cases. Grace tells me that the structures are not always supported in the community: ‘They don’t agree because they don’t understand.’ When asked what happens when they do not understand she says: ‘They resist, they just resist... It makes the work of the leaders of the organizations or even the movement very difficult because once the community is resisting how can you work together. ’I ask her what she suggests to overcome this challenge:
The best way for them to understand is to engage them in the process of developing the structures so that they feel that they are involved and that they own the process... that will help them to relate better to the system and to relate better with the policies... but if they are not engaged and they are told one of a sudden that these people make the decisions they don’t understand (Grace).
She furthermore says that from an organizational point of view all the staff members should take part in the process of hiring and bringing in new staff and developing policies. From a movement perspective she believes that the organization has to have a
way of communicating to all their members to tell them that ‘this is the process we’ve gone through or a training to work more efficiently or we are developing this and this policy.’ She stresses the importance of communication so that the community is aware of what the organization is doing and also understands these processes. Anna agrees and says that leaders must keep people informed, make them understand and make them feel part of the network. In fact she thinks that keeping that connection to your community is essential more than building your connections externally.
Promoting Change and Innovation
Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991: 58) argue that leaders must promote change and innovation. The starting point for this change is the vision that leaders have and their desired future state. But this vision must be reinforced by constant restructuring, continual retraining to develop new skills, setting specific goals for innovation and improvement, rewarding innovation and encouraging a constant information flow in all directions.
One aspect that is related to change and innovation is the search for new leaders that will be able to run the organization in the future. One measure that is takes related to this space is restricted leadership terms. This implies that leaders are leaders for restricted periods of time so that other sex workers get the opportunity to take on leader roles as well. Precious tells me that in her organization they decided on a period of 5 years:
When people take on leadership positions for more than 5 years other sex workers will not be able to get the opportunity to do so and we also believe that if you worked in an organization for 5 years and being exposed to a lot of learnings you will be able to get a job somewhere else and… leave the space for another person to grow (Precious).
Besides the fact that respondents think that leaders should leave space for new leaders to grow they also feel that leaders should scout and train new leaders. Kim tells me that in his organization they have a mentorship program in which current leaders train potential new leaders. Kim explains that he identifies people that have potential to become new leaders and builds their capacity by bringing them to the meetings and
introducing them to stakeholders. When asked who he identifies he says people with potential with whom he sees commitment and willingness to learn.
But leaders in sex worker organizations are in fact constantly working on change and innovation for they aim at a social change for sex workers. They want their
organizations to run all sorts of programs and do activities in order to demand rights, health and respect for sex workers. Precious says that the ultimate aim of her
organization is decriminalisation of sex work and Kim says that he wants to change all kinds of policies that are unfavourable to the sex industry. But both say that these aims dreams and hope for the future and in order to get there they first have to do ‘ground work’ as Precious says. This indicates that they have to look at other things that affect sex workers such as access to health and access to protection. Some respondents talk about the future of their organization in particular as well. Veronica works for her organization for 3 years now and says she really wants her organization to be financially independent from donors in the future.
Thinking about the future the respondents stress that education and training is very important for both leaders and the community in order to grow and to bring the organizations to another level. This education and training should be focused on
empowerment of the community but on the field that they would like to change as well. Nepstadt and Bob (2006: 3) argue that effective leaders in social movements need knowledge of the values, sympathies, cultural principles and political trends within the broader public they seek to engage. The respondents do not refer to this explicitly but do say that they learn about the laws and the political environment in which they operate. Ganz (2010: 225) argues that for leaders in social movement’s access to such knowledge of the constituencies, opponents and third parties with which one is related is important and that both skills and information about the settings in which those skills are applied are needed. The better one’s information about how to work within a
particular domain- the local knowledge- is the more likely one is to know how to deal with problems arising within that domain, Ganz argues.
Additional Activities
After analysing the interview transcripts it became clear that the trait-theory model of Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991) does not suffice for sex worker organizations. Because whereas the model is focused of traits and activities that are important for leaders
within an organization it the respondents stressed activities for leaders that are focused more on the outside world as well.
From the interview it appears that the organizations work together with different partners. The organization of Veronica for example partners with hotel owners, bar owners, the police and pimps. Precious’ organization partners with legal offices, partners with hospitals and clinics to offer friendly services to the sex workers and with the police to make sure that sex worker rights are respected and protected. Quy says it is important to partner with service providers such as medical services including STI services, HIV treatment, psychology counselling. Lili thinks that it is furthermore important for sex worker organizations to collaborate with other sex worker organizations. Tis is important for organizations can share experiences and ideas. In her country there are two different sex worker organizations which both have their capacities and she would like them to join forces. What is furthermore important, Grace says, is that the organizations are linked with a regional and global network. The WHO (2013: 13) also points to the importance of building bridges as such. They state that sex worker organizations need to build connections with national, sub-regional, regional and global networks of sex workers to exchange knowledge, experience and support and states that this is a requirement for sustainability. What was raised furthermore by the respondents was that they work together with other communities and movements such as the women- and LGBTI movement and the MSM and IDU
networks in their countries. They build all sort of alliances and this is important because ‘more voice will be better’, Kim explains. This data shows that that having alliances with external partners is important for sex worker organizations and this importance can be explained once and again by the disadvantaged character that these groups have. It is important to work together with allies and stakeholders because of the societal status of sex workers. It is very difficult to get societal support for the organization, their
programs and activities. Therefore they work together with other organizations, movements and key populations. They have common issues and only by working
together they will become stronger and more effective. It has been argued that alliances and relationships with other groups increase access to material and social resources that would otherwise have been denied to socially excluded populations as such (Fonner 2014: 2). Rucht (2004: 197) argues that building relationships can even
become critical for a movement’s survival and in particular when it concerns a group in 28
an outsider position. Rucht (ibid) says that only by broadening their support groups as such can hope to make an impact.
The relationships that are apparently important for sex worker organizations can be linked to social capital (Putnam 2001). Nepstadt and Bob (2006: 4) argue that social capital shapes social movement leadership, ‘social networks and norms of
reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them.’ Social capital in fact encompasses the inherent value of social relationships and the material and resources that these relationships bring. These resources turn out to be important for disadvantaged groups such as sex workers.
Beer (2010: 85) argued, however, that it might be difficult for sex workers to develop effective alliances with third parties due to stigma. She argues that as a
consequence of stigma it is an ongoing struggle for sex workers to deconstruct common stereotypes of sex work and to be taken seriously in the political sphere. This makes alliance building with ‘outsiders’, or non-experiential actors and groups difficult. Taking the words of Beer (ibid) into account I think that therefore an additional traits needs to be added to the model of Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991) as well. The interviewed leaders themselves did not point this out, but indirectly it became clear that current leaders became leaders because they possess this skill. There needs to be connectedness of leaders within their organization and community but with other organizations and communities as well. Leaders within sex worker organizations must have the trait of social competence and able to connect with others easily.
4. Discussion and conclusions
This study reveals ideas on traits and skills that are associated with and contribute to good leadership among sex worker organizations. Drawing on nine interviews with leaders within sex worker organizations this study provides insight in traits and activities associated with good leadership among sex worker organizations. The Dutch based NGO ‘Soa Aids Nederland’ intends to develop individual and/or group training on leadership for sex workers and the expertise and feedback from my respondents will function as a theoretical grounding for this training.
Literature suggests that up and till now organizing collective action among sex workers has been hard to generate. Sex workers are as a group scattered among themselves and know little social cohesion. Sex workers are furthermore mobile in
terms of people moving in and out of sex work and operate in a very challenging stigmatized environment. In fact sex worker organizations have all of the risks that other organizations have of not functioning optimally; on top of that they are burdened with an extra stress of the hostile environment in which they operate. It is assumed that good and effective leadership is crucial to the growth and impact of sex worker
organizations. It is also important, however, to consider that the before mentioned aspects influence necessary leadership style and activities.
Transcripts of the interviews have been analysed by means of the trait-theory model that was introduced by Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991). This model is based on the idea that leaders are different from other people in certain key aspects and that these key aspects endow people with the potential for leadership. The six traits on which leaders differ from non-leaders according to Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991:49) are: drive, the desire to lead, honesty and integrity, self-confidence, cognitive ability and
knowledge of the business. The latter one seems to be the most important in this context. The respondents think it is very important that leaders have experience in sex work. This is important for only sex workers have experience with the challenges and difficulties that sex workers face themselves. Respondents stress this experience in sex work and indicate that other qualifications are in the first instance not important. A willingness to learn and education is, however, a prerequisite for good leadership the respondents say. The findings suggest furthermore that leaders within sex worker organizations stand out because of their drive and passion. They are full of motivation and energy to work on the improvement of sex workers’ situation. Another outstanding aspect of leaders within this context is self-confidence. It has been argued that leaders face stigma and discrimination on a much higher level and therefore it takes forceful personalities that are able to cope with this. Leaders within the sex worker
organizations stand out furthermore because the community respects them. In order to gain respect it is important that leaders are honest and integer. It is believed that leadership based on authority will not prove sustainable in these organizations and therefore it is important leaders connect and consult the community.
Another important aspect of good leadership is the ability to build and sustain relationships. This trait is not covered in the model of Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991) but is important and even considered crucial for leaders in sex worker organizations. In order to keep their organizations going. The model is based on traits and activities
