Analysing the role of ICT in rural community development: the case of Bakgoma Community Library in Makobe Village

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TEBOGO MAVIS MBEBE

Thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Public Administration in the faculty of Management and

Economic Sciences at the University of Stellenbosch

Supervisor: Naomi Burger

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DECLARATION

By submitting this thesis electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly otherwise stated), that reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch University will not infringe any third party rights and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification.

Signature: ...

Date: March 2017

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ABSTRACT

Rural development is a process that leads to the improvement of the lives of rural people. Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are an effective tool, amongst others, that can foster rural development. Community Based Information Centres (CBICs) are established with the purpose of bridging digital divides in rural areas. The purpose of this study is to analyse the role of ICTs in fostering rural community development focusing on BAKGOMA community library in Makobe village, within Mogalakwena Municipality, Waterberg district, Limpopo province.

The study took a qualitative approach using a case study. The librarian, founders, local ward councillor and community development practitioner were identified as the main change agents and semi-structured interviews were conducted with them. Participant observation was also incorporated and users were observed; this was done to gather more data and to verify the collected data.

The study has revealed that the centre is not being fully utilised as it is regarded as a centre for learners only. ICT facilities were highlighted as one of the main reasons users frequent the centre. The study has further revealed that there is a gap between the educated and uneducated. Little use of the centre by elderly people, lack of interest from the unemployed youth and poor newspaper supplies were some of the challenges that were highlighted.

The study concludes that ICTs can foster rural development only if young and old, educated and uneducated people show support in established CBICs. The results imply that the community needs to be more exposed to effective ways that ICTs can improve their lives.

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OPSOMMING

Landelike ontwikkeling is 'n proses wat lei tot die verbetering van die bestaan van landelike gemeenskappe. Inligting- en Kommunikasietegnologie (IKT) is 'n doeltreffende middel, onder meer, om landelike ontwikkeling te bevorder. Gemeenskapsgebaseerde Inligtingsentra (GGIS) is gevestig met die doel om die digitale kloof in landelike gebiede te oorbrug. Die doel van hierdie studie is om die rol van IKT te ontleed ten opsigte van bevordering van landelike gemeenskapsontwikkeling. Die fokus is vervolgens op die BAKGOMA openbare biblioteek in Makobe-dorpie binne Mogalakwena-Munisipaliteit, in die Waterberg-distrik, Limpopo-provinsie.

Die studie het 'n kwalitatiewe benadering gevolg deur gebruik te maak van 'n gevallestudie. Die bibliotekaris, stigters, plaaslike wyksraadslede en ‘n Gemeenskapsontwikkelingspraktisyn is geïdentifiseer as die belangrikste agente van verandering en semi-gestruktureerde onderhoude is met hulle gevoer. Deelnemende waarneming is ook toegepas en gebruikers is waargeneem. Dit is gedoen om meer inligting in te samel en om die data wat ingesamel is, te verifieer.

Die studie het getoon dat die sentrum nie ten volle benut word nie aangesien dit beskou word as ‘n sentrum slegs vir leerders. IKT fasiliteite is uitgelig as een van die vernaamste redes waarom gebruikers gereeld die sentrum besoek. Die studie het verder aan die lig gebring dat daar 'n gaping bestaan tussen die opgevoede en onopgevoede persone.

Bejaardes maak min gebruik van die sentrum terwyl daar ‘n gebrek aan belangstelling is onder werklose jong mense weens die swak voorsiening van koerante. Dít is van die uitdagings wat uitgelig is.

Die studie het tot die gevolgtrekking gekom dat IKT in landelike ontwikkeling slegs bevorder sal kan word indien jonk en oud, opgevoede sowel as onopgevoede persone die gevestigde GGIS ondersteun. Die resultate impliseer dat die gemeenskap meer blootgestel moet word aan effektiewe maniere van hoe IKT hul lewens kan verbeter.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

If it had not been for the Lord who was on my side, I would have never completed this project. Thank you Lord Jesus Christ for making this possible, all the glory is due unto you.

A special thank you to my family: thank you for your support and confidence in me.

Delight, thank you for your help, prayers and encouragement, God bless you.

To my friends thank you for your constant support and prayers.

To the librarian at BAKGOMA community library, thank you for your assistance.

Thank you Tino Stefano for editing my work at such a short notice.

To my previous supervisor Prof F Cloete, I finally completed it.

Ms N Burger, thank you for your guidance and support.

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LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

CBIC Community Based Information Centre

DSAC Department of Sport, Arts and Culture

DSD Department of Social Development

ICT Information and Communication Technology

IRCD Integrated Rural Community Development

IRD Integrated Rural Development

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Information the key ingredient for sustainable development. ... 266

Figure 2: Views on technology and development... 377

Figure 3: List of services offered ... 588

Figure 4: The Newspaper Stand and Book Area ... 74

Figure 5: The Audio-visual Room ... 755

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM STATEMENT 1.1 Introduction

Development of rural areas is as essential as the development of urban areas, thus should be encouraged. Developing rural areas can have a great benefit to the economy and can also ease the financial burden on urban areas. There are many ways in which development can be fostered using different tools. It is the aim of this study to analyse the use of ICTs as a tool that can be effectively used for the purposes of rural development.

The adoption and utilisation of ICTs in rural development in South Africa is a fairly new practice and not much is reported on this topic, thus it is essential to first have an understanding of ICT as a concept. According to Rouse (2005), ICT is a bigger term that encompasses any communication devices and applications that include television, cell phones, computers and other hardware and software networks, including satellite systems such as videoconferencing. These ICT tools enable easy communication and sharing of information among individuals regardless of distance.

ICT is one of the essential development tools that change agents in rural communities should take advantage of. Rural communities are a ready platform for development-related activities. It is the people within communities that matter when it comes to development, hence positive development is unable to occur in the absence of participation by local people. It is essential to acknowledge that communities can be divided into rural and urban areas. Rural areas are normally further from towns and in most countries are characterised by under-development, while it is the opposite with urban areas. In most cases, the development focus for many years has been given to urban areas, to the disadvantage of rural areas.

The developmental differences that exist between rural and urban areas are also visible in the adoption of ICTs. Urban areas are more advanced in their adoption of ICTs as compared to their rural counterparts. The geographical divides between rural and urban areas have created ICT gaps between the two areas. It is not surprising to encounter the

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geographical digital divides, where there is an unequal adoption of ICTs between geographical areas.

1.2 Background

Rural development is a necessity and should not be viewed as a luxury. Development plans should never discriminate against those who reside in certain areas. For years development has been viewed in isolation, whereby areas in big cities have received more focus than rural areas. This silo approach to development has caused more harm than good, as it means that people are forced to relocate to areas where there is development. This means urban areas will be burdened with delivering services for a higher number of people than initially planned. Rural areas should also be afforded space to develop, but this is not to nullify the fact that some urban areas should also be given focus although they have already made strides as compared to their counterparts.

Rural development is a process that leads to a more sustainable improvement of quality of life of rural people, mainly the lives of the rural poor (Singh, 2009; Niknami, 2011:28). The researcher is of the belief that rural development can better be fostered through the implementation and use of relevant ICTs. The potential use of ICTs has been seen in urban areas and it is one of the tools that have made development in urban areas possible. Instead of complaining about the geographical divides that have been perpetuated by development activities and the use of ICTs, communities in rural areas can focus on the positive side which is to learn from the progress made in urban areas.

Gigler (2015: xxvii) argues that the most important and best approach to rural development is through ICT innovations. Adopting ICTs means there is also a need to develop the required technical skills. There is still much that needs to be done to ensure that rural areas are equipped with relevant ICTs for the purposes of development. The government and the private sector have core roles to play. Although ICT is viewed as a feasible solution that has the ability to bring change in the lives of rural people, it should never be regarded as an end to a means (Heeks, 2002: 13). It is also imperative to realise that ICTs are not magic bullets that have the ability to solve all the developmental challenges that developing countries are faced with (Chapman & Slaymaker, 2002:3; Heeks, 2002: 19). ICTs have no capacity for solving problems that

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are a result of defective policies or lack of financial investments; in physical infrastructures, electricity and poor network connectivity (Singh, 2006: 81).

It must be acknowledged that lack of development in one aspect impedes further development, for instance government departments or other stakeholders in communities may fail to organise workshops and other relevant activities due to the fact that there is no proper infrastructure in place. For instance, when considering youth development activities in rural areas, service providers to render services either charge the concerned individual more money, or request the young people to come to their offices. The reasons might be because the roads are not well maintained, while in some instances there is no network connection, or the area is not electrified. Lack of buildings such as community halls is another challenge as this forces development-related training or workshops to take place under a tree or later in the day when learners leave their classrooms. Such are the challenges that hinder an integrated rural community development (IRCD).

Information sharing is one of the core aspects of IRCD. In rural areas there is still lack of information access and this is one of the hindrances to development. ICTs are a necessity in rural areas as they will not only assist in providing information, but will also make communication possible in an effective way. The researcher is of the belief that it is through information dissemination that development will be fostered in rural areas. The government has a role to play in ensuring that individuals who reside in rural areas have adequate access to information, as it is their constitutional right.

The South African Constitution is regarded as supreme above all laws in the country. The Constitution s16 (1) (b) of 1996 states that it is every citizen’s right to have access to information (Republic of South Africa, 1996). Information delays are mostly encountered in rural areas due to lack of digital devices that can be used for relaying information. Lack of information has a negative impact on communities and leads to poverty, unemployment and isolation. People are unable to find employment since they have no access to information regarding available jobs or opportunities. One has to understand that poverty cannot only be understood as lack of food or clothing, but there is also intellectual poverty that is led by lack of information.

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Lack of information can hinder effective communication. Mukherjee (2011:4) argues that one of the main factors that can facilitate integrated rural development (IRD) is communication. There are many ways in which communication can be conducted and technology offers a tool that drives communication fastest. Communication is even more important in rural areas as most people are moving to urban areas. It is important for these tools to be deployed in rural areas, as this will help families to keep in touch with each other. Adoption of such tools will eradicate some of the inequalities that exist between rural and urban people.

Inequality is one of the prevalent issues that developing countries face and South Africa is not exempt from this challenge. Inequality is an unequal distribution of any resource among people. Inequalities also created the geographical divides between rural and urban areas. These divides have been in existence for many decades and are mainly the result of colonisation in most African countries, including South Africa. Unequal adoption of ICTs is a contributing factor in exacerbating these divides as they lead to what is referred to as the digital divide. Audley and Nor (2005:82) define the digital divide as the disproportions regarding the implementation and diffusion of ICTs within the groups in different societies. In simple terms, it refers to technology and information haves and have-nots. In order to bridge these divides, it is important that rural areas should also adopt digital devices.

In December 2003 countries adopted and agreed to the Geneva Action Plan of connecting villages with relevant ICTs and community access points. The Geneva Action Plan also emphasised the positive impact that ICTs have on the lives of people and their ability in opening up higher levels of development (International Telecommunication Union, 2003). South Africa is one of the countries that have agreed to the contents of the Geneva Action Plan, thus it is essential that rural areas should have access to ICTs. The Geneva Action Plan of 2003 emphasises the need for adoption of ICTs as a tool that is relevant for opening other opportunities for development (International Telecommunication Union, 2003). The purpose of the study will be discussed in the next sub-section.

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5 1.3 Purpose of the study

It is the intention of this study to explore effective ways that ICTs can be used to promote IRD. Rural areas should no longer be synonymous with poor development as there are various ways in which development can be promoted. There is limited research on ICTs and rural development in South Africa; most of the available research regarding ICT and IRD is based on agriculture. It is true that agriculture is the core business of rural areas, but ICTs should not only be limited to one sector. The current reality is that young people in most rural areas are less interested in agricultural activities. It is the intention of this study to broaden the possible use and benefits of ICT in fostering IRD rather than just for agricultural activities.

Although ICT adoption is still a major need in rural areas, basic ICTs and necessary structures are currently available on a small scale. It is also evident that although basic infrastructures and ICT tools exist in some communities, there is still apathy and resistance to using them. In order to expose the benefits that communities can reap and ways in which ICTs can be used to sustain development, a case study will be used. BAKGOMA community library in Makobe village in the Limpopo province of South Africa will serve as a case study. BAKGOMA, although it is a community library, is mostly used as a CBIC. The case study aims to explore the use and benefits that local people can derive from the centre.

1.4 Potential value of the study

The value of this study cannot be underestimated, as it sets the agenda for the future. This study will not only assist government departments and development agencies, but also rural communities in finding solutions for their own challenges. Unemployment, poverty, lack of information, poor communication channels and depopulation of rural areas are among the many challenges rural people face. This study will assist in finding better ways of addressing such issues.

The researcher is of the belief that the study will indirectly provide a way that will reduce and discourage migration to urban areas. The case study will be beneficial to change agents and local municipalities in that they will be able to determine the need

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for and the value of establishing CBICs in rural communities. The fact that the study is broad will benefit all community members who have interest in their own development, as it is not only limited to those with an interest in agriculture.

1.5 Research statement

Development of rural communities is crucial. Under-development has become synonymous with rural areas and this should change. Both rural and urban areas are faced with many challenges; some of the challenges in urban areas are due to poor IRD. Poor IRD compels many rural people to relocate to urban areas with the hope of finding a better life. The relocation of rural people to urban areas poses a challenge to those who are left behind, as well as to municipalities in urban areas.

Unbalanced development activities also perpetuate the geographical divides that exist between rural and urban areas. As long as these inequalities continue to exist, development will continue to be skewed; or as long as development is skewed, inequalities will exist. Poor IRD is the result of inequalities that exist in South Africa. Mahlati (2012:2) argues that South Africa is known for its skewed development which is centralised heavily in urban areas as compared to rural areas, causing the latter to be excluded from information access.

In order for rural development to be possible it is essential that change agents invest in ICTs as an important component of their development plan (Gigler, 2015: xxvii). It is through innovations in ICTs that rural areas will be able to reap the benefits offered by ICTs. The researcher argues that ICTs are poorly adopted in rural areas and this is one of the main reasons for poor IRD. It is therefore the purpose of this study to provide the relevance and value that adoption and access to relevant ICTs will have on fostering IRD, specifically community development.

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7 1.6 Research question and objectives

The research question will serve as a guide for the study, and the five research objectives will be aligned to the main research question.

1.6.1 Research question

This study was pursued with the aim of finding ways in which ICTs can be used to enable IRD. The question that this study intends to answer is: In which ways can ICT be used to foster IRD in Makobe village focusing on BAKGOMA community library?

1.6.2 Research objectives

This study will be guided by the following objectives: 1. To analyse the role of ICTs in promoting IRD.

2. To explore effective ways in which rural people can benefit from ICTs. 3. To analyse the negative impacts that results from adopting ICTs. 4. To analyse the reasons behind poor adoption of ICTs in rural areas.

5. To explore the role of CBICs as a way of bridging the gap between the haves and have-nots.

1.7 Research design and methodology

The nature of the study will be exploratory focusing on the use of ICTs in fostering IRD. The research design will be a qualitative approach, which will be suitable as it will provide in-depth data that is needed for this study. First, the literature on ICT in rural development will be studied, this will serve as the secondary data which is the non-empirical element of the study. The empirical element will constitute semi-structured interviews and participant observation that will be conducted with key informants; the primary data will be collected by the researcher.

The centre will be the unit of analysis. The study will assume a non-probability sampling and this technique will be used with the purpose of selecting the key

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informants who will be the librarian, the community development practitioner, the founders of the library and the local ward councillor.

The study will also incorporate the case study of BAKGOMA community library in Makobe village. The main aim will be to analyse the use of BAKGOMA community library as a CBIC. It is of interest to the researcher to also analyse the benefits of communal access to ICTs and the benefits it can render to local people.

1.8 Chapter outline

The study will be divided into chapters that will aim to answer the research question. At the end of every chapter a summary will highlight important issues.

Chapter 1: Introduction and problem statement

The first chapter will assist in providing the background and the problem statement of the study. The rationale for the study will be provided as supported by a brief reference to the literature on the topic. The research question and research objectives will be highlighted in the chapter as they are essential in providing direction for the whole study. The research methodology and design that will be employed will briefly be discussed.

Chapter 2: Literature review

In the second chapter the main focus will be on the literature that is available; which covers development and sustainable development, rural and urban areas, IRD, ICT, CBIC and the digital divide as key concepts. The concepts will be thoroughly discussed as they are essential to the study. This chapter will assist in proving the relevance and significance of the study as discussed by other authors. The aspects of ICT in fostering IRD will also be discussed.

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9 Chapter 3: Legislative framework

The third chapter will discuss the legislation that is available on the topic of ICT in South Africa. First, it will focus on the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, the National Development Plan (NDP) and the National Integrated ICT Policy Green Paper of 2014. This chapter will highlight the value and the role that legislation plays in implementation and adoption of ICTs as relevant tools for development. The National Integrated ICT Policy Green Paper of 2014 (Green Paper) will be discussed since it is currently the main guiding tool for the government on issues of ICT.

Chapter 4: Case study

The fourth chapter will be based on the case study of BAKGOMA community library in Makobe village. The chapter will discuss the centre and the rural community where it is located. This will assist in highlighting the benefits of having communal access to ICTs in rural communities.

Chapter 5: Data collection and analysis

This chapter will outline the collection of data and its analysis. Interviews, participant observation and the literature review will be a tool to collect relevant data of BAKGOMA community library, which serves as a CBIC, and which will be the unit of analysis. They will both be analysed in-depth.

Chapter 6: Research findings

The sixth chapter will discuss the research findings that were obtained after analysis of the data. It will assist with bringing improvement to the current landscapes and better ways of implementation will be discussed.

Chapter 7: Summary, conclusion and recommendations

The last chapter will bring a conclusion to the study and recommendations on how to facilitate change, as well as new possible research ideas for the future.

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10 1.9 Summary

Development can be encouraged in various ways, which should be fully explored by change agents and rural people. ICTs come with various possible ways of bringing development and it is incumbent upon rural communities to take advantage of the opportunities offered by ICTs. The adoption of ICTs in rural areas will assist in bridging the divides currently seen in South Africa. Information and communication are essential aspects of IRD.

The research objectives outlined in the chapter seek to provide solutions for the under-development of rural areas, as well as to highlight the benefits ICTs bring in rural areas. The chapters that will be covered in the study are outlined. In the next chapter a literature review will be covered in which key concepts will be defined and discussed.

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction

Almost every country has areas that are classified as rural, yet there are fewer researches on ICT in IRD in Africa as compared with other countries such as India. According to Tongia, Subrahmanian and Arunachalam (2005:19), ICTs are established upon 4Cs: content, computing, communications and capacity. The use of ICTs is evident in commercial and industrial activities; they are not just confined to telephones and computers, they are important tools that can have a massive impact in almost all sectors (Tongia et al., 2005: 19). The last C of capacity in the form of human capacity is one of the most important aspects that should be considered when deploying ICTs. Lack of such capacity is one of the core challenges in adopting ICTs. ICTs should not be viewed as an end to all developmental challenges, but rather as a means to an end. Adopting ICTs does not automatically mean unemployment, poverty and lack of services will be solved, but rather can be used with the intention of solving such challenges.

ICTs can be of benefit in various ways in facilitating development. Tongia et al. (2005: 19) state that one of the benefits that can be derived from ICTs is economic growth, which will be of great benefit in the knowledge economy. Another benefit is access to higher education through distance learning. It does not only promote education but also creates employment for teachers who can offer lessons via satellites.

It is important to highlight the fact that the unequal adoption of ICTs also creates the digital divide, another form of inequality. According to Audley and Nor (2005:82), the digital divide emerges between different groups within communities; some have adopted these technologies, whilst others lag behind. In most cases these disparities existed before the diffusion of ICTs, but the adoption of these technologies exposed existing divides.

2.2 Definition of key concepts

Various concepts have multiple definitions and development is amongst them. This section will focus on highlighting and defining the key concepts of development,

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sustainable development, rural and urban areas, IRD, ICTs, CBICs and the digital divide.

2.2.1 Development

Development is a broad concept that needs to be discussed in-depth in order to be understood. First and foremost, it is essential to understand that there is no one definition for development and this is due to the fact that it is a multi-dimensional concept. It must be understood in the words of Davids (2009: 22) that development is purely about people.

Development is a deliberate action that is taken with the aim of bringing improvement within a society (Bellu, 2011: 2). Theron (2008: 7) argues that development is about enabling people to be more than they are currently are, and development should be regarded as a vehicle that enables people to have better lives. Takeuchi (N.d) refers to it as the practice of setting goals to improve the life of a community and also the changing of the society by political intervention. Development is also considered to be a process of promoting the capabilities of those who were disadvantaged previously, yet not entirely excluding the advantaged (NPC, 2011: 5). It should be noted that development is a process which means all that is set to be achieved cannot be achieved all at once. It entails more of a qualitative change and more often than not this change appears in the values, attitudes as well as the institutions (Sundén & Wicander, 2006: 59).

One of the most important aspects that must be understood is that development is multi-dimensional. It is therefore important to also give attention to aspects of development that are essential in rural areas. Development goes much further than growth, keeping in mind that growth precedes development. Development is divided into different aspects: economic, social, political and cultural. All these aspects, and especially economic development, should be given attention both in rural and urban communities. Economic development refers to more than just growth. It is a broadly based and sustainable increase in the overall standard of living for individuals within a community (Greenwood & Holt, 2010: 3). Economic development is vital in rural areas because by developing the economy the lives of rural people stand a greater chance of improving.

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13 2.2.2 Sustainable development

Sustainable development is one of the key elements that should be considered when discussing development. Sustainable development can be understood using one of the most-cited definitions by the Brundtland Commission that views development as a process that ought to address the needs of the present without threatening those of the future generations (WCED, 1987). The researcher is of the argument that an IRD that is to be facilitated by ICTs, should be sustainable. The needs of the future generation should not be compromised by the developmental activities of the present generation. Holmes in Ngwabi (2003: 58) also defines sustainable development as a development process that advocates for the fair distribution of resources between the present and future generation.

According to Hilty and Hercheui (2014), sustainable development can be viewed as a three-dimensional approach; a social, an ecological and an economical dimension. The use of ICTs should take the three dimensions into consideration in order to promote an IRD that is sustainable. ICTs are playing an important role in promoting social development and this is made possible by the use of mobile phones and emails. They also play a role in protecting the environment by minimising excessive travelling as mobile phones can be used to keep in touch with friends and families. ICTs also enable those in business to obtain information on the markets. Such opportunities are also available to those who reside in rural areas. Ngwabi (2003: 59) argues that for development to be regarded as sustainable, individuals and groups that were previously deprived of material advancement should also benefit.

The more infrastructures are built, the more resources are used and depleted. ICTs have made business possible without a need for an office. Mobile phones, laptops and internet connection have made it possible for business activities and communication to occur anyway at any time. ICTs are also making education accessible for poor people in rural areas. Hilty and Hercheui (2014) highlight the fact that decrease in population growth has a correlation with the use of ICTs in educating rural women. The decrease of population is a positive aspect for sustainable development, as this means less resources will be used.

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14 2.2.3Rural and urban areas

It is essential that the difference between rural and urban areas be clarified. Rural and urban areas are geographically different, which means people residing in these areas will have different needs and also encounter different challenges. Rural areas as defined by their characteristics usually have a small population in villages or small towns and these communities are tight-knit (Difference between urban and rural, N.d). It is often the case that people in rural areas know each other since they associate relative to their clans.

According to Grimes (2000: 13), rural areas are linked with more isolated patterns of population and are generally more peripheral to the main economic hubs, while service access is also a challenge. In rural areas the predominant economic activity is agricultural. According to Hemson, Meyer and Maphunye (2004:8), a rural area refers to an area that is sparsely populated in which agriculture is the main activity. Shah (N.d) also defines a rural community as a community that is homogenous with a small and less dense population.

Farooq (2012) highlights the following as the most evident characteristics of rural communities: they are small, follow same profession, strong relational bonds, slow means of communication, the rate of change is very slow and pollution is minimal due to fewer factories. It is their characteristics and locality that differentiate them from urban areas.

Rural communities are areas that are non-urbanised and peri-urban (McNamara, 2008). The researcher is of the view that these areas should not solely be defined by their characteristics such as population density as others tend to, but their locality should be taken into consideration. Most rural areas are located in places further from essential service points such as health facilities, educational institutions and other basic services. Lack of access to basic services is one of the biggest contributing factors to delayed IRD. People residing in rural areas are often poor, while some receive a very low monthly income. The Integrated Sustainable Rural Development Strategy (2000:7), states that rural people’s income is often constrained by lack of vibrant economic activities. This due to the fact that most of them have no formal education and work on

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nearby farms, as fewer economic activities are available. Heeks (2009: 4) states that rural areas are characterised by poverty. It is important to understand that poverty and illiteracy are not synonymous. Heeks (2009: 9) asserts that the poor in developing countries should not be viewed as illiterate.

Urban areas are the opposite of rural areas, as the former are normally areas that have a large, dense and heterogeneous population (Shah, N.d). Furthermore, urban areas have massive human features while development activities are on-going which makes urbanisation for further development a continual activity (Difference between urban and rural, N.d). Big towns and cities serve as an example of urban areas, while small towns and villages are rural areas. No area between the two is better than the other. There is a need to eradicate the unequal development focus of the past, when rural areas were neglected and exploited, while urban areas were given attention.

2.2.4 Integrated Rural Development

An IRD is made up of development efforts that are co-ordinated across different development sectors, the same is also witnessed at the municipal level with Integrated Development Plans (The Integrated Sustainable Rural Development Strategy, 2000: viii). IRD will be able to bring an inclusive and sustainable development as it involves participation of different stakeholders. IRD takes place within communities and to understand the development of communities, it is essential to first understand what a community is. In the words of Farooq (2012), a community is a larger group of people whose lives are shared in a common place having a common interest and in most cases this group of people use local social institutions to meet their needs. Communities have different characteristics: some are rural while others are urban. The definition of a community that was presented by Farooq, demonstrates that the intention of development activities within a community should be for the benefit of a group not an individual.

According to Malhorta, Chariar, Das and Ilavarasan (N.d), rural development refers to the improvement in the quality of life of rural people. Anriquez and Stamoulis (2007: 2) also regard it as a development that improves the lives of rural people. The main aim is to engage or introduce activities that aim at improving the lives of those who are

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confined to rural areas, be it by choice or coercion. The Comprehensive Rural Development Framework of South Africa defines rural development as a way to enable rural people to take control of their own destinies and use optimally the natural resources to eradicate rural poverty (Republic of South Africa, 2009: 4).

IRD should be regarded as a solution to poverty eradication and should not be something that is done for rural people, but as the framework indicates it should be something that rural people themselves are engaged in. Participation of local people in their own development is of paramount importance, since they are the beneficiaries of development. Nampijja (2010: 19) views rural development as actions and initiatives that aim to uplift the standard of living. IRD is about bringing a positive change in the lives of those residing in rural areas.

Rural development is synonymous with poverty relief; it is an important concept that encompasses all departmental programmes that lead to the improvement of rural lives (Hemson et al., 2004: 24). Poverty is most severe in rural areas; thus development activities should be focused in rural areas, but this does not mean that urban areas are to be neglected. In order for an IRD to occur there is a need for an environment that can encourage this. Cavaye (2001: 109) argues that rural development depends on adequate infrastructure and policies that will foster development, as well as economic opportunities. IRD cannot occur outside a fertile environment that has policies that encourage and support the actions that are employed.

It is important to understand that rural development does not mean rural areas should be similar to urban areas, but it simply means finding better ways in which rural people can enjoy the benefits of living in rural areas, while at the same time living outside rural poverty. The researcher is of the belief that IRD should not be viewed as urbanisation, although when one talks about a developed area the first area that comes to mind is an urban area.

2.2.5 Information and Communication Technologies

ICTs refer to a broad range of digital devices that have the capability of sharing information and allowing communication to occur. It is essential to realise that ICT is

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made up of three components: information, communication and technology. Heeks (2001:2) argues that it is not just Information Technology (IT) but the “C” for communication is also imperative. These technological devices make communication between people effective and that is only if all parties have access to these technologies at an affordable price. Heeks (2002: 4) asserts that information plays an important role in development, and in order to understand ICT the pre-existing role of information should be understood. To Sundén and Wicander (2006: 24) ICT refers to technologies that process the information that is fed into it; it also involves electronic devices such as computers, laptops and mobile phones that have the ability to store, convert and transmit information.

ICTs are made up of digital devices such as radio, television, mobile phones, computers and internet; they are tools that make the processing of information possible and also enable effective communication (Joseph, 2012). ICTs are key in promoting IRD, even though ICTs can lead to development, it should be realised that ICTs alone cannot solve all challenges that are development related. Heeks (2002:13) argues that ICTs should not be idolised and regarded as the only solution for development-related problems.

2.2.6 Community Based Information Centres

CBICs are centres that are established with the aim of making information available to communities. These centres are similar to the Thusong service centres that are established in some part of South Africa. CBICs are not necessarily a new phenomenon; they date back to the 18th_{century. In the past, these centres were made of only printed}

materials and books, in other words these centres were what are commonly known as libraries (Ndinde & Kadodo, 2014:47). These centres are given different names but the purpose is the same, which is to disseminate information to local people. They are sometimes referred to as Multi-Purpose Community Centres (MPCC), public libraries, telecentres and information centres, to name a few.

CBICs are centres that are key in providing information that is necessary to bring development, especially in rural areas. The common purpose of CBICs is to decrease the high levels of inequality through information provision and access to technology at

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an affordable cost (Ndinde & Kadodo, 2014:48). The effects of inequality within developing countries are felt mostly by those in rural areas.

Ndinde and Kadodo (2014: 46) regard CBICs as centres that provide information that enables communities to survive and grow. Survival information refers to information regarding health. Having such information can assist in preventing disease, as well as saving lives. The information communities receive from the centres enables them to be actively engaged in economic activities that will assist them to escape poverty. Information also assists communities to be active citizens in their societies; it gives them essential information that enables them to take informed decisions. CBICs have the ability to transform the lives of people both in urban and rural areas (Ndinde & Kadodo, 2014: 47). Ndinde and Kadodo (2014: 44) view CBICs as essential places that can enable rural people to meet their economic and social targets, as the centres connect the people with developmental programmes.

In other countries like Zimbabwe information centres are also called telecentres. Telecentres are centres that provide information and technology access to communities. To Ndinde and Kadodo (2014: 52) these telecentres in rural areas will be gateways to financial activities, social awareness creation and eradication of the digital divide. They will also help in empowering the underprivileged and eradicating poverty. Telecentres, like any other government initiative, were established with the intention of creating more access, but sadly they are not utilised as anticipated (Kapondera, 2014: I). Telecentres in rural areas are established with the aim of bringing positive changes that are relevant to the development of the concerned rural area (Kapondera, 2014: 22).

2.2.7 The digital divide

There are various forms of inequalities that countries are faced with and South Africa is not exempt. Both the income and wealth inequality are recorded as high in South Africa (Orthofer, 2016). Greig, Hulme and Turner (2007:11) assert that inequality cannot only be confined to differing income levels or wealth, but expands to differences in educational levels, geographical areas as well as access to opportunities. Due to these inequalities, ICTs will be unevenly accessed or adopted and they too will lead to a type of division.

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The term used to define the unequal patterns of ICTs is called the digital divide, which refers to gaps that exist between those who can benefit and access different ICTs and those who cannot (Russell & Steele, 2013:3; Singh, 2004:4). The digital divide can further be defined as uneven material access, in which others are unequally reaping benefits from computer-based ICTs which ultimately leads to an information society that is characterised by a class of losers and winners (Fuchs & Horak, 2006:101).

Singh (2004:8) asserts that inequalities will continue to exist and the digital divide is not the only challenge; there are other challenges which seem more important, such as HIV/AIDS and poverty. The researcher agrees with Singh in that there are other priorities, but bridging the digital divide is also vital as both information and knowledge have the capacity to empower people and solve some of these challenges.

2.3 Developmental aspects of ICTs

This part of the research aims to highlight and discuss the roles and benefits of employing ICTs in rural communities. Although there are benefits to using ICTs, there are also negative effects that can result from adopting ICTs and they should not be neglected as they are inevitable.

2.3.1 Developmental role of ICTs

ICTs have advanced both in developed and developing countries. According to Nampijja (2010: 18), ICT has affected almost all aspects of daily human activity. It is becoming harder if not impossible to perform many activities without the use of digital devices. ICTs are viewed mainly as tools that are able to bring development in effective ways (Heginbotham, 2006:19; Urwin & De Bastion, 2008:54). Russell and Steele (2013:3) argue that even though ICTs are essential to digital transformation, not every individual has equal access to these new technologies. Lack of access is experienced more in rural areas as compared to urban areas. Kelles-Viitanen (2005: 2) argues that lack of access to ICTs in rural areas is an impediment to development. It is important to realise that ICTs play a pivotal role in promoting IRD. In order for IRD to occur effective mechanisms will have to be put into place.

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The International Telecommunication Union (2010:9) stated that almost half of the world’s inhabitants reside in rural areas. As a result, development in rural areas should be of main concern. Rural areas have their own challenges that are different from those of urban areas, thus they need more development focus. Often there are failures of change agents in prioritising needs of rural people. Issues such as poverty, ill-health and unemployment are among the many issues that people living in rural areas face. At times change agents view such challenges as of higher importance than the implementation of ICTs. ICT has a significant role to play in promoting rural development (Kelles-Viitanen, 2005: 2).

The researcher does not denote that technology is more important than dealing with poverty and unemployment, but that there are various ways of dealing with these issues and adoption of ICT can be one of the effective ways of resolving these challenges. Weigel and Waldburger in Tongia et.al. (2005: 22) argue that it is not a matter of bread or computing but rather a matter of providing sustainable solutions in poverty eradication. Heeks (2009: 2) asks: why is it important that the poor in developing countries should also be prioritised when it comes to ICT applications? This question is important considering that developing countries face many challenges, and especially those in rural areas. It is important to prioritise the poor in developing countries.

Introduction of ICTs in rural areas will change the dynamics of development, while at the same time hasten the process. Mukherjee (2011:11) argues that ICTs in rural development are the fastest way of speeding up the process of development, while at the same time bridge the gap between those who lag behind and those who are further ahead regarding technology and education. The role of ICT in rural areas goes much further than just promoting development; it also aims to bridge the gap between the haves and have-nots. Heeks (2009:2) argues that even though in some parts of developing countries people still struggle with access to water, attention should be given to both water and information technology. The author argues that water and information characterises development; information has the ability to improve water systems that can work better (Heeks, 2009: 2). The researcher concurs with Heeks in that relevant technologies have the ability to create and improve water systems that are effective. People in rural areas have been deprived of many opportunities and ICTs should not be one of deprivation.

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ICTs in IRD will afford rural people access to opportunities in the social, political and economic realms (Gigler, 2015: xxxi). In order for development to be possible, access to the three aspects of development mentioned (social, economic and political) is imperative. One of the most important roles of ICT is its ability to drive and promote economic growth (Ewing, Chevrollier, Quigless, Verghese & Leenderste, 2012: 12). To Herselman (2003) ICT takes the form of both an enabler and a driver of development.

The effectiveness of ICTs in driving development on different scales is due to their versatility. They are not necessarily built for one purpose. Steinberg (2003:46) concurs that technological devices are indeed versatile and they can perform different functions. For instance, a laptop or computer can be used for creating music, as a learning tool, for remote health delivery and to connect with remote communities. It can create opportunities for those in business arenas to access international markets. ICT applications if used correctly have the ability to improve people’s living standards and also enable the rural poor to reap the commercial and educational benefits that come with ICT applications (Chatterjee & Nath, 2015: 259). ICTs have the ability to diminish the exclusion of rural communities from essential economic activities; they have the ability to provide instant information regarding price information (Onayinka, 2011: 71).

The quality of lives of rural people matters and hence it is important that ICT should be deployed as a way of ensuring that they also receive essential services. There are various ways in which rural people can use the resources that are available to them in dealing with rural poverty, and not only through natural resources as it is commonly known in rural areas. Ahamad and Pandery (2014: 458) argue that ICT in rural areas will be a solution for the gradual removal of traditional hindrances to development; ICT access will enable rural people to have access to government services, more job opportunities and relevant information. Ranga and Pradhan (2014: 26) also concur with Ahamad and Pandery in that they both view ICT as a tool that is effective in removing social, economic and geographical isolation due to the fact that it has the ability to increase access to information, education and other opportunities.

Most government services are far from rural areas, which makes adoption and implementation of ICTs in rural areas a plausible solution. Osterwalder (N.d) concurs

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that ICTs and other related applications have the capability of delivering services such as education, health, while opening up economic opportunities for the poor and enabling their voices to be heard. The Department of Health in South Africa has a programme that is called mom-connect, which provides an extended maternal support to pregnant women. This programme enables healthcare services to be easily delivered even if the person needing treatment is situated far from a facility.

A lack of ICTs in rural areas leads to other challenges that negatively affect rural areas. The huge number of people moving to urban areas indicates that there are challenges in rural areas. Ensuring that rural areas are also developed will serve as a solution to migration pressures that urban areas in most developed countries face. ICT can also assist in providing services that force rural people to migrate to urban areas, and this will reduce the movement of rural people to urban areas. ICT is regarded as a fundamental aspect of development strategies for countries that are developed and also for those which are still developing (Malhorta et al., N.d). The researcher is of the opinion that ICTs will enable countries to develop at a faster pace and this is no exception to rural areas.

2.3.1.1 ICT role in development: India, Africa and South Africa

In India steps have been taken to adopt ICT with the aim of promoting IRD. According to Chatterjee and Nath (2015: 252), mobile phones are the most adopted form of ICT. ICTs in India are regarded as powerful and significant in accelerating economic and social development within rural areas (Chatterjee & Nath 2015: 259).

African countries have their own developmental goals that they are currently pursuing. Sundén and Wicander (2006: iii) argue that ICTs are considered to be tools that have the ability to assist countries to achieve their set goals. In Africa it seems that urban areas have realised the usefulness of ICTs. According to Kapondera (2014: 1), it is mostly in urban areas that ICTs are used as compared to rural areas and this is due to a lack of access. It is vital that African countries start to realise the significant roles of ICT in developing their countries, as well as the value of creating an environment that is conducive to development. ICTs are good inventions but without an environment that allows them to perform their task, it is unreasonable to expect them to bring positive

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changes. According to Nampijja (2010:20), in Uganda the value of ICT as a tool necessary for economic and social development has been recognised.

Access to ICTs is important but their adoption and use is even more important. If there is access and there is no interest in using the applications, there will be no change. Development is essential and it cannot successfully occur without the participation of people. Inclusion of local people in the information society is essential; 45-70 percent of the Nigerian population are excluded from the information society (Onayinka, 2011: 71). Digital inclusion is necessary in Nigeria.

South Africa has its own challenges when it comes to rural communities. Its history is characterised by forced removals and dispossession (Hemson et al., 2004: 8). Intensive actions should be taken when planning development in these rural areas. It is important to acknowledge that rural areas in South Africa were structured in such a way that they are further from towns. This meant that services – hospitals, libraries, universities and other government institutions that provide essential services – were far from rural people. It meant that the rural poor had to spend extra money to access these services; and because of the time involvement and having to use public transport they often leave these offices without having been assisted. It should be the aim of change agents in rural areas to devise plans to eradicate the gaps of the past. Thus the researcher is of the opinion that ICTs will address those past gaps, while allowing rural areas to catch up with urban areas within the country.

Poverty, unemployment and inequality should no longer be the “face” of rural areas. Development actions should aim to emancipate rural people from the unbearable living conditions they are confined to. In adopting ICTs there is also a great need to put in place infrastructure that will assist the poor with free access that is within their reach. Development landscapes are changing and this is because of different information technologies. One can even argue that ICTs have set a new agenda for development. The increase adoption of ICTs will also play a significant role in the achievement of future Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (International Telecommunication Union, 2015). According to Chatterjee and Nath (2015: 251), different constraints of infrastructure can be addressed by the proper use and adoption of ICTs within rural areas and assist rural people to easily connect to both local and national economies.

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ICTs will afford rural people the opportunity to take part in economic activities that can be central in changing their living conditions.

2.3.2 Benefits of ICTs in rural areas

Digital technologies in contemporary society have become the core of the technological revolution, which has altered how the current productive system functions and this has transformed the production processes and modes of service delivery (McNamara, 2008). The value of ICTs can no longer be denied and there are various benefits that rural people can obtain. It is no longer a question of “do rural people need ICTs or not?”

According to Malhorta et al. (N.d), by adopting ICT applications this can enable those living in poverty to have better chances of accessing health and education, as well as the markets. Failing to provide rural areas with access to appropriate technologies is the first way of hindering rural people in improving their lives. According to the World Bank (2005: i), most of the poor in isolated rural populations are with limited skills and educational resources, and to them lack of access to communication facilities, information and knowledge resources has a negative effect as it severely hinders their human development.

2.3.2.1 Access to information

Information and communication are among the most recognised fundamental aspects of any activity that leads to sustainable development (Soriano, 2007: 2). Relevant information has the ability to empower those who were previously marginalised and it is the role of community centres to provide formal and current developmental information. According to Soriano (2007: 1), telecentres play a pivotal role in availing information and knowledge that is able to create opportunities for rural development.

To Hazra (2012: 9) IRD initiatives are made possible through information provision. The reality is that rural people are often information-poor. Print media is one of the oldest forms of information dissemination, yet in most rural areas there are still no or few local supermarkets that sell newspapers. Due to this lack of newspapers, rural people are unable to see opportunities to apply for jobs. Lack of essential information

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for rural people is a form of hindrance to their liberation, and in order for them to be independent they should be empowered with information that is necessary for their development.

McNamara (2008) asserts that in order for a radical shift to occur that can emancipate the poor from their current living conditions, it is important that they have access to information, because it has the ability to bring change in their education, social, political and economic life and this will lead to sustainable development. Information opens up opportunities for rural people, such as information regarding markets, shares and other trading opportunities. Currently in South Africa there are companies that advertise their shares on radio. Lack of ICTs can hinder opportunities to buy shares. Rabali (2005:19) highlights the fact that poverty in rural areas is the consequence of rural people’s distorted access to markets and other services, and that they have to take social and economic decisions with limited information.

Information in the developed and some developing countries has served as an integral part of sustainable development (Sundén & Wicander, 2006: 79). Therefore, it is important to acknowledge that if information was the main ingredient for those countries to develop, the same will most likely apply to countries which are still lagging behind. What is good about information being an integral component for development is that every country will make use of the information that is useful and relevant to it. The value of accessing information on the internet and other telecommunication platforms such as television channels and newspapers is that it allows individuals to choose the information that is best suited for addressing their needs.

According to Sundén and Wicander (2006: 77), information is a key ingredient that is needed in fostering sustainable development and the best part of this is that it is a non-exhaustible ingredient. As depicted by Heeks (2002:12) in figure 1 below, information should be the central component when discussing ICTs. Effective communication cannot occur without information, thus it should be central due to the worth and power it carries. It has the ability to change for the better the lives of those who are using it. Information is key in sustainable development as it allows people to exercise their freedom and also to decide what to do with the information they receive.

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Figure 1: Information the key ingredient for sustainable development (Heeks, 2002: 12)

ICTs are effective tools that allow effective communication and an ample supply of information. In most cases as highlighted, rural areas are located further from essential government services and access to ICTs can create platforms for them to also engage in important processes such as decision-making processes that affect them. ICTs are able to assist citizens who reside far from service points to save time and travelling costs when seeking information from government institutions, since it is often the case that they have to make multiple visits before they can get what they are looking for (Kelles-Viitanen, 2005: 3).

2.3.2.2 Access to education

ICTs make information provision possible and communication occur effectively. Information is central to IRD as it means people can use it for different purposes; some use it for social activities, others for political engagements, economic purposes, and

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educational purposes. The aim of IRD is to bring improvement in the lives of rural people and that can be done in different ways. Education access is one of the ways that can lead to life improvement of rural people. According to Koranteng (2012, iii), ICT is perceived to be the main enabler for equal access to education. The researcher concurs with Koranteng, in that ICTs make access to education possible.

Technology has brought new dynamics to education. It has changed the mentality of people regarding how education should be conducted, starting with the teaching styles to location. With ICT it is now possible for individuals, especially those who are working, to study while working. Yusuf (2005: 320) regards ICT as a relevant tool when it comes to quality teaching and learning; he argues that it is a powerful tool that can bring a radical change within schools as it introduces effective ways that prepare students for the future. Introduction of ICTs in rural schools is essential as this will be the quickest way of capacitating school going children with relevant skills, as well as preparing them for higher education.

ICT comes with diverse benefits only to those who take advantage of it. ICT can also be used by members of communities where literacy levels are low. It is often the case to find low literacy levels in rural areas and this hinders the utilisation of ICTs (Moshapo & Hanranhan, 2003). An interesting aspect with regard to digital tools is that one is able to use them without formal training or education such as a university diploma or degree. Basic ICT skills have the ability to make one’s life better. In order for a person to be relevant in this generation there is a need to be electronically literate. ICTs have the ability to create effective access to education. According to Chatterjee and Nath (2015: 251), ICTs have the ability to make education more accessible to rural people and this will bridge the gap with their urban peers. Distance learning breaks down the barriers to studying, as it can happen anywhere and at any time. For instance, one can attend classes through satellite broadcasting and still be able to communicate with lecturers and fellow students. It also saves time and travelling costs. Kundishora (N.d) concurs that distance learning is made possible and easy by the assistance of modern ICT systems. ICTs make education access possible and this does not limit those who live far from institutions of higher learning. Access to ICT is another way of empowering those who were previously disadvantaged.