Transformative education in Havana : an investigation into humanist education as a mechanism to reduce social discrimination

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An investigation into humanist education as a mechanism to reduce social discrimination

Student Mari-Louise Mackey 10706852 Masters in International Development Studies

University of Amsterdam

2014 – 2015

Supervisor, Dr. Enrique Gomez Llata Cazares

Word Count: 22,347 Pages 59

Abstract: This study aims to explore the role of humanist education to reduce social discrimination using an in-depth inductive case-study in Havana, Cuba. Interviews, observations and a focus group were conducted at a Pre Universidad in Havana over a two week period. The findings of the research illustrate that certain concepts are understood differently in Havana which reduce asymmetries of power and social discrimination. These concepts are culture, identity and humanist values. As a theoretical contribution this, is one of the few English speaking research investigations conducted in Cuban schools. The findings offer insights into humanist education as tool for promoting social integration.

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Foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Enrique Gomez

Llata Cazares for the continuous support of my Master study and research, for his patience,

motivation and enthusiasm. His guidance helped me during the research and writing of this

thesis. Besides my supervisor, I would like to thank the rest of my thesis committee:

Dr Christine Richter and Dr Esther Miedema for their encouragement, insightful comments,

and hard questions.

The research would not be possible without the guidance and patience of all of the Staff at

the Centro de Estudios para el Perfeccionamiento de la Educación Superior (CEPES) at the

University of Havana. Their insight, welcoming nature and professionalism in their field

was an inspiration. I extend warm thanks especially to my fieldwork supervisor, Jorge

Dominguez. The staff at the Ministry of Education facilitated the access to the Pre

Universidad and graciously explained the education system to me in Havana, for this I am

very grateful and George Marron was exceptionally helpful in facilitating meetings with

interview participants and warmly welcoming me to Havana.

I would like to extend sincere thanks to the staff and students at the Pre Universidad where

the research was conducted. The students and staff were exceedingly helpful to this project

and treated me as a friend, for this I am extremely grateful.

My co researcher and translators, Dania and Reyner provided professional support and lent

their opinion and ideas to this research. Their perspective has brought validity to the work

and their companionship was wonderful. I was blessed to have met them and their network

by chance, and could not have worked without them. They brought vibrant colour to the

fieldwork process.

Living in Havana provided many logistical difficulties, I was fortunate to have stayed with

the warmest family I could have met. They welcomed me, educated me on all aspects of life

in Cuba and treated me as part of their family. That experience was priceless and the people

I lived with were inspirational. I am extremely grateful to them for their time. The humanity

with which I was treated throughout the process is a testament people of Havana. I will

return.

Last but not the least, I would like to thank my family: my parents Colette Moore and

Maurice Mackey for their continued support and the many, (many) friends and family

members in Amsterdam and abroad who have helped me with the ‘battle of ideas’ during

this process. I am extremely grateful to you for your support and input.

Thank you.

Mari-Louise Mackey

August, 2015

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Notes on the text

All names of interview participants have been kept anonymous to respect their privacy and in gratitude for their participation. Some participants specifically requested anonymity so I have decided to remove all names and specific location of the Pre Universidad and the Casa Particular have also been removed.

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Chapter1. Introduction

This is an investigation into humanist education in Havana as a means of reducing social discrimination, specifically racial discrimination. I propose that the values and norms developed at Cuban schools are humanist elements of transformative education. These are reproduced in the school and transferred to society. The result is cultural expression, identity and community in the society of Havana. To investigate this, I spent two months in Havana’s Western suburb of Vedado and conducted interviews with students and teachers at a high school (Pre Universidad). I used Freire’s theory of transformative education as a framework for this investigation into mechanisms of reducing social discrimination through humanist education.

Literature on humanist education as a mechanism for reducing social discrimination addresses a spectrum of people who are marginalised by society on grounds of: race (Kronenberg, 2009), disability (Goodley and Runswick-Cole, 2011) and class structures (Dull, 2007). The literature suggests that peoples are marginalized because of asymmetries of power created when the elite of a society dominate the cultural norms and reject the value of the culture and identity of certain dominated groups resulting in marginalisation and exclusion of these groups (Goodley and Runswick-Cole, 2011). Researchers in this field have acknowledged that a humanist perspective in education acknowledges the value of the creativity and identity of people (Goodley and Runswick-Cole, 2011). By recognizing the cultural identity and legitimizing the cultural expression of peoples, the asymmetries of power are lowered and people are less marginalized (Dull, 2007; Goodley and Runswick-Cole, 2011; Kronenberg, 2009). Social discrimination can be found on many variables; race, sexuality, class and gender and exclusion is detrimental to the function of a society as well as the mental and physical health of those excluded (McLaren, 2001). It is therefore important to investigate mechanisms which can reduce social discrimination. Discourse on education suggests that it can be used as a tool for society building (Collins, 2009). For this reason I turned to the schools for answers.

I constructed a theoretical framework of transformative education, multicultural education and habitus. Habitus, as proposed by Pierre Bourdieu is the bases of this framework. Bourdieu proposes that each individual has a construction of thoughts and behaviors based on their personal experience within their world (Mills, 2008). Habitus is constructed from ones family background, community and education interactions. An education system has the ability to reproduce a value or ideology, such as the class system, by influencing the habitus of students (Mills, 2008; Collins, 2009). This ideology is imprinted on children in school through culture and behavior and results in the reproduction of the social class system. I used habitus to understand how values in the school are transferred to the society. Transformative education outlined by Paolo Freire, is the thought that education should be used to liberate people from asymmetries of power (McLaren, 2001). I used transformative education to understand; how the school system reduces the power imbalance and promotes social inclusion.

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Finally, I incorporated the multicultural framework, which was designed by Christine Sleeter (Sleeter, 2010). It allows a comparison and analysis of an education system to assess the level of multicultural education present. I acknowledge that the Cuban society is transcultural not multicultural. However Sleeter’s framework allows analysis of the system regarding culturally responsive pedagogy and social justice. I used the multicultural education framework to understand; how the Cuban school system is recognizing or ignoring ethnic differences in the classroom. .

This research began as an observation of the social situation in Cuba, less than 130 years ago chattel slavery existed in Cuba, arguably the most dehumanising structure to be imposed on a group of people (Cluster, 2006; Galeano, 2009). Today in Cuba, while racial equality is not fully addressed, there is considerable progress made on social justice and social inclusion of peoples of different skin colour (Morales Dominguez, 2013). School is free to all students in Cuba regardless of race or gender. In 2013 enrolment at secondary level was 88.3%, considerably higher than the Latin American average (Gasperini, 2000). The school is centralized by the Ministry of Education (MINED) in Havana and the program is rolled out across the country. All curriculums are approved by this governing body and aligned with revolutionary principles. I wanted to know how this education system could transform Cuba from a place of social segregation to integration. The objective of the research was to understand what sort of society can reduce asymmetries of power in a way which reduces racial discrimination. The research focuses specifically on the role of the school to this end. The findings of the investigation conclude that a transcultural society has developed in Cuba and there is evidence of humanist, transformative education which contributes to a reduction of racial discrimination. The school promotes a transcultural identity inclusive of the cultures of African descendants and Spanish descendants in the cultural expression of music, dance, theatre and literature (Programas de studio1_, 2005 pp176). Humanist values promoted at the school of: respect, solidarity and empathy, contribute to the concept of transculturation and reduce social discrimination (Programas de estudio de Cuba3_, 2014, pp123).

The Cuban system is a particular case. On one side, social segregation has been reduced, while on the other side the system has been criticised for restricting human rights. Human Rights Watch notes that many political prisoners were arrested while exercising their rights under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Human Rights Watch, 2013). For this reason a section has been dedicated to explaining the social, political and economic situation in Cuba. The system is not perfect, there is no utopia and the reduction of social discrimination evident in Cuba is context specific. However, the Cuban system has considerably reduced social discrimination on the variable of race. This is an achievement, and with appropriate contextualization, this is a phenomenon worth investigating.

There are 11 million inhabitants of Cuba; the social makeup is a combination of black, white and mixed race people. According to census data, there are approximately 7 million classified as white,

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one million classified as black and three million mulato or mestizo, the Cuban definitions for mixed race people (La Oficina Nacional de Estadística e Información, 2012 pp 184-187). The reason for this ethnic mix of people can be analysed historically. Columbus first arrived to Cuba in in 1492. The country subsequently became ruled by the kingdom of Spain (Cluster, 2006). From colonial times, the island of Cuba had strategic importance for Spain as it lies in the center of the Caribbean. Havana became a crucial port for European fleets travelling to Latin America and the arable soil of the island was swiftly employed in sugar production (Cluster, 2006; Galeano, 2009). In 1511, the Spanish authorized importation of African slaves to Cuba to work on the Sugar plantations (Cluster, 2006). The slaves came from the entire western coast of Africa and even from Mozambique in the south east. They represented many different religions, cultures, languages and traditions (Cluster, 2006) (Galeano, 2009). The treatment of black peoples under slavery was dehumanizing to the extreme, their work conditions were harsh and punishment was severe. Slavery was abolished in 1886 but racial discrimination remained. Black Cubans were refused service, employment and had a lower literacy rate than white Cubans (Cluster, 2006; Epstein, 1987).

The Cuban Revolution of 1959 aimed to remove all social discriminations of gender, race and class. Since the revolution Cuba has been ruled by the leader of the Revolution, Comandante en Jefe Fidel Castro who stepped down in 2008 to be replaced by his brother Raúl. The government is based in Havana where legislation and the education system are centralized. According to Cubans today, the Revolution has

“wiped away all discrimination” [and there is] “only one race, the human race” (Interview participant 33). After the Revolution, all Cubans under the communist system faced a new threat, the economic embargo imposed by the U.S. For decades the Soviet Union (USSR) subsidized the Cuban system by purchasing Cuban sugar at preferential prices. However, the fall of the Soviet Bloc in 1989 led to an economic collapse of the Cuban socialist system and the Cuban ‘Special Period’ began. It was during this time that authors such as Morales Dominguez argues racial discrimination became visible again as those who were better equipped to weather the tough economic situation, tended to be white Cubans (Morales Dominguez, 2013). Cuban author Morales Dominguez states three reasons for racial discrimination Cuba, slavery of African peoples, coupled with a slave revolt led by Jose Antonio Aponte in 1812 and the success of the slave revolt in nearby Haiti in 1804 (Morales Dominguez, 2013). Morales Dominguez argues that these events led to a fear of black Cubans and ingrained racial discrimination in Cuban psyche (Morales Dominguez, 2013; Cluster, 2006).

Internationally, US-Cuban relations have been tense since the Cuban Missile crisis in 1960. In December 2014 the US and Cuba announced that they would renew and normalize relations between the two countries after decades of El Bloqueoi_{(Grant, 2015). The negotiation process has been}

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lengthy but in April 2015, Cuba was removed from the US State Department list of terrorist states, a place it has held since 1982 (Renwick and Lee, 2015). In August 2015 the US reopened its embassy in Havana, a sign of mutual diplomacy (Lewis, 2015). This came as part of the détente talks opened between Presidents Barak Obama and Raul Castro and the news put Cuba center stage at the summit of the Americas held this year in Panama (Hassan, 2015; The Cuban kite, 2015).

During the research process the original methods and concepts were transformed. I discovered that Cuban education promotes a unified cultural identity inclusive of all skin colours, termed: transculturation. The process is a mixing of cultural expressions in the form of: religion, dance, music and arts which have created a new Cuban identity, Creole. Culture refers to the creative means a group uses to express itself, this can be religion, dance, music, theatre, or literature (Goodley and Runswick-Cole, 2009). Researchers note that the reception of the culture of a group, reflects the power they have within the group (Goodley and Runswick-Cole, 2009). Acceptation of these expressions of a group will reduce social discrimination against this group (Kronenberg, 20091_, Goodley and Runswick-Cole, 2009). In Cuba, the society has gone further than accepting the culture of the historically dominated group, black Cubans. Transculturation means that the cultural expression of the previously dominated group, has converged with the dominating group. Legitimizing and promoting the expression of Cubans of African descent, reduces asymmetries of power and reduces social discrimination. By promoting creative expression and legitimizing the creativity of black African heritage and white European heritage the school legitimizes the cultural expression of both communities and this reduces racial discrimination (Goodley and Runswick-Cole, 2009; Programas de estudio de Cuba2_{, 2005 pp21).}

My main research question is: what mechanisms are employed by the school which might reduce racial discrimination in society? Followed by three sub-questions

 What evidence is there of transformative education at the Pre Universidad in Vedado?

 How might transformative education reduce racial discrimination in society?

 How relevant is this for students today?

The main findings of this research is that a number of concepts are framed differently in Havana than which, contribute to reducing social discrimination. Firstly, Cuban culture is referred to as transcultural rather than multicultural. Cuban music, dance and theatre incorporates African and European influences and allow shared forms of expression (Programas de estudio de Cuba1_{, 2014;} Programas de estudio de Cuba2_{, (2015) Programas de estudio de Cuba}3_{, 2014; Programas de estudio} de Cuba4_{, 2015; Programas de estudio de la República de Cuba}5_{, 2005-2006). Secondly, identity in} Cuba is seen as a buildable concept. There is a strong focus on national identity and patriotism in the school. However, Cubans identify themselves as black, Caribbean, Cuban and Latin: rather than limiting themselves with a label they blend the concept of identity (Interview participant 23). Thirdly,

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the school promotes humanist values and there is an underlying element of humanist education. These values include: equality, responsibility and respect (Programas de estudio de Cuba1_{, 2014; Programas} de estudio de Cuba2_{, (2015) Programas de estudio de Cuba}3_{, 2014; Programas de estudio de Cuba}4_, 2015; Programas de estudio de la República de Cuba5_{, 2005-2006). Finally the principle of human} needs surpasses human rights. Human needs are more intrinsic than human rights and are aligned with the values of humanism. I believe that teaching these concepts is reducing social and racial discrimination in Havana.

Chapter two is an exploration of life in Havana; the social, political and economic context of the Cuban capital during the spring of 2015. Chapter three addresses the literature review and theoretical framework. The fourth chapter focuses on the research design of the investigation. Here I explain the images which led to the research design and the subsequent interviews, observations and focus group conducted to build a case study. The fifth chapter is a focus on culture and identity in Havana. I analyzed data from interviews, observations and the MINED curriculum to assess the evidence of integration and transcultural education. The sixth chapter focuses on evidence of transformative education; specifically on the Cuban understanding of liberation and oppression using findings from a focus group and interviews with students. The seventh chapter presents discussion of humanist elements of transformative education. I examine the relevance of transformative education in reducing social discrimination and where the social discrimination may remain. Chapter eight concludes the thesis.

This thesis is a study of the mechanism of humanism within the framework of transformative education. I conclude that rather than the Western concept of multicultural education, the Cubans have used their own concept- Transculturation to define the unique process of cultural blending and identity building. The path towards a transcultural community has evolved through the mechanism of humanism and humanist education.

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Chapter 2. Context

My theoretical framework draws on transformative education and multicultural education. The literature on these theories suggest that research on education systems should be context specific (McLaren, 2001: Sleeter, 2010). Sleeter notes that multicultural education should be culturally responsive, and this requires an understanding of the social context in which it is found. McLaren suggests that transformative education is part of a wider revolutionary process, and so the research must be imbedded within the political and economic context (McLaren, 2001, pp120-123).In this section I illustrate the social, political and economic situation in Havana. I have set the context of Havana so that other variables affecting the situation can be taken into consideration. Mills notes that Bourdieu’s habitus has been “(mis)represented as deterministic” (Mills, 2008 pp79) as it does not attribute agency to society, who may be immune to the influences on them, or actively decide to behave differently. With this critique in mind I use this section to illustrate life in Havana.

Society in Cuba today

There was a constant rolling lie in all aspects of Cuban life; everything is possible and forbidden, described by Blum as the “Cuban dichotomy” (Blum, 2011). The Cubans call this “baba” (Interview participant 17). In the case of racial discrimination, I would affirm that there were derogatory comments made about black people in front of me. However; the black Cubans I was close to were studying, had their own businesses, were paid in Cuban Convertible Peso (CUC) and mixed with white Cubans and tourists with ease. They were respected professors, teachers, policemen and doctors. Race is therefore an interesting topic because there is some discrimination however, everyone has the same opportunities and takes advantage of them.

Economic situation in Cuba.

In response to the Cuban Missile Crisis, the US entered into economic warfare, imposing El Bloqueo under President Kennedy in 1962 (Bain, 2005). The new Cuban Republic was heavily reliant on the Soviet Union’s (USSR) favorable trade agreements on Cuban sugar (Galeano, 2009; COHA, 2011). However; the fall of the USSR in 1989 marked the end of this economic safety net for Cuba,

“From 1989 to 1993 Cuba's gross domestic product declined, according to official estimates, by 35 percent. Imports dropped 75 percent, and the deficit reached 33 percent of GDP. Oil imports from Russia fell from 13 million tons in 1989 to less than 7 million tons in 1992. Cuba not only had to replace the oil and support it had received from the Soviet Union but also had to establish an entirely new set of trading partners, because 85 percent of its trade had been with the socialist bloc.” (Gordon, 1997)

The Republic fell in to the “Special Period” during the 1990s, a time of severe austerity and mass exodus from the country (Cluster, 2006; Galeano, 2009). The Blockade restricts Cuban trading and patent use leading to self-sufficiency in agriculture, food and drug production. The Cubans feel the constriction;

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“every minute of Blockade, is how many children’s deaths?” (Interview participant 35).

Cuba has since looked for alternate income by opening the tourist industry, small economic reforms allowing for private businesses and negotiations with the US towards curtailing aspects of El Bloqueo (Malott, 2007). Today 500,000 people work in non-state industry (Ritter, 2015). Bartering in Havana is a regular occurrence however; there tends to be a base limit that no trader will go below. The price of a taxi fare or a crochet dress may be negotiable, but the bottom price has been agreed by all traders, they have collectively decided not to undercut each other- a sign of cooperation within new business ventures (Interview participant 32).

Binary life

Today, two currencies circulate in Cuba; the CUC is approximately €0.90, this is the currency tourists pay for accommodation, restaurants, transport and entertainment (XE convertor, 2015). The second currency is the Cuban Peso (CUP) known as moneda nacional (MN) this is worth between 1/23 or 1/25 of the CUC depending on the rate set by the vendor. The majority of industries are nationalized, and those working for the Cuban Government are paid $20 per month in CUP (Stone, 2015 and Interview participant 17). To substitute this the Cubans are given ration books with allocations of rice, beans and rum (Interview participant 23). However; many commodities remain out of reach, fridges and toiletries are priced in CUC (Interview participant 17). This gap requires Cubans to have a secondary income (Interview participants 34, 17 and 24). Cuba is a socialist state, the government provides; food rations, free health care, free education, cheap transport and very cheap rent (Interview participant 17). This is still not enough to live on and therefore to live comfortably they require another source of income; a “second job” (Interview Participants 24 and 23). Cubans who have family abroad, generally receive remittances which greatly improves their quality of life (Martín Fernández et al 2000). With more money they can afford meat, fish and private tuition for their children. The state provides free healthcare although the waiting lists for treatment could be six months (Interview participant 37). My land lord, told me that if you give the doctor $200 CUC you would be seen much faster (Interview participant 37). Remittances are not the only options, many Cubans have a “second job”. This may refer to working for the government, stealing objects such as flour, glue or nails and then reselling them or working from home (Interview participant 24 and 34). In March 2015 a man was sentenced to 15 years jail time for selling nationalized eggs on the black market (Harding, 2015). Small business are popping up frequently after the relaxing of the economic policy. Casa Particularsii are common in Vedado marked by a sign on the door. The CPs are heavily regulated by the authorities and the more customers they have, the higher their tax. Other little business are services such as beauty salons and shoe repairers:

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“some years ago, the shoes repair was a state responsibility. This is impossible. The state can’t have to work with everything, all the needs of the people. The people need things that the state can’t

imagine.” (Interview participant 34)

this has left a gap for small entrepreneurs to fill. Transformative education needs to be understood within the economic, political and social context it occurs (McLaren, 2001). These scenes are very particular to Cuba, a previous socialist state reforming both foreign and domestic policies. These changes will have an effect on the social climate of the country.

Social situation in Cuba

The national language is Spanish, English is not widely spoken in Havana. Today there is a generation gap between foreign languages spoken in Havana; older generations speak Russian while many Cuban students today are learning German and English. The French consulate also provides free French classes to students in Havana (Interview participant 38). The official religion is Roman Catholic, though some African religions are practiced such as Santeria, an incorporation of Catholicism and African religions (Gorney, 2012). Houses are blessed once a year around New Year. During my stay the house of my land lady her house was blessed. The women dress in white and a Santeria priestess is brought to the house, blessing each room in turn with songs, cigar smoke, rum and herbs. The people of the house are also blessed. It is common for people to spend a holy year dressed all in white as devotion to the Santeria gods. The god of Havana is Orula, his colour is green and yellow and many people in Havana wear a green and yellow thread bracelet (Duncan, 2015). There is also a Jewish community in Havana with a synagogue and their own sports events.

Housing

My land lady had house on the second floor of a terrace building close to the university. It is an old, colonial style building with a roof terrace overlooking Centro Havana. She acquired it within the last 18 months. She has a woman come every day to do the cooking and cleaning and has four rooms which she rents for $20-$35 CUC per night, she also has three sons in Europe who provide her with money. The house has a washing machine and air conditioning and while I was living there she had the dining room fully redecorated, including replacing the original cornicing. When Interview participant 39 visited the house and we were sitting on the roof he said,

“looking at this shows me that the experiment isn’t working… this socialist experiment. My family still believe in it and they will stay here but they are stupid. Look at this house for example”.

(Interview participant 39)

Receiving remittances, was a means of having better things, a better life than relying solely on state provisions. Interview participant 39 said he would leave Cuba and send money back to his family to look after them.

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Political situation in Cuba

Cuban media is nationalized and famously heavily censored although Cubans are aware that it is propaganda. The restriction on internet does not allow for mass communication of alternative thought so Cubans use USBs to share alternative ideas and videos of protests. The internet is not widely available in Havana. Hotels charge tourists between $4-10 CUC per hour for access and Cubans have to queue for limited time slots at internet cafes (Interview participant 23). The University of Havana has fast connection at the weekend but the connection for students is slow during busy week days and restricted to 80 megabytes per month per student (Interview participant 23). Ethernet connections are available in homes but restricted to email use not internet searches (Interview participant 36). Recently communication provider ETECSA has announced it reduce Wi-Fi use by $2 CUC in July 2015 and new infrastructure is being built in the capital to provide Wi-Fi to the public (Cuban debate, 2015).

Cuba has a high rate of political prisoners, according to Human Rights Watch, many are incarcerated despite exercising their rights, under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Human Rights Watch, 2013). As a passive protest against the political restrictions in Cuba some women wear all white, many have family members who are political prisoners. Women partaking in the spiritual year of Santeria can be differentiated from the Women in White by their long beaded necklaces in homage to the Santeria gods. There is a strong military presence in Havana, Police stand on street corners and monitor large groups on the Malecón, the costal wall separating Havana from the sea where Cubans and tourists gather to socialise. The police and the army have a comfortable financial situation, they are able to pay for their commodities and houses in CUP rather than CUC (Interview participant 17).

Marti and humanism

I now turn to the father figure of Cuba, whose bust stands in the playground of the pre Universidad and literary works dominate the library, Jose Marti. During his short life Marti was a poet, journalist, philosopher and revolutionary hero for Cuba and Latin America (Kirk, 1989). At 16 he was exiled to Spain with hard labour after being found guilty of treason. He subsequently lived in New York. Due to his exile and life in the US, he developed as a border intellectual, being influenced by the ideas of Philosophers in Cuba and the anti-slavery rhetoric of New York (Kronenberg, 2014). Marti is important to understanding the transfer of humanist values and the subsequent reduction of social segregation. Embedded within his literary work is the concept of humanism:

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Figure 2 Map of Havana (adapted from, Google, 2015)

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“Men have no special rights simply because they belong to one race or another. When you say "men," you have already imbued them with all their rights. Negroes, because they are black, are not inferior or superior to any other men. Whites who say "my race" commit the sin of redundancy; so do Negroes who say the same. Everything that divides men, everything that specified, separates or pens them, is a sin against humanity” (Marti, 1893, cited in Poey Baro,1994 )

For Marti, the issue of race was a humanist issue and he promoted social equality as a means of liberation for Cubans. After his death, extreme racism remained in Cuba. His literature did not directly result in the reduction of social discrimination (interview participant 33). However, the Revolutionary Government has used the figure of Marti in their publicity campaign. His humanist values are in line with Revolutionary and humanist values promoted by this government, the use of his literature by the socialist government has resulted in the reduction of social discrimination. Kronenberg notes that humanism in Cuba is synonymous with unity of Cubans and sovereignty from Spain (Kronenberg, 20091_{) Therefore, the implementation of the message, is as important if not more} so than the message of equality.

History of Cuban education

Formal education was brought to Cuba from the colonizing Spanish. In 1800 they introduced compulsory education for 6-9 year olds in the vicinity of a school, they also provided free education to children for those whose parents could not afford education, however these schools were highly segregated (Epstein, 1987). Later, during the U.S. occupation, education was used to “Purify Cuban minds” and remove the “Spanishness” from the Cubans (Epstein, 1987; Youngs-Colon, 2005). The goal was a population of “enlightened” (Epstein, 1987) citizens who would see the U.S. system as preferable. The island was of great strategic and resourceful use to the U.S. and consequently they pursued a policy of free education and invested in infrastructure (Epstein, 1987).

Both Spanish and U.S. systems provided free education but social divisions remained; rural areas were underserved by the education program and the very poor, often black children, continued to be marginalized due to the class-based system in Cuba (Epstein, 1987). The number of children attending high school and even further education was higher in Cuba than in neighboring Latin American countries though these places were filled with European-Cubans. The system was favoring the elite while marginalizing the poor (Youngs-Colon, 2005). In 1959, half of children in Cuba were not attending school, 72% of 13 to 19 year olds were not reaching intermediary levels of schooling and there were only eight special needs schools in the country (Gasperini, 2000).

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Figure 4 Poster of Fidel Castro and Hugo Chavez in the entrance hall to the Pre Universidad

Education in Cuba after the Revolution

The Revolution was tightly aligned to school reform. After the revolution, there was a substantial campaign to promote childhood and adult literacy, the Campaign Against Illiteracy saw men and women with equal roles for the first time teaching basic literacy skills to all adults and children (Epstein, 1987). This was followed by the “schools to the countryside movement” which sought to close the gap between urban and rural education levels (Youngs-Colon, 2005). 10,000 girls were brought from the Cuban mountains in the East to be educated in math and Spanish literacy in Havana (Interview participant 27). As a result of the revolution’s educational reforms 98% of children were attending school by 1997 (Gasperini, 2000)

Education in Cuba today,

MINED

The Ministerio de Educacion de a la Republic de Cuba (MINED) has three buildings. One in the Tourist area of Vedado on the Malecon, a second on the MINED library based in Miramar; the affluent neighborhood of wide leafy streets and embassies and the head office, also in Miramar. The main building is a colonial era mansion, recently refurbished and painted yellow. It sits in a well maintained garden, the rear of which has a wooden gazebo for hosting parties. The door was always open when I visited and there was no security. The entrance has a white marble floor and staircase with red curtains, kept closed to keep out the sun. I visited three times and there were meetings in the downstairs board room each time. There are two stories, the offices were upstairs where I had meetings with gate keepers. There is strong references to the revolution in the MINED documents. The MINED claims that the Cuban revolution is one continuous process:

“Cuban revolution is a single [process] from 1868 to the present day”

(Programas de studio1_{, 2014 pp8)}

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Figure 6 Entrance to the Pre Universidad. Posters of Fidel Castro and Ernesto Guevara, Cuban Revolutionary leaders

Figure 5 view of the playground at the Pre Universidad with Jose Marti statue in the background

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The Pre Universidad

The school where the investigation took place was in the middle of Vedado with a park in front of the building where children hung out between classes. There was no school gate to protect children, the front door was always open. Year ten had classes in the morning and the 11th_{and 12}th_{grades had} classes in the afternoon. The building was a U shape with the ground floor used for staff rooms and the library. Classrooms were on the first floor and framed the central playground overlooked by a statue of Jose Marti. The dialogue between teacher and learners was based on rhetorical questions which students contributed to with enthusiasm. Students passed notes to each other during class or talked. This was the school selected for investigation by the Ministry of Education (MINED), the children had been visited by researchers the previous year. Teachers here are black, white and mestizo, and students are white or mestizo. There is not a strong hierarchy between teachers and students their relationship is intimate, teachers kiss and speak closely with their students in an open manner.

School is compulsory until the ninth grade. Children attend the closest school to their family home, there is no selection process. After the ninth grade children can leave education (although they cannot legally work until 18) or continue their studies. The stream splits into Pre Universidad (Pre) or technical college. The uniforms for the Pre are blue shirts and navy trousers and the technical college is cream shirt and brown trousers. Pre Universidad prepares students for their application to the University of Havana (UH). The focus is on a meritocratic system of exams and application to the UH. The places for each university course and the points required for entrance are displayed on the wall. Students in Vedado can only attend UH there can be no exchange.

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Chapter 3. Theoretical framework

The core of this thesis is the notion that humanist elements of transformative education in the education system are impacting the social and cultural expressions in the society. To examine this, I have created a hybrid framework using Bourdieu’s habitus, Freire’s transformative education, and Sleeter’s theory of multicultural education. Cuban society is described by Cuban anthropologist Fernando Ortiz as transcultural, a blend of cultures which has resulted in a new Cuban identity (Mario Santi, 2004) However, the multicultural education framework allows analysis of this phenomenon in understanding how this may reduce social discrimination.

Habitus

Here I will outline the concept of Bourdieu’s habitus which I have used as a foundation for this framework.

“Researchers have suggested that scholastic institutions were important sites of cultural reproduction in classical Greece (Lloyd, 1990), Imperial Rome (Guillory, 1993), medieval Europe (Bloch 1961), and Modern France (Durkheim 1977)” (sited in Collins, 2009 pp34)

Bourdieu used Habitus to explain how the French class system was reproduced through the school system. The locus of the theory lies in the legitimization and reproduction of power through an education system which enforces the class structure, therefore retaining power in a small elite. According to Bourdieu,

“In any given social formation the legitimate pedagogic action, i.e. the pedagogic action endowed with the dominant legitimacy, is nothing other than the arbitrary imposition of the dominant cultural arbitrary insofar as it is misrecognized in its objective truth as the dominant pedagogic action and the imposition of the dominant culture."” (Bourdieu and Passeron, 1990, pp22)

The relationship between children and the teacher, the learned and the learners creates an imbalance of power. Furthermore, the school system legitimizes the imbalance of power. According to Bourdieu, the dominated are not aware of their potential power. The school system legitimizes the power and knowledge of the dominate class. This legitimization of power results in the acceptance of repression by the working class. Academic knowledge is legitimized and valued, this is the culture of the dominant class. Their knowledge is legitimized and those without this cultural capital are dominated, marginalized or excluded. The element I employ from habitus, is that the school system holds responsibility or power in influencing the behavior and norms of students, not only for reproducing the social stratification, but the values and norms developed in the school and these reproduced in the society.

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Transformative education

I propose that the values and norms developed at Cuban schools are the humanist elements of transformative education. Using the transformative education framework allows analysis of the “black box of reproduction” (Collins, 1976, cited in Gottesman, 2010 pp388) revealing the mechanisms present in the education system which reduce social discrimination. Transformative pedagogy, as outlined by Paolo Freire involves:

“Transforming those contradictions that create asymmetries of power in the manufacturing of relations of race, gender, class, and sexuality” (McLaren, 2001, pp123)

For this analysis I will draw on the definition of transformative education from Freire and Giroux (Giroux, 1992). When considering the work of Freire and transformative education, Giroux notes that we must consider Freire’s epistemology as a decolonial theorist (Giroux, 1992). Freire’s theories are rooted in emancipative, decolonial theory incorporated within his work on adult education. Paolo Freire believed that knowledge could liberate people from oppressive structures such as neo liberal capitalism (McLaren, 2001). Transformative education in the case of Freire was designed to emancipate the Latin American people from oppressive capitalist structure through knowledge. Decolonial theorists aim to use history to explain current power relations and social injustices. Latin American decolonial authors, Mignolo and Galeano have written extensively on the colonization of Latin America and exploitation of natural resources and people in the area. This perspective promotes humanism and the rejection capitalism and the commodification of people and resources (Galeano, 2009;Mignolo, 2012; Giroux, 1992). For Freire, transformative education was associated with a critical pedagogy and a revolutionary consciousness. Essentially, transformative education is part of a wider revolutionary process (McLaren, 2001, pp120-123).

“Critical pedagogy constitutes a dialectical and dialogical process that instantiates a reciprocal exchange between teachers and students-an exchange that engages in the task of reframing, refunctioning, and reposing the question of understanding itself, bringing into dialectical relief the structural and relational dimensions of knowledge and its hydra-headed power/knowledge dimensions”

(McLaren, 2001, pp121).

Critical pedagogy is the igniting force within transformative education. Critical thought can lead to an awareness of structural violence and social injustices and this knowledge can be liberating (McLaren, 2001). The desired outcome of transformative education is a reduction in asymmetries of power. These asymmetries of power may be gender, class, sexuality or race (McLaren, 2001). Asymmetries of power result in cultural exclusion of certain groups and social discrimination (Goodley and Runswick-Cole, 2011). Transformative education aims to reduce social discrimination by using the

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decolonial mechanism of historical perspective to explain that these asymmetries of power are social injustices, and trigger critical thought. Below I have designed an image to explain the elements of transformative education.

This diagram demonstrates that humanism and decolonial thought are the bases of transformative education (McLaren, 2001). Humanist theory is evident in the historical perspective and biodiversity elements of the framework which relate to the human need for nature, and an understanding of human history and relations. The liberation achieved from transformative education is in cultural expression and the recognition of cultural identity (Goodley and Runswick-Cole, 2011). This is achieved with the

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removal of asymmetries of power which exclude certain groups culturally by race, class, gender and sexuality (McLaren, 2001). For transformative education to be present today, critical pedagogy needs to be:

“self-conscious of its own constructed character” (McLaren, 2001, pp121)

that is to say the system must be constantly self-reflexive and relevant to the learners, it must be reflexive in relation to the learners needs and oppressions of the time. This research examines the current Cuban education system within the current political, social and economic context. I examine the reflexivity of the system and questioned the relevance of the curriculum and critical thinking of the students. Therefore, in the second chapter on context, and fifth chapter, liberation and oppression: I address the relaxation of the US trade embargo, the growing tourist industry and the possible resulting desire for some students to leave the island.

Multicultural education and transculturation

The final theory incorporated in this framework addresses the integration of different cultures within a classroom. My initial approach used the framework of multicultural education by Christin Sleeter. Sleeter’s theory is based in the US where students and their families may be recent immigrants. The diversity in the classroom is representative of the diversity in the community. However, this is not the case in Cuba where the African, European and Chinese descendants have been there for decades (Cluster, 2006). Cuban anthropologist, Fernando Ortiz termed the concept transculturation, a process of social blending of different cultures through shared creativity and expression (Mario Santi 2004). In the case of Cuba, this is witnessed in the shared creative, cultural expression of dance, religion and music (Mario Santi 2004). The discovery of transculturation as a concept of integration was transformative to the research. I have recognized that multicultural education is not a concept which Cubans are familiar with as their society is transcultural. However, the literature on multicultural education allows for critical analysis of transculturation. The praxis of the debate within multicultural education is the extent of acknowledgement given towards differences in the classroom. Multicultural education questions the extent to which schools should reflect or address the diversity within the community and what tools they should employ do so (Sleeter, 2010). This literature stems from the US, the context is a ‘white’ classroom with a minority of ‘other’ students who bring the multicultural aspect to the classroom. However, this theory can be transferred to other settings where there is a predominant cultural norm and a secondary group become treated as an extra component to the class rather than an assemblage of children. The reasons for marginalization in such a culture according to Sleeter are firstly; simplistic conceptions of the situation, allowing people to believe that transformations and changes are occurring in the society while the underlying problems are not addressed. Secondly, cultural celebration, where the values and norms of the ‘other’ group are addressed but separate from the regular class activities such as a feast day of a patron saint for the

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‘other’ group. Thirdly, trivialization, where an agenda is set for understanding the ‘other’ group and children follow the agenda. This authoritarian method does not leave space for the children to contribute their perspective to the topic and, Sleeter notes that no actual changes will be implemented from this method (Sleeter, 2010). The fourth reason for marginalization is due to the teacher essentializing the ‘other’ group and presuming them to have homogenous behavior. Essentializing group behavior may limit the self-development of children, particularly in the case of multicultural education where differences are present but not addressed or recognised. Sleeter asserts that these methods of multicultural education are inefficient. Sleeter promotes a culturally responsive pedagogy. A culturally responsive pedagogy is rooted in dialogue between the teacher and student and this builds what she refers to as reciprocal teaching and learning. This would allow children to be recognized and treated as individuals so they can have their individual needs met while not being singled out as different. I have used this element of the framework to analyse how teachers are treating children of different colour and how the curriculum is addressing histories of European, African and Chinese descendantsin Cuba.

For Sleeter, the argument for multicultural education, is social justice, meaning the minorities of a society are able to argue their point and be listened to by their peers (Sleeter 2010 pp2). This ties into the liberation element of transformative education, where cultural expression and cultural identities are recognized and accepted (Goodley and Runswick-Cole, 2011). Culturally responsive pedagogy; means that the curriculum has cultural markers which all students can relate to. This could be in the history, music or art classes as acknowledgement of multi-faces and perspectives in the society.

Literature Review

The literature review has three sections. The first section focuses on research conducted in Cuban schools published in English; the second section addresses research on humanist education in relation to reducing social discrimination the final section turns towards research on transformative education.

Gasperini conducted a well cited study of Cuban education for the World Bank in 2000. The research followed a mixed method approach, generating rich primary data through the use of observation and triangulating this with the secondary source of policy reviews and government reports. This research uses a multi-layered framework based on the Human Capital (HC) framework. The report focuses on arbitrary inputs and measures this against pupil performance, coupled with indicators of social cohesion, quality and participation (Gasperini, 2000). The report is a detailed and highly informative description of Cuban schools. By using the HC framework Gasperini’s report focuses on the quantitative, capital gains of education on the society. In contrast to this, Denise Blum conducted an ethnographic investigation into the revolutionary values derived from the education system, Cuban youth and revolutionary values: educating the new socialist citizen (Blum, 2011). This qualitative work aims to understand daily life in Havana, explore the bureaucracy of the system and understand

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how the revolutionary values are developed in the school and the society. The methods section explains the process of gaining access to the school. Like Blum, gaining access was a considerable feat for this investigation requiring negotiation with the University of Havana, the MINED and the school. Blum’s theoretical framework uses political religion to explain how the revolutionary values taught in school are similar to the power of religion and are transferred to the society. Her research was well executed and the framework suited the research. The similarity with this research is the transfer of values from school to society: humanist values or revolutionary values (Blum, 2011). Her analysis of life in Havana and illustrating the context was extremely useful for this investigation. She devotes a section to explaining the Cuban Dichotomy on which I have based my context section.

Youngs-Colon conducted a mixed methods study on the Cuban education system in 2005. She conducted a policy analysis of Cuban education and triangulated this with a survey conducted with students and teachers focusing on: quality of education, democracy in the classroom and academic/intellectual freedom (Youngs-Colon, 2005, pp42-52). The variable of academic freedom was particularly interesting to my research. In this case the dimensions of freedom employed were: internet use, educational exchange and choice of career (Youngs-Colon, 2005, pp52). I argue that these are orientated around the western concept of freedom which includes choice, individualism and limited government influence (Hirst, 1965, cited in Yousefi et al 2014 pp103-104). Therefore, in this research I conducted a focus group to explore student’s understanding of the concept before asking in interviews about their idea of freedom. I did this because I believed that the Cuban notion of freedom would be a different definition than that of Western researchers such as Youngs-Colon, Hirst and Yousefi et al (Youngs-Colon, 2005, Hirst, 1965, cited in Yousefi et al 2014 pp103-104).

Research conducted by UNICEF reports allow comparison of the Cuban system along standardized variables of the Millennium Development Goals (UNICEF, 2012). This report provides quantitative findings which may allow comparison of the outcomes of the Cuban education system with other global education systems in such as literacy rates and school attendance. This reports rely on standard assessment as a measure of learning, there is no exploration of the transfer of social values from the education system to the society (Gasperini, 2000) (UNICEF, 2012).

Humanist education and culture to reduce social discrimination

This section reviews research which examines the effect of humanist education to reduce social discrimination. Globally, there are epistemological differences on the concept of humanism, and the values this entails. Fang He compared Confucius, Dewey and Makiguchi’s conceptions of humanism in an attempt to bridge the gap between East and West notions of humanism in education. (Fang He, 2013). He notes that neo liberal education policies create:

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“Cutthroat competition…commodiﬁcation and consumption… standardization… and separation from … nature and cosmos”

(Goulah, 2006, 2009; Schubert, 2009 cited in Fang He, 2013 pp68-69). Policies promoting the commodification of people are not directly supportive of reducing social discrimination. Fang He identified consensus between the three theorists of humanism in education. He notes that in situations of segregation, humanism can develop:

“Associated living..., value creation… imagination, and … [a] connection with nature and cosmos” (Goulah, 2006, 2009; Schubert, 2009 cited in Fang He, 2013 pp68-69).

The literature suggests that humanism in education, builds certain values which lead to “associated living” (Fang He, 2013 pp68). In this section I will examine research which explores this notion that humanism in education can reduce social discrimination: the aim of the thesis. Fang He notes that the humanist values can only be recognized within the collective effort of society (Fang He, 2013). This suggests that coordination is required between the education system, the government and the society for humanist value to be realised.

British researchers Goodley and Runswick-Cole noted that disabled children are marginalized from society, specifically, in regards to culture and creativity. The researchers note that recognition is not generally given to disabled children for their art, art is seen as therapeutic for their condition. Therefore their ability to create, express and build an identity is diminished. The researchers argue that groups are excluded and marginalized because the elite promote a dominating exclusionary culture (Goodley and Runswick-Cole 2011). The culture makes their abilities, their creativity less valuable and therefore their identity is reduced and they are marginalised (Goodley and Runswick-Cole 2011 pp77). In their research they employed

“A radical humanist epistemology in order to take seriously the creativity of disabled children.

(Goodley and Runswick-Cole 2011 pp78)

and by proxy, acknowledge their creative identity and culture, including them in the community. The research employed anthropological methods of interviews and observations of a theatre group in England while staging a production with disabled children. The question here is not, should art by disabled children be credited and admired. The researchers found that expression and creativity generated through artistic activities build a cultural identity for people. Legitimizing this cultural identity reduces social discrimination against disabled children and allows them expression and identity (Goodley and Runswick-Cole 2011 pp78).

In a similar case, Laura Dull examined the role of humanist values in Serbian education. After the breakup of Yugoslavia, the European Union (EU) and World Bank (WB) stepped in to propose neo

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liberal education systems in Serbia which would develop the Human Capital of the next generation of Serbians and regenerate the area economically (Dull, 2012). Through interviews and policy analysis, Dull found that teachers were not promoting neo-liberal ideologies to their students as proposed by the multi-laterals. Instead, teachers promoted “Slavic humanism” (Dull, 2012 pp512) to develop students as more “complete humans” (Dull, 2012 pp512) and:

“Distinguish Serbian people from the alienation and materialism of citizens of more advanced

nations” (Dull, 2012 pp512).

In this way, humanism was used as a mechanism to promote the culture and identity of the Serbian people and reduce power inequalities. Humanism in education was used in contrast to the attempt of standardization and commodification of the students and in this way their culture and identity was recognized. In this case, the Serbian children in Serbia were not the minority or a marginalized group. However, humanism was employed to protect the children from alienation and bring cultural capital to the education rather than solely human capital.

South African professor, Dr Clive Kronenberg has addressed the role of humanism in Cuba. He explores the objectives of humanism as outlined by Cuban revolutionary leaders Jose Marti and Ernesto (Che) Guevara (Kronenberg, 2009). Humanism has had a link to Cuban politics since the nineteenth century when Marti used humanism as a principle ideology for the promotion of independence from Spain and social equality for all races in Cuba (Kronenberg, 2009, pp73). He concludes that the humanist policies in Cuba have reduced racial discrimination, going so far as to say:

“South African society, especially, stands to profit greatly from Cuba’s antiracist/non-racial philosophy, given the country’s deeply entrenched racist legacy.” (Kronenberg, 2009, pp75).

This comment is in relation to the effect of humanist values on the Cuban society which leads to a reduction of racial discrimination (Kronenberg, 2009 pp75).

These researchers have examined education in Cuba, and humanist education as a means of reducing social discrimination against disabled or marginalized groups. I base my research within this literature, and from here I begin to examine the role of humanist education in reducing racial discrimination in Cuba.

Methodological aspects of Research on transformative education

Methodological perspectives on transformative education include many qualitative designs including ‘longitudinal designs, action research, scales, surveys, content analysis of documents and photo-election interviews’ (Taylor, 2007, pp176). These methods provided rich data for the field of transformative education which has been growing in adult education literature (Taylor, 2007). The

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drawback of empirical research on transformative education according to Taylor, was the lack of sufficient emphasis put on historical context.

This research, was of vital importance in the investigation I conducted in Havana. The WB and UNICEF reports provide strong statistical evidence regarding school performance and the work of Blum and Youngs-Colon has explored the concepts of freedom and revolutionary values in the Cuban education system methodologically I have set the context of Havana, historically, politically, economically and socially in Spring of 2015, as suggested by thee literature. I have drawn on Blum’s ethnographic approach to analyse how a social value is developed in the education system and transferred to the society. I base my thesis in the literature of humanist education to reduce social inequalities. Although studies have focused on the social inclusion and transformative education, there has been no case study conducted on the effect of education to transform social race relations in Havana. There are lessons to be drawn from this and they are presented in this thesis. . This is the gap in the literature I am addressing.

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Chapter 4. Research Design

This is a case study of education in Havana based in a Pre Universidad in Vedado. A case study allows for the pool of rich, detailed data which is context specific, rooted in the social and political context of 2015; I have captured the current social context in Havana and the activity in the school where I conducted fieldwork. This allowed for an intensive examination of the neighborhood and the particular nature of the relationship students have with their education system. The aim of this research was to draw lessons in community building from Havana. It was important to conduct a case study to show the reality and the imperfections of this society, there is no perfect system. The case study allows me to combine the policy of the government, with the voice of people in the school and community and build on this data with my observations of the environment. To create a solid understanding of the process of transformative education within the context of Vedado today.

I began my investigation by talking to people in the neighborhood of Vedado to build up a picture of the society. I conducted unscripted interviews with students, professors, ministry officials and people on the street; for the full list of interviewees please see appendix 4. I allowed respondents to talk about what Cuban Society looked like to them. I prompted them with questions about equality and the ongoing Cuban U.S. dialogue. I asked about the political, economic and social context of the town and was told about tourism, prostitution and having a second income. This Information allowed me to draw the context section of this thesis and to decide which form of discrimination to focus on – racism.

After negotiating access to the Pre Universidad (for further details on gaining access please see Permission) I conducted observations in classrooms and interviews with teachers. I then conducted a focus group with students and interviewed 16 students. Finally I conducted a policy analysis of the curriculum. The case study is a context specific analysis of transformative education.

Operationalization

The four central concepts to this research are: liberation, social discrimination, transculturation and humanism. The concepts of liberation and social discrimination came from the literature review and theoretical framework. The concepts of transculturation and humanism developed during the fieldwork and data analysis period these concepts came inductively from the data. In the table below I have presented the concepts and their dimensions. The indicator column refers to wording specifically searched for when coding the interviews and curriculum.

Liberation - is an essential element of the transformative education framework, referring to a mental liberation from oppressive capitalist structures through knowledge (McLaren, 2001). The dimensions and indicators I have used in the table came from the focus group with students. I asked the students to conceptualise the term so that I would be able to understand their definition.

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Social discrimination- is the similar to the element of oppression found in transformative education. There are two dimensions to social discrimination, firstly: cultural imperialism, which refers to a lack of power and domination. Secondly, racial discrimination, which leads to the marginalisation and exploitation of a group. The indicators for social discrimination were based on the student’s conceptualisation of oppression.

Transculturation – this was a concept I had not considered before the data analysis period. The concept was found in the curriculum, and was useful for explaining the particular social context in Cuba. Indicators for transculturation refer to the ethnic groups which makeup the Cuban population, and cultural expression, as mechanisms of incorporating the cultural identities in the community.

Humanism – is a concept which came inductively from the interviews and the curriculum. Indicators of humanism are seen as human values mentioned by the children and observed in the classroom as well as specific reference to the doctrine of Jose Marti and Che Guevara.

Concept Dimension Indicator

Liberation Peace Acceptance of differences

Happiness Expression

Freedom of thought

Equality Equal right of expression

Choice Choice of career

Democracy Representation of all views

Social discrimination Cultural Imperialism Powerlessness

Culture of silence restrictions Racial discrimination Marginalization

Exploitation Domination Violence

Transculturation Identity European descent

African descent The blended identity Creole

Culture Dance

Music literature