Exploring the relationship between the Big Five personality dimensions and the motivation to purchase organic products : the influence on brand loyalty

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M

ASTER

T

HESIS

Exploring the relationship between the

Big Five personality dimensions and the

motivation to purchase organic products

The influence on Brand Loyalty

Amsterdam Business School University of Amsterdam

Name: Marloes van Apeldoorn

Student number: 10822208

Supervisor: Drs. Ing. A. Meulemans Second reader: Prof. Dr. J. Tettero

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1 Statement of originality

This document is written by Student Marloes van Apeldoorn (student number 10822208) who declares to take full responsibility for the contents of this document.

I declare that the text and the work presented in this document is original and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating it.

The Faculty of Economics and Business is responsible solely for the supervision of completion of the work, not for the contents.

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2 Table of contents Acknowledgement 4 Abstract 5 1. Introduction 4 1.1 Problem statement 8 1.2 Research questions 8 1.3 Practical relevance 8 1.4 Theoretical relevance 9 1.5 Confusion regarding organic food and super-food 9

2. Literature review 11

2.1 Organic food 11

2.1.1 Taste 13

2.1.2 Environmentally friendly 14

2.1.3 Health 15

2.1.4 Fashionability and status 16

2.2 Brand Loyalty 17 2.3 Big Five Model 20

2.3.1 Conscientiousness 21 2.3.2 Neuroticism 22 2.3.3 Openness to Experience 23 2.3.4 Extraversion 24 2.3.5 Agreeableness 25 3. Methodology 27 3.1 Procedure 27

3.2 Measurement and scales 28

3.2.1 Product attributes 29

3.2.2 Moderating variables: Big Five personality 30

3.2.3 Dependent variable: Brand Loyalty 32

4. Results 35

4.1 Response analysis 35 4.2 Descriptive statistics 35 4.3 Hypothesis testing 37

4.3.1 Hypotheses 1a, 2a, 3a and 4a 37

4.3.2 Hypothesis 1b 39 4.3.3 Hypothesis 1c 41 4.3.4 Hypothesis 2b 42 4.3.5 Hypothesis 3b 44 4.3.6 Hypothesis 4b 45 4.3.7 Hypothesis 4c 47 4.4 Summary of results 48

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3 5. Discussion 50 5.1 Discussion 50 5.2 Theoretical implications 51 5.3 Managerial implications 52 5.4 Conclusion 53

5.5 Limitations and suggestions for future research 54

6. References 56

7. List of appendices 61

Appendix A: Questionnaire 61 Appendix B: Demographic factors respondents 61

B1: Gender 65

B2: Age 65

B3: Education 65

Appendix C: Reliability statistics 66

C1: Conscientiousness 66 C2: Neuroticism 66 C3: Openness to Experience 66 C4: Extraversion 67 C5: Agreeableness 67 C6: Brand Loyalty 68

Appendix D: Multicollinearity outcomes 69

D1: Conscientiousness 69

D2: Neuroticism 69

D3: Openness to Experience 69

D4: Extraversion 69

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Acknowledgment

I wrote this thesis for the purpose of completing the programme Master Business Administration – Marketing. With it, I complete my academic education and start my professional career. I have greatly enjoyed my year at the University of Amsterdam and am excited to see what the future holds for me. I could not have completed my thesis without the help of some people, whom I would like to acknowledge.

First of all, I would like to thank my supervisor Antoon Meulemans for his insightful comments and feedback, and his support throughout this process.

Secondly, I would like to acknowledge my parents for their continuous support during my years of studying, and always being there for me. Without their support I would not have been able to finish it. This thesis is therefore dedicated to them.

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5 Abstract

Many previous studies investigating the reasons why consumers loyally purchase organic products conclude that this is mainly the case because they consider them to be healthier, friendlier to the environment and to have superior taste over conventional products. In this thesis, it is also argued that consumers purchase organic products due to their fashionable status. In order to see why some consumers are loyal to organic products and others are not, a distinction is made based on personality differences. In short, this study examines the relationship between the product attributes of organic food and their relationship with Brand Loyalty, and whether this relationship is moderated by personality traits. Given the increased market share and of organic products and growing consumer interest, this is a relevant field of research. It is hypothesized that when consumers score high on one of the dimensions of the Big Five personality model, this corresponds to them purchasing organic products for a reason congruent with their personality. In this way, personality moderates the relationship of product attributes with Brand Loyalty in a positive manner.

By means of an online survey, data is gathered and subsequently analyzed by means of correlation and multiple regression. Unfortunately, limited statistical evidence is found to support the claim that personality moderates all the relationships as hypothesized. Based on this, implications are discussed and recommendations are made for future research.

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1. Introduction

Companies are becoming increasingly creative in marketing their products. They no longer simply promote the characteristics of an item, but feature their products as representing a lifestyle, and identity. Often, consumers will tend to choose a brand that they consider congruent with their self-image. In this particular way each consumer at an individual basis will try to reflect his or her own identity through product choice (Kim & Aimee 2003). What consumers buy, own and consume defines them to others as well as toward themselves. Therefore, brands have the ability to embody consumer identities (Stokburger-Sauer, 2010). This manner of segmenting enables companies to interact with customers on a more personal and direct level than has ever been possible before (Kim & Aimee 2003).

This can also be said for the marketing of organic food products. When visiting a Whole Foods store, or another type of organic food market, it becomes apparent that organic food marketing is no longer merely focused on product characteristics (Serazio, 2011). In recent years, retail sales of organic foods have blossomed as consumers have educated themselves about potential benefits associated with buying organic (Hughner, McDonagh, Prothero, Shultz & Stanton, 2007). As such, products classified as organic possibly represent the next stage of branded products—defined as capturing the moral character, spirit, or imagination of a person that values groceries to be healthy based on their personality characteristics (Serazio, 2011). This is in line with the marketing field of lifestyle branding, seen as how lifestyle branding can be defined as “the process in which a product or service that provides consumers with an emotional attachment to an

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7 identifiable lifestyle, of which the consumer then projects this lifestyle to society by purchasing and using particular brands. The consumer then projects this lifestyle to society by purchasing and using particular brands (Jung & Merlin, 2003).”

There is great interest in how consumers perceive organic products, and whether this differs significantly based on personality differences (Fraj & Martinez, 2006). The field of lifestyle branding from a consumer behavior point of view is interesting to investigate because it enables one to identify whether consumers purchase products based on reasons that are congruent with their personalities. When this relationship is further explored, it can help corporations in this industry to target their customers more effectively, leading to an increase in Brand Loyalty. When it comes to understanding Brand Loyalty and grocery products, and more specifically organic grocery products, only a limited number of studies have been completed (i.e. Anselmsson, Johansson & Persson, 2007). According to Ngobo (2011), little is known about the consumer decision-making regarding organic products in a grocery supermarket context, and what leads consumers to ultimately purchase a certain product over another. Therefore, the aim of this thesis is to investigate the relationship between the Brand Loyalty of organic food products, and the personality traits as characterized by the Big Five model developed by Goldberg (1990). The aim is to do this by linking product attributes to personality traits, thereby identifying how preferences are formed.

Parts of this thesis are based on previous work completed for a Bachelor thesis (Apeldoorn, van, 2014). The original references have been used to exhibit the original authors.

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1.1 Problem Statement

Seen as how the field of organic food marketing is relatively underdeveloped, and the industry itself is booming, it is interesting to investigate what drives consumers, based on their personality traits, to purchase organic products. This has therefore led to the following problem statement:

“Is there a relationship between the product attributes of organic food and Brand Loyalty, and is this relationship moderated by personality traits?”

1.2 Research questions

In order to answer this, the following research questions have been formulated: • What is organic food?

• What are the important product attributes of organic products that consumers take into consideration when evaluating organic food products?

• How can Brand Loyalty of organic food be defined and researched? • How are personalities characterized according to the Big Five model?

1.3 Practical relevance

A reason for studying Brand Loyalty of organic food consumers arises from a strategy-based motivation to improve marketing productivity. Given the increase of marketing costs, greater and more intense competition, and decreasing demand in many markets, firms seek to improve the efficiency of their marketing expenses (Zeithaml, Lemon & Rust, 2001). In other words, better knowing why people choose to purchase organic leads

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9 to more efficient marketing tactics, seen as how consumers are thought to respond more favorably to messages that invoke their identity and show how it fits with a given brand (Bhattacharjee, Berger & Menon, 2014).

1.4 Theoretical relevance

The Big Five personality model is a frequently cited source when it comes to identifying different personalities of people, in various settings and disciplines. It is for example an often used measure to explain the (potential) purchase behavior of consumers. However, when it comes to consumer behavior regarding organic products, research is fairly limited. It is therefore theoretically relevant to conduct a study in which this relationship is explored.

1.5 Confusion regarding organic food and super-food

In order to clear up any confusion, it is decided to first clearly explain what organic food is, and more importantly, what it is not. Increasing media attention is given to the alleged benefits of so-called super-foods, and consumers oftentimes confuse this with organic products. They are however not the same, and describe two distinctly different product categories. The Organic Trade Association (2010) defines organic farming as ‘‘the way agricultural food products are grown and processed. Organic food production is based on a system of farming that maintains and replenishes soil fertility without the use of toxic and persistent pesticides and fertilizers. Organic foods are minimally processed without artificial ingredients, preservatives, or irradiation to maintain the integrity of the

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food and society as a whole.’’ Meanwhile, super-food is merely marketing terminology aimed at describing foods with supposed health benefits (Di Noia, 2014). It is a term that is not used by scientists and oftentimes even disputed due to a lack of foundation for these claims. Seen as how the two terms comprise distinctly different product categories it is important to define the scope of this topic.

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11 2. Literature review

2.1 Organic food

Numerous food crises have led to the fact that the organic food market is currently attracting a vastly bigger amount of consumers (Chen, 2007). Moreover, increased media attention and environmental awareness leads increasing numbers of consumers in the direction of organic food options (Kotler, 2011). The organic food market is one of the fastest growing sectors of most developed agricultural economies around the world (Chen, 2007). There are various reasons this market is expanding so rapidly, based on various attributes of organic food products in comparison to conventional food products. The most prevalent reasons to purchase organic over conventional food are taste, the products are environmentally friendlier than conventional products, and they are deemed healthier (Hughner et al., 2007). Another reason that becomes increasingly salient to contribute the popularity of organic food to is the extensive media coverage, and thereby the fashionable status, it receives (Lockie, 2006).

The following section of will make a distinction between the various product attributes that lead consumers to purchase organic products, and are believed to lead to an increase in Brand Loyalty toward the product category.

2.1.1 Environmentally friendly

Magnusson, Arvola, Hursti, Åberg & Sjödén (2003) and Verhoef (2005) concluded that taste and health motives differ from environmental purchase motivations in the sense that concern about health can be regarded as egoistic – it directly benefits the individual – while considerations for the environment and animal welfare are more altruistic meaning

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that it benefits society as a whole. Altruistic considerations often carry personal behavioral or even economic costs and the majority of consumers are unwilling to forego much personal benefit in order to contribute to the benefit of the community. Both motives are embedded in different personality characteristics that will be described in the following section.

Many studies mentioned in the literature review of Hughner et al. (2007) have found environmental concern to be a factor in consumers’ attitudes with respect to organic food. An important reason consumers mention when choosing for organic products is the fact that there are potentially damaging chemicals and pesticides that are harmful to the environment present in conventional food products (Hughner et al., 2007). Organic products, and with that the organic production process, sets very strict limits to the amount of pesticides used. This is due to what they are thought to do the environment and the health of animals and humans (First & Brozina, 2009). Organically produced products are therefore perceived to be friendly for the environment.

Furthermore, expectations of better animal welfare in organic production processes also motivate organic buyers to purchase organic products, albeit to a lesser extent than concern for the environment (Hill & Lynchehaun, 2002). Because consumers value all of the aforementioned benefits to the environment, they are willing to purchase organic products, and will continue to do so over products that do not offer the same benefit. This dimension is more dependent on credible communication, seen as how it is impossible for a consumer to determine whether the animals have been treated well at the time of production or if the organization behind the brand takes social responsibility and

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13 acts environmentally friendly (Anselmsson et al, 2007). This dimension is related to Brand Loyalty because it can be concluded that when consumers respond positively to the product attribute of environmental concern, they will be more likely to purchase organic options over conventional options in the same category. In turn, when consumers positively valuate a product due to a differential product characteristic, it is theorized to have a positive effect on the Brand Loyalty of the aforementioned product. This reasoning leads to the following hypothesis:

H1a. Environmental concern has a positive influence on Brand Loyalty.

2.1.2 Health

A consumer’s health is considered to be one of the primary reasons to for consumers to purchase organic products. As well as taste, this is considered to be an egoistic motive to purchase organic products. Concern about food safety, and with that indirectly a concern for health, has also been mentioned by various respondents as a reason for the purchase of organic food (Hughner et al., 2007). Increasing health awareness leads increasing numbers of consumers to focus on food safety and quality and investigate alternatives. This concern is especially directed towards meat and egg products (Wier & Calverley, 2002). An example of this is the concern for food crises and unreliability such as the recent scandal of horsemeat being sold as beef throughout Europe (Premanandh, 2013). It is widely accepted that consumers have the right to know and choose what they want to eat, and that it should be clear what the ingredients of a product are. This turned out to however not always be the case, leaving consumers frustrated and confused, and caused consumers to lose faith in the general production chain and leads them to explore other

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options. Moreover, avoiding harmful preservatives and chemicals have become very important for consumers (Wier & Calverley, 2002). As mentioned previously, consumers value this as a protection for the environment, but also for health reasons because fewer chemicals will be ingested when choosing for organic food options (Schifferstein & Ophuis, 1998; McEachern & Willock, 2004). Lastly, many consumers perceive it to be more nutritious, even though this has never been scientifically proven (Honkanen, Verplanen & Olsen, 2006). Many studies conclude that it is important to be careful with the interpretation of the results of perceived healthiness of organic food products, as this type of study gives a reflection of the perceived health effects by the consumer themself and therefore may be an overestimation or underestimation of the real effect (Vijver, van de & Vliet, van, 2012).

In short, consumers are inclined to purchase organic products because of all the positive effects that the products offer in terms of safety and health over products that are not organic. This is linked to an increase in Brand Loyalty because health-conscious consumers are thought to appreciate this attribute and will prefer it over other options. This has therefore led to the following hypothesis:

H2a. Health and Safety concerns have a positive influence on Brand Loyalty.

2.1.3 Taste

Several studies have found the taste of food to be among the most important in organic food purchases (Hughner et al., 2007; Stobbelaar, Casimir, Borghuis, Marks, Meijer & Zebeda, 2007). Consumers of organic food perceive taste advantages over conventional alternatives (Hughner et al., 2007). Zanoli & Naspetti (2002) conclude that taste is the

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15 most important motivation in food choice in general, and this can also be said for organic products. However, taste is a subjective issue. Hill & Lynchehaun (2002) conclude that consumers often already perceive the taste of an organic product to be better, because due to the price premium that they have paid for it is also considered to be of premium quality. Fillion & Arazi (2002), concur with this. According to their research, the claim that organic food per definition tastes better cannot always be substantiated. Their study concluded that that organic orange juice was perceived as tasting better than conventional orange juice by a majority of participants; however the same could not be said for organic versus conventional milk. These findings suggest that organic respondents have varied views about the taste of organic milk based on their perceptions. Therefore, it cannot be said that the taste of all organic products is indeed superior to conventional products, but that consumers often do perceive this to be the case. Because of the fact that consumers perceive the taste of organic products to be superior over that of conventional products, consumers purchase organic products.

In research completed by Anselmsson et al. (2007), taste was most frequently mentioned as the most important intrinsic quality motivation. Consumers deemed organic products to be of higher quality, seen as how they articulated it to be tastier than normal products. This can therefore be said to lead to high Brand Loyalty of organic products, because the concept of a product being organic will lead to consumers that intuitively valuate products in this category more positively. This reasoning leads to the following hypothesis:

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H3a. The (perceived) Superior Taste of organic products has a positive influence on Brand Loyalty.

2.1.4 Fashionability and status

Since the 1990s, organic food is gaining status and prestige in western countries. It is believed that the marketing of organic products is now past the ‘hippy era’ and moving toward a more mainstream approach (Hill & Lynchehaun, 2002). In the media it is portrayed as a fashionable, high quality, and tasty product segment found increasingly both in restaurants and stores and in the diets of celebrities featured in the media (Lockie, 2006). However, not much academic research could be found that investigated whether the increased media attention that organic products currently receive leads to an increase in purchase intention. Hughner et al. (2007) briefly mention the perceived fashionable state of organic food to be of importance to consumers. In their study it is contributed to the considerable coverage organic products receive in the media, along with promotional campaigns and the premium price of the products that consumers pay for organic products. Seen as how organic products are increasingly receiving more media attention, consumer awareness regarding organic product options increases.

Because consumers are increasingly aware of organic food options and consider these to be fashionable, they are motivated to purchase organic products due to their increasingly positive status. Seen as how this leads to organic products being valued more positively and leads to a preference over other products, it leads to an increase in Brand Loyalty. This reasoning has therefore led to the following hypothesis:

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2.2 Brand Loyalty

In an industry as competitive and fast-paced as the food industry, increasing and sustaining repeat purchases and customer loyalty are vital ingredients to long-term success (Huddleston, Whipple & VanAuken, 2004). According to Bove & Mitzifiris (2007), satisfaction with a product is the key driver of sustainable, long-term loyalty, and imply that one needs to understand a customer in order to deliver the products and services they are looking for.

There are various stages of loyalty to distinguish between. Oliver (1999), who viewed loyalty as an attitudinal development process, followed the cognition-affect-behavior model. Building upon the basic standard learning hierarchy, he proposed that consumers exhibit different types of loyalty at various stages of the process. Therefore, he separated the behavioral component of the standard learning model into the separate components of loyalty.

Although purchasing food products is generally considered a low involvement activity in developed countries, shopping for organic foods can be regarded as a high-involvement decision. This is said to be the case because consumers who purchase organic foods tend to be more involved in the buying process and thus make more informed choices through active and reasoned information processing (Lee & Goudeau, 2014). Therefore, the standard learning hierarchy is deemed appropriate as a theoretical framework for this research.

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Based on this perspective, Oliver (1999) has proposed four distinct phases in the development of customer loyalty toward a product or service. The first phase is described as cognitive loyalty. It reflects the knowledge and beliefs of the individual regarding a certain product or service. Relating this to organic food would mean that consumers believe it to be preferable to eat organic food over conventional products. This stage is followed by affective loyalty. It arises as a consequence of the individual emotions or feelings toward the product or service. This implies they have a positive attitude toward the product category. Thereafter comes conative loyalty. It would be the expression of the consumer buying intention over time. It would imply that they have repeatedly found organic food to be a better choice. The ultimate phase of loyalty as defined by Oliver (1999) is action loyalty. This is the moment at which intentions and preferences are converted to actions, such as repeat purchases. Repeat purchases are, or should be, the goal for every organization, seen as how loyal customers allocate proportionally more of their budget to their first choice product than customers who switch frequently between them (Bove & Mitzifiris, 2007).

In order to achieve satisfied customers, it is important to know what it is they are looking for in a product. How customers perceive brands and what motivates them to an eventual purchase is an important theme in research on Brand Loyalty (Anselmsson, et al., 2007). To come to an eventual purchase, the presence of strongly held, favorably evaluated associations that are unique to the brand and imply superiority over other competing brands are critical (Zeithaml et al., 2001). This evaluation is shaped by the

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19 marketing strategies and influenced on by the customer itself through life experiences and associations.

It is a fundamental human drive to understand who one is as a person, what one believes in and what one does in life. Therefore, pointing out that consumers like products, brands and consumption behaviors that are linked to category labels with which they self-associate is intuitive (Reed, Forehand, Puntoni, Warlop, 2012). When trying to achieve the goal of attracting and maintaining customers, it is thus vital for companies to adequately respond to this drive by promoting products in manners that correspond with this accordingly. This process is often referred to as lifestyle branding, or lifestyle positioning. Lifestyle positioning now has become an increasingly common approach among managers, especially in commodity categories in which functional differences are difficult to maintain (Chernev, Hamilton & Gal, 2011). Food is an example of this, and in more detail, organic food. Seen as how it is hard to differentiate between functional benefits of buying organic compared to conventional products alone, it is thought that there are other reasons for consumers to purchase organic product options. Purchasing organic products can be related to a lifestyle of caring for the environment, society and the individual itself. In this particular way each consumer at an individual basis will try to reflect his or her own identity through choice (Kim & Aimee, 2003).

The lifestyle concept has become the core of a special kind of segmentation research called psychographics (Vyncke, 2002). One way that segmentation can be based on psychographics, is by using the Big Five model, as developed by Goldberg (1990).

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This model will be used to quantitatively assess consumer personality differences, and is elaborated on in the following section.

2.3 The Big Five model

Since different products within a product category are often hard to distinguish in terms of physical product attributes, many advertisers now profile their brand on rather psychological dimensions, thereby distinguishing between customers based on their personality (Vyncke, 2002). Mulyanegara, Tsarenko & Anderson (2009) define personality as “the intrinsic organization of an individual’s mental world that is stable over time and consistent over situations.” Personality traits are noticed to play an important role in predicting and explaining human purchase behavior, seen as how the interests and traits of a person play a tremendous role in establishing food preferences and choice (Chen, 2007). Personality theory proposes that personality traits are primary determinants of behavior and there is considerable evidence linking personality to purchase behavior and loyalty (Conner & Abraham, 2001). Aaker (1997) concluded that the greater the congruity is between human characteristics that describe their actual or ideal self, and a brand, the greater the preference for the said brand will be.

A commonly used framework to distinguish between personality traits is the Five Factor, or Big Five model. Its factors are Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness and Neuroticism. According to this model, personality is described by emotional, cognitive and behavioral elements that are distinctive (Mulyanegara et al., 2009). Each dimension consists of a set of correlated traits that are

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21 represented as bipolar traits. Although individuals can exhibit all five dimensions, they may score quite highly on one or several dimensions and lower on others.

2.3.1 Conscientiousness

The personality dimension of Conscientiousness deals with the measure of dependability and consistency (Goldberg, 1990). Barrick & Mount (1991) identify the corresponding personality characteristics as being careful, responsible, thorough, and disciplined. Opposing characteristics that are most prevalent are being aimless, unreliable, lazy, and weak-willed (Mulyanegara et al., 2009). According to Conner & Abraham (2001), Conscientiousness is more strongly correlated with caution-related behaviors than the other Big Five traits. Individuals that score high on this dimension are likely to purchase organic products based on the premises that they are better for the environment and society as a whole, seen as how they are installed with a great sense of responsibility and sense of care. They process available product options in a task-oriented, structured and logical manner which enables them to concentrate on certain facets of a product they value to be important (Othman & Rahman, 2014). Conscientiousness usually embodies carefulness, responsibility and organisation. This dimension tends to reflect a greater investment in longterm planning, and Conscientiousness is related to future time perspective. Higher levels of self-discipline, competence and perfectionism are related to planning for better outcomes in the future. Similarly, several previous studies have shown that greater environmental engagement is associated with higher future time perspective. Environmental engagement is also related to long-term planning and responsibility, thus explaining the links with Conscientiousness. (Milfont & Sibley, 2012).

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According to Hirsh (2010), a high score on the personality trait of Conscientiousness is linked with high levels of social investment and conformity to rules. This implies that highly conscientious individuals might be expected to carefully follow social guidelines and norms for appropriate environmental action, whereas individuals with a lower score might be more willing to ‘‘cut corners’’ when it comes to environmentally responsible behavior. Furthermore, because conscientious people are characterized by a high degree of self-discipline, they are likely to be pro-environmentally active because this is behavior that needs to be repeated daily. The self-disciplinary feature of Conscientiousness would be a positive predictor of pro-environmental action therefore (Markowitz, Goldberg, Ashton & Lee, 2012). This has led to the following hypothesis:

H1b. Conscientiousness positively moderates the relationship of Environmental Concern with Brand Loyalty of organic food.

2.3.2 Neuroticism

Neuroticism captures the inability of a person to cope with stress (Goldberg, 1990). Commonly associated personality traits are being anxious, depressed, worried and insecure (Barrick et al., 1991). Opposing characteristics on the other hand are being calm, relaxed, unemotional, and stable (Mulyanegara et al., 2009). This be said to reflect on concerns regarding the environment, seen as how consumers that are classified as worrisome will feel more secure when purchasing organic products. This is due to the fact that they are considered to be better for the environment than conventionally produced products. Hirsh (2010) theorized that these individuals tend to be generally

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23 more worried about negative outcomes, and their environmental concerns could reflect their anxiety about the consequences of environmental degradation. These feelings of concern can be diminished by purchasing organic products. Therefore, the following hypothesis is formulated:

H1c. Neuroticism positively moderates the relationship of Environmental Concern and Brand Loyalty of organic food options.

On the other hand, these feelings of concern not only relate to their concern for the environment, but also for their personal well being, Health and Safety (Milfont & Sibley, 2012). Therefore, individuals that score high on the dimension of Neuroticism will most likely purchase organic products because it takes away their worries and insecure feelings regarding conventional food products and in turn makes them more secure consumers. This reasoning has led to the following hypothesis:

H2b. Neuroticism positively moderates the relationship of Health and Safety Concerns and Brand Loyalty of organic food options.

2.3.3 Openness to Experience

Openness to Experience addresses an individual’s range of curiosity and fascination with novelty (Goldberg, 1990). In the area of food marketing, this dimension is considered to be particularly important (Schifferstein & Oude Ophuis, 1998). According to Barrick et al. (1991), based on an extensive meta-analysis, personality traits that are commonly associated with this are being imaginative, cultured, curious, original, intelligent and progressive. Openness to Experience is furthermore related to having an active imagination, a preference for variety, intellectual curiosity, and independence of

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judgment (Costa and McCrae, 1992). Opposing traits are being conventional, down to earth, having narrow interests, and being un-analytical (Mulyanegara et al., 2009). Openness to Experience is strongly related to the importance of hedonic product value (Matzler, Bidmon & Grabner-Kräuter, 2006). To a consumer that is Open to Experience, organic products have a high pleasure potential, meaning that they offer the consumer a hedonically superior experience compared to conventional food products. This is the case because, as mentioned previously, organic products are deemed to have Superior Taste over conventional products.

Relating this to the purchase behavior of consumers regarding organic food products, has led to the assumption that consumers whom score high on this dimension, will be consumers that thoughtfully and intellectually process the product options available to them and are therefore more likely to purchase organic products because the product characteristics are superior to conventional products, such as taste. This resulted in the following hypothesis:

H3b. Openness to Experience positively moderates the relationship of Superior Taste with Brand Loyalty of organic food.

2.3.4 Extraversion

Extraversion depicts an individual’s comfort level regarding relationships with others (Goldberg, 1990). According to Barrick et al. (1991), traits that most prevalently correlate with Extraversion are being sociable, assertive, active and expressive. An individual that is considered to be highly extraverted is predisposed toward positive affect and prefer

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25 interpersonal interaction (Matzler et al., 2006). Opposing traits on the other hand are being reserved, sober, task-oriented and quiet (Mulyanegara et al., 2009).

Extraverts are characterized by a high preference for contact with others around them, enjoy a high level of activity and tend to be happy and lively (Grebitus & Dumortier, 2013). Extraverts attach great importance to a sense of belonging to a group, and this is prime reason why they might consider purchasing organic products. More specifically, this group of consumers might be more likely to purchase organic, because “it looks good” to other people when one purchases organic, and makes them part of a group (Grebitus & Dumortier, 2013). By purchasing organic they express behavior and opinions that are important to the people around them. This reasoning has led to the following hypothesis:

H4b. Extraversion positively moderates the relationship of Fashionability with Brand Loyalty of organic food options.

2.3.5 Agreeableness

Agreeableness captures a person’s tendency to comply with the status quo (Goldberg, 1990). Traits that are associated with this dimension are being flexible, trusting, good-natured, tolerant and complacent with others (Barrick et al., 1991). Opposing qualities are being cynical, suspicious, uncooperative, and inflexible (Mulyanegara et al., 2009).

People scoring high on the dimension of Agreeableness tend to be more focused on the material needs of the self and pay less attention to communal goals (Hirsh & Dolderman, 2007). This would imply that they buy organic products in order to satisfy their own needs and not consider for example the environment as much as a reason to do

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so. Relating this to the context of organic food purchasing, would mean that when an individual is very agreeable, they are considered to be likely to purchase organic food because they trust what is said about organic products in for example the media, and by people around them. Also, they are tolerant and open toward new products with a certain status of Fashionability. In order to comply with the trend of ‘going green’ and following the prevailing image of Fashionability, they increasingly purchase organic products. This has led to the following hypothesis:

H4c. Agreeableness positively moderates the relationship of Fashionability and Brand Loyalty of organic food options.

The aforementioned hypotheses are summarized in the conceptual model in Figure 1. Quantitative testing of these assumptions will follow in the next section of this thesis.

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27 3. Methodology

The following section provides an overview of the procedure, design and different variables and their measures included in the study. The research conducted in this thesis has an explorative character. According to Babbie (2007), a quantitative data-gathering method allows comparing of data more easily and allows the scholar to conduct statistical analyses on the data. Therefore, quantitative research by using a questionnaire was deemed appropriate. This made it possible to quantitatively assess the feasibility of the conceptual model.

In terms of quantitative testing, to test the hypotheses without moderation a correlation analysis is used to identify a possible relationship between the independent and dependent variable. Furthermore, it was opted to use a multiple regression analysis to test the moderating hypotheses. By doing so, the mathematical relationship of two independent variables is used to predict the value of the dependent variable, in this case Brand Loyalty (Berenson et al., 2012).

3.1 Procedure

In order to gather appropriate data, a questionnaire has been composed. The questionnaire was distributed online by the use of questionnaire system Qualtrics. It was distributed through Internet, specifically on Facebook and Twitter, for a period of two weeks from June 8th

onward. Seen as how it was not possible to obtain an overview of the population in this manner, nonprobability sampling has been used. The ideal sample size for a study designed in this manner is estimated at at least 200 respondents, seen as how a large

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sample allows for better statistical interpretations and greater reliability of the findings (Berenson, Levine & Krehbiel, 2012). Furthermore, the conceptual model of this study contains a large number of variables, and therefore a large number of responses are deemed necessary to generalize the responses.

The online survey used for this research included different sections with measures on personality characteristics, Brand Loyalty and product attributes of organic food. All of these were measured with five-point Likert scales. Furthermore, it involved demographic measures. When available, existing measures of the constructs were used. For constructs that did not have existing measures, items were drawn up with the existing literature in mind. All questions were formulated in English. The questionnaire can be found in Appendix A. The data that will be collected in this experiment will be analyzed with the statistical software SPSS.

3.2 Measurement and scales

The variables used in this study were product attributes of organic products (environmental concerns, Health and Safety concerns, Superior Taste and Fashionability), Brand Loyalty, and personality characteristics as specified by the Big Five model (Neuroticism, Conscientiousness, Openness to Experience, Extraversion and Agreeableness). The concluding section aimed to measure the demographics of the respondents.

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3.2.1 Product attributes

The first group of independent variables to be tested in this survey are the product attributes as they are also specified in the theory section of this thesis. Oftentimes, product attributes are empirically tested with a comparison between the two product categories, conventional versus organic food (Hugner, 2007). Whenever such a scale was available, it was included in the survey. For each of the individual product attributes at least one scale is included in the survey. All of the following scales will be rated on a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = completely agree).

Environmental concern

Environmental concern is most commonly measured in terms of concern for the ecological and social environment, as well as animal welfare (Hughner et al., 2007; Nie & Zepeda, 2011). Oftentimes, the two are measured on a different scale. In their study, Honkanen et al. (2006) measure environmental purchase motives as:

• Organic food is produced in a way that animals’ rights are respected. • Organic food is produced without disturbing nature.

These scales are proven to be reliable with an alpha of .84 and are therefore included in the questionnaire.

Health and Safety concerns

As mentioned previously, consumers deem organic food to be healthier than conventional products. Lockie (2006) addresses this with a scale that is proven to be reliable with an alpha of .72 to measure consumers’ opinions about the perceived health benefits of organic products. Validity was also proven. The scale is as follows:

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• Organic food is healthier to eat than conventionally grown food.

Superior Taste

Superior Taste is often mentioned as a motivation to purchase organic products. In a study concerning the motivations behind the organic food consumption of Australian consumers, Lockie, Lyons, Lawrence & Mummery (2002) created a survey based on the Food Choice Questionnaire, developed in 1995 by Steptoe & Pollard. The adaptation was made because contrary to the FCQ model, this specifically targets organic food consumers. A statement from their adapted version is:

• Organic food tastes better than conventional food.

This measurement scale was chosen because it is proven to be a reliable with an alpha of .96 and validity was also proven.

Fashionability

Gil, Gracia & Sanchez (2000) developed a scale to measure the extent to which consumers deem organic food products to be fashionable. It was measured to be reliable with an alpha of .71. Their original scale ‘Organic products are in fashion’ is transformed to be consistent with the other statements. This has led to the following scale:

• Organic food is in fashion.

3.2.2 Moderating variables: Big Five personality characteristics

In order to test for the influence of personality on the relationship between product attributes and loyalty, personality characteristics as specified by the Big Five model (Goldberg, 1990) have been used as moderating variables. Due to the excessive length of the original questionnaire, it was however decided to use a shorter, 20-item version of the

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31 questionnaire as designed by Donnellan Oswald, Baird & Lucas (2006). This survey, which yielded internal consistencies all well over .60, proved to be a reliable measure to use. The scales included in this survey are listed below, ranked by their corresponding personality trait. All of the following scales will be rated on a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = completely agree).

Conscientiousness

1. I get chores done right away.

2. I often forget to put things back in their proper place. (reversed) 3. I like order.

4. I make a mess of things. (reversed)

Neuroticism

5. I have frequent mood swings.

6. I am relaxed most of the time. (reversed) 7. I get upset easily.

8. I seldom feel blue. (reversed)

Openness to Experience

9. I have a vivid imagination.

10. I am not interested in abstract ideas. (reversed)

11. I have difficulty understanding abstract ideas. (reversed) 12. I do not have a good imagination. (reversed)

Extraversion

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14. I don’t talk a lot. (reversed)

15. I talk to a lot of different people at parties 16. I keep in the background. (reversed)

Agreeableness

17. I sympathize with others’ feelings.

18. I am not interested in other people’s problems. (reversed) 19. I feel others’ emotions.

20. I am not really interested in others. (reversed)

3.2.3 Dependent variable: Brand Loyalty

In order to measure the dependent variable Brand Loyalty toward organic food products among respondents, it was deemed appropriate to make use of the framework of different loyalty stages as designed by Oliver (1999). Seen as how this paper was conceptual and drawn upon by many researchers, this papers makes use of scales designed based on his theory. Harris and Goode (2004) were inspired to develop measurement scales based on the four-stage loyalty sequence proposed by Oliver (1999). The four different stages of loyalty will be included in the questionnaire with one scale per item. All of the following scales will be rated on a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = completely agree).

Cognitive Loyalty:

This scale measures a person’s belief that buying from a certain company or brand is preferable than buying from others at that point in time (Harris & Goode, 2004). It

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33 probed to be reliable with an alpha of .83 and convergent and discriminant validity was also proven. The original scale items are as follows:

1. I believe that using __________ is preferable to other companies. 2. I believe that __________ has the best offers at the moment.

3. I believe that the features of __________ are badly suited to what I like. (r) 4. I prefer the service of __________ to the service of competitors.

Based on this, the following scale was designed:

• I believe that eating organic food is preferable over conventional food.

Affective loyalty:

This scale measures the extent to which a person likes a certain company, brand or product (Harris & Goode, 2004). It proved to be reliable with an alpha of .74 and convergent and discriminant validity was also proven. The original scale items were as follows:

1. I have a positive attitude to __________ . 2. I dislike the __________ offering. (r)

3. I like the features of __________ services and offers. 4. I like the performance and services of the __________. Based on this the following scale was designed:

• I have a positive attitude to organic food.

Conative loyalty:

The scale uses four items to measure a person’s belief that his/her repeated experience has shown that buying from a certain company, brand or product is better than buying

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from others (Harris & Goode, 2004). It proved to be reliable with an alpha of .71 and convergent and discriminant validity was also proven. The original scale items were as follows:

1. I have repeatedly found __________ is better than others. 2. I nearly always find the offer of __________ inferior. (r) 3. I have repeatedly found the features of __________ inferior. (r)

4. Repeatedly, the performance of __________ is superior to that of competing firms.

Based on this, the following scale was designed:

• I have repeatedly found organic food to be better than conventional food.

Action loyalty:

This scale is intended to measure the degree to which a person states an intention to continue using a particular company, brand or product in the future as opposed to its competitors (Harris & Goode, 2004). The scale was proved to be reliable with an alpha of .76, and convergent and discriminant validity was also proven. The original scale items are as follows:

1. I would always continue to choose __________ before others.

2. I will always continue to choose the features of __________ before others. 3. I would always continue to favor the offerings of __________ before others. 4. I will always choose to use __________ in preference to competitor firms. Based on this, the following scales was designed:

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35 4. Results

The following section will discuss an analysis of the responses to the questionnaire, the descriptive statistics, and the results and outcomes of the hypotheses will be presented.

4.1 Response analysis

After conducting the questionnaire, a total of 326 complete responses have been taken into consideration for data analysis. All respondents were voluntary participants. After identifying 21 responses that contained outliers, 305 respondents have been used for the data analysis.

Most participants in this study were between 18 and 25 years of age (25,6%), followed by the category of 26 to 35 (21.6%) and 46 to 55 (22.3%). 67.5% of the respondents were female, and 32.5% male. With regard to level of education it is interesting to mention that 83.8% of the total participants have a level of education of Higher Vocational Education or higher. The average level of education is likewise Higher Vocational Education, with 43.9%.

4.2 Descriptive statistics

The data collected in this experiment were all quantitative, and the statistical software SPSS was used to analyze these data. Reverse-coded items have been recoded and outliers were removed. Consecutively, reliability tests (Cronbach’s alpha) were used to determine the internal validity of the measurement scales consisting of more than one item in the questionnaire. The results of the used items can be found in Appendix C.

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Thereafter, the items have been recombined to form a variable as depicted in the conceptual model. In order to do so, these recombined items have been computed into one variable by adding the items and then divide by the number of items, giving the average. The items that have been recombined can be found in Table 1. After doing so, the mean and standard deviations of the new variables have been calculated and are summarized in the table below, as well as the Cronbach’s alpha measure of reliability. All measures have a Cronbach’s Alpha higher or slightly lower than 0.7.

Variables Mean SD α Agreeableness 4.03 0.499 0.719 Extraversion 3.35 0.677 0.646 Openness to Experience 3.72 0.575 0.700 Neuroticism 2.67 0.641 0.663 Conscientiousness 3.57 0.623 0.676 Environmental Concern 3.64 0.722 0.695 Brand Loyalty 3.73 0.744 0.828

Table 1: Variable means, standard deviations and Cronbach’s alpha

From analyzing Table 1 it can be concluded that the means are ranging from high (4.03) to relatively low (2.67), implying that the average scores on personality traits differ considerably from each other. The average for Agreeableness can be concluded to be much higher than for example Neuroticism. Furthermore, all standard deviations are low, which means that there is not much variation in from the average in responses given.

4.3 Hypothesis testing

4.3.1 Hypotheses 1a, 2a, 3a and 4a

In this paper the research question being addressed is whether there is a positive, significant relationship between the product attributes of organic food and Brand Loyalty,

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37 and if this relationship will be moderated by the personality traits of the Big Five model. In order to do so, the first four hypotheses that have been tested related to this research question are:

H1a. Environmental Concern has a positive influence on Brand Loyalty. H2a. Health and Safety concerns have a positive influence on Brand Loyalty.

H3a. The (perceived) Superior Taste of organic products has a positive influence on Brand Loyalty.

H4a. Fashionability of organic products has a positive influence on the Brand Loyalty. These hypotheses were tested first to establish whether there is a correlation between the product attributes of organic food and Brand Loyalty. This has been done by using a correlation analysis in SPSS between the product attributes and the dependent variable of Brand Loyalty. The results are shown in the table below.

Environmental Concern Health and Safety concerns Fashionability Superior Taste Brand Loyalty Environmental Concerns 1 Health and Safety concerns .238** 1 Fashionability -.149** _-.136** ₁ Superior Taste .161** .447** -.173** 1 Brand Loyalty .238** .522** -.183** .494** 1

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed).

Table 2: Correlations between variables

As can be concluded from Table 2, all correlations are significant at the 0.01 level, and that except for Fashionability, all attributes have a positive influence on Brand Loyalty. First of all, Environmental Concern has a positive influence on Brand Loyalty with a correlation of r = 0.238 (p < .01). Secondly, Health and Safety Concerns has a positive

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influence on Brand Loyalty with a correlation of r = 0.522 (p < .01). Thirdly, Superior Taste has a positive influence on Brand Loyalty with a correlation of r = 0.494 (p < .01). As a last, Fashionability does have a significant influence on Brand Loyalty, but contrary to expectations this is a negative influence with a correlation of r = -0.183 (p < .01). Therefore, hypotheses 1a, 2a and 3a are confirmed, and 4a is not confirmed.

The highest correlation with Brand Loyalty is found for Health and Safety concerns, followed by Superior Taste and lastly Environmental Concern. In line with earlier studies, this confirms that high concern for the environment, the perceived Superior Taste of organic food, and high concerns for safety and health lead to a positive evaluation of organic food and an increase in Brand Loyalty. However, contrary to popular belief, this study does not show that the fashionable status of organic food leads to an increase in Brand Loyalty among consumers. Even the opposite is proven, namely that the popular status of organic products will have consumers shy away from being loyal to the product category.

Taking all of the above into consideration, it is interesting to see whether personality characteristics play a role in this matter. In order to do so, the moderating hypotheses were tested. These hypotheses will be tested by conducting regression analyses. Before a regression analysis can be conducted, it is important to investigate the collinearity of the variables involved. This is completed to establish whether one ore more of the independent variables are highly correlated with each other and do not provide unique information, making separation difficult on the dependent variable (Berenson et al., 2012). When there is collinearity, the variance inflationary factor (VIF)

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39 in the regression analysis will generally be higher than 5. The results of the conducted multi-collinearity analysis can be found in Appendix D. Seen as how for all the score is lower that 1.1, it can be concluded that collinearity does not cause any problems, and regression analysis is possible for all variables involved.

4.3.2 Hypothesis 1b

In order to investigate the influence of the personality trait of Conscientiousness on the relationship of Environmental Concern with Brand Loyalty, the following hypothesis is analyzed with a regression analysis:

H1b. Conscientiousness positively moderates the relationship of Environmental Concern with Brand Loyalty of organic food.

As can be concluded from Table 3, Model 1 is significant with F = 8.714 (p < .001), and Model 2 is significant with F = 5.920 (p = .001). However, adding the moderating variable of Conscientiousness hardly increases the accountability of the variance, seen as how about 5,5% of the variability in loyalty can be explained with model 1, and 5,6% with model 2, an increase of only 0,1%. The R Square Change is low at .001 (p = .545), indicating that there is moderation in the model but it is not significant. Therefore, this hypothesis is not supported.

Model Summaryc Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Change Statistics R Square Change F Change df1 df2 Sig. F Change 1 .234a .055 .048 .72642 .055 8.714 2 302 .000 2 .236b .056 .046 .72719 .001 .368 1 301 .545

a. Predictors: (Constant), EnvironmentalConcern, Conscientiousness

b. Predictors: (Constant), EnvironmentalConcern, Conscientiousness, ConscEnvConc c. Dependent Variable: Loyalty

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ANOVAa

Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

1 Regression 9.197 2 4.598 8.714 .000b Residual 159.363 302 .528 Total 168.559 304 2 Regression 9.391 3 3.130 5.920 .001c Residual 159.168 301 .529 Total 168.559 304

a. Dependent Variable: Loyalty

b. Predictors: (Constant), EnvironmentalConcern, Conscientiousness

c. Predictors: (Constant), EnvironmentalConcern, Conscientiousness, ConscEnvConc

Coefficientsa Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) 2.890 .292 9.908 .000 Conscientiousness -.013 .068 -.011 -.186 .852 EnvironmentalConcern .243 .059 .236 4.111 .000 2 (Constant) 3.493 1.035 3.373 .001 Conscientiousness -.189 .299 -.158 -.633 .527 EnvironmentalConcern .076 .282 .073 .269 .788 ConscEnvConc .049 .080 .244 .606 .545

Table 3: Regression outcomes hypothesis 1b

4.3.3 Hypothesis 1c

In order to conclude whether Neuroticism has a positive influence on the relationship between Environmental concern and Brand Loyalty the following hypothesis has been analyzed with regression:

H1c. Neuroticism positively moderates the relationship of Environmental Concern and Brand Loyalty of organic food options.

As can be concluded from Table 4, Model 1 is significant with F = 11.356 (p < .001), and Model 2 is significant with F = 3.946 (p < .001). However, adding the moderating variable of Neuroticism hardly increases the accountability of the variance, seen as how

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41 About 7% of the variability can be explained with model 1, and the same goes for model 2. The R Square Change is low at .000 (p = .760), indicating that there is hardly any form of moderation in the second model. This hypothesis is therefore not supported.

a. Predictors: (Constant), Neuroticism, EnvironmentalConcern

b. Predictors: (Constant), Neuroticism, EnvironmentalConcern, NeurotEnvConc

c. Dependent Variable: Loyalty

ANOVAa

b. Predictors: (Constant), Neuroticism, EnvironmentalConcern

c. Predictors: (Constant), Neuroticism, EnvironmentalConcern, NeurotEnvConc

Coefficientsa Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) 2.492 .266 9.352 .000 EnvironmentalConcern .234 .057 .227 4.079 .000 Neuroticism .145 .065 .125 2.243 .026 2 (Constant) 2.743 .860 3.188 .002 EnvironmentalConcern .167 .225 .162 .742 .459 Neuroticism .052 .310 .045 .168 .867 NeurotEnvConc .025 .081 .107 .306 .760

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By analyzing the following hypothesis with a regression analysis the possible impact of Neuroticism on the relationship between Health and Safety Concerns and Brand Loyalty is investigated:

H2b. Neuroticism positively moderates the relationship of Health and Safety Concerns and Brand Loyalty of organic food options.

Hypothesis 2b is also unfortunately concluded to not be supported, although it comes closer to being significant than the other rejected hypotheses. As can be concluded from Table 5, Model 1 is significant with F = 66.771 (p < .001), and Model 2 is significant with F = 45.118 (p < .001). However, adding the moderating variable of Neuroticism hardly increases the accountability of the variance, seen as how approximately 30,7% of the variability in loyalty can be explained with model 1, and 31% with model 2. The R Square Change is therefore low at .004 (p = .212), indicating that there is only a weak form of moderation present in the second model.

Model Summaryc Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Change Statistics R Square Change F Change df1 df2 Sig. F Change 1 .554a .307 .302 .62210 .307 66.771 2 302 .000 2 .557b .310 .303 .62152 .004 1.564 1 301 .212

a. Predictors: (Constant), Health, Neuroticism

b. Predictors: (Constant), Health, Neuroticism, HealthNeuroticism c. Dependent Variable: Loyalty

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43 ANOVAa

b. Predictors: (Constant), Health, Neuroticism

c. Predictors: (Constant), Health, Neuroticism, HealthNeuroticism

Coefficientsa Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) 1.266 .238 5.328 .000 Neuroticism .214 .056 .184 3.833 .000 Health .472 .042 .539 11.198 .000 2 (Constant) .341 .777 .439 .661 Neuroticism .558 .281 .481 1.988 .04`8 Health .695 .184 .794 3.783 .000 HealthNeuroticism -.083 .067 -.378 -1.250 .212

Table 5: Regression outcomes hypothesis 2b

In order to test whether a high score on the personality dimension of Openness to Experience has an impact on the relationship between Superior Taste and Brand Loyalty, the following hypothesis is analyzed with a regression analysis:

H3b. Openness to Experience positively moderates the relationship of Superior Taste with Brand Loyalty of organic food.

As can be concluded from Table 6, Model 1 is significant with F = 50.377 (p < .001), and Model 2 is significant with F = 33.657 (p < .001). However, adding the moderating variable of Neuroticism hardly increases the accountability of the variance, seen as how approximately 25% of the variability in loyalty can be explained with model 1, and

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25,1% with model 2. The R Square Change is low at .001 (p = .521), indicating that there is hardly any moderation in the second model. This hypothesis is therefore not supported.

a. Predictors: (Constant), OpennessExperience, SuperiorTaste

b. Predictors: (Constant), OpennessExperience, SuperiorTaste, OpennessTaste

c. Dependent Variable: Loyalty

ANOVAa

b. Predictors: (Constant), OpennessExperience, SuperiorTaste

c. Predictors: (Constant), OpennessExperience, SuperiorTaste, OpennessTaste

Coefficientsa Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) 2.357 .284 8.300 .000 SuperiorTaste .465 .046 .503 10.028 .000 OpennessExperience -.102 .065 -.079 -1.568 .118 2 (Constant) 3.114 1.212 2.570 .011 SuperiorTaste .263 .319 .284 .825 .410 OpennessExperience -.305 .324 -.236 -.944 .346 OpennessTaste .054 .085 .286 .643 .521