2018
NETWORKING OUR WAY TO
CROSS-BORDER PUBLIC
TRANSPORT CONNECTIONS
Niek Roelands Supervised By Elena Bondarouk 25-06-2018ABSTRACT
Establishing or maintaining a public transport connection, bus or train, is a difficult task. Different actors, networks and systems need to cooperate to enforce only one connection. However, with establishing a cross-border connection, these problems might occur two-fold, as they need to be solved for both countries. Maybe, even more hurdles arise as two different processes also need to be adjusted to each other, for example the ticketing system must be chosen for that one specific connection. This research examines these kind of cross-border connections for two different cases. Breda and Enschede. These are both Dutch municipalities but on a different border, Breda is at the Belgian border and Enschede at the German border. In the region of Enschede and their German neighbours, a Euroregion is situated, the EUREGIO. This organization aims at fostering cooperation between people and organizations working cross-border. The expectation for this research was that this enhanced the network cooperation concerning the public transport connections in the region. From an extensive literature review and seventeen interviews with professionals working in the field, it came forward that network cooperation indeed helps solving hurdles connecting people cross-border, however this is not the sole explanation. This is due to the fact that other factors play major roles too, for example, supply and demand are main factors in why connections are established as they are. Supply and demand are not influenced directly by network cooperation. However, it became clear that network management and cooperation, possibly initiated by the Euroregion, raises the awareness on cross-border issues and helps organizations set up this cooperation.
PREFACE
This document provides a thesis on networks and cross-border public transport connections. This work is made in the context of the Master Degree Public Administration (International and European
Governance) at the University of Leiden.
With the knowledge and skills gained throughout the curriculum of the programme Public Administration, I was able to perform such an extensive study on international public transport. Interviews with different experts brought me all over the country, to Germany, and to Belgium. Also, with the knowledge I
collected in the programme and with suggestions from the supervisor I was able to research networks and other scientific concepts which form the base of this study.
I am very grateful to my coordinator, Ms Bondarouk for her constructive and helpful feedback throughout the process, without her help, this research would not have been possible. Furthermore, I would like to thank all the interviewees for providing such honest answers on my questions and therefore supporting my study. My fellow students which worked on the same capstone also helped me substantially,
especially at the start of the project. Also, I want to thank my family and friends which have been a great support and were there for me when I needed them. The most exciting and interesting of this process for me, was that the study brought me to different places and experts which taught me a lot about Belgium, Germany and The Netherlands and make me want to continue researching public transport connections. Niek Roelands
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction __________________________________________________________________________ 4 Societal and scientific relevance ______________________________________________________ 5 Literature Review ______________________________________________________________________ 6 Organizing public transport in public administration theories _______________________________ 6 Network theories in a governance perspective ___________________________________________ 7 International cooperation and networks ________________________________________________ 7 The EU and cross-boundary projects ___________________________________________________ 9 Theoretical framework _________________________________________________________________ 10 Public transport connections in cross-border regions _____________________________________ 10 Network governance ______________________________________________________________ 10 Cross-border cooperation and networks _______________________________________________ 13 Research design ______________________________________________________________________ 14 Research method _________________________________________________________________ 14 The dependent variable: Public Transport ______________________________________________ 15 The independent variable: Network structure __________________________________________ 16 Cases __________________________________________________________________________ 20 Data collection ___________________________________________________________________ 21 Threats to causal inference _________________________________________________________ 22 Results _____________________________________________________________________________ 23 Context of the cases _______________________________________________________________ 23 Analysis of cases __________________________________________________________________ 25 Conclusion __________________________________________________________________________ 37 Literature ___________________________________________________________________________ 39 Appendix ___________________________________________________________________________ 42 Interview reports _________________________________________________________________ 42
INTRODUCTION
Why is there a well-organised bus line riding through the tiny village of Hooglanderveen in the Netherlands (where the author of this thesis lives), but no line between two local centres as Breda in the Netherlands and Hoogstraten in Belgium Belgium. From this example it seems that to arrange a bus or train line connecting places on different sides of a border is often more complex and less appealing than regular, inland connections. It is this puzzle that leads to the question guiding this thesis: can policy making through international networks enhance cross-border connections?
This thesis will focus on mobility, and more specifically on cross-boundary international mobility through the use of public transport. The establishment of cross-boundary public transport connections has received little scholarly attention; above all this holds for Euroregions, which are defined as cross-boundary organizations that foster cooperation, amongst other subjects, on public transport. Once we gain a better understanding of the (absence of an) impact of Euroregions on mobility, policy solutions in mobility could emphasize on how to use the Euroregional networks and other mechanisms concerning interregional networks. This could improve decision making on this topic. The European Union (EU) has set goals to improve cross-border public transport (Trimis, 2002) and therefore, finding a modus operandi to help achieving these goals. Furthermore, in this research it will be discussed whether more public transport connections over the border might affect the economy of border regions and the increase of people working on the other side of the border.
Euroregions are located in many different countries and their organizational cultures align with the nature of the countries and regions in which they are established (Scott, 2015). The EU has initiated projects aiming at enhancing cross-border traffic through influencing regions and localities, for example, the EU Conpass program, which is targeted at increasing European mobility (Trimis, 2002). Important work in this context is the paper by Fedorov, Kretinin and Mezhevich (2016), who evaluated the use of Euroregions in general. In this study however, the authors did not include the field of public transportation. Public transportation is particularly relevant, given the fact that Euroregions see this as one of their key policy goals (EUREGIO, nd.). Euroregions are actively participating between communities and regions to constitute international transport connections (EUREGIO, n.d.). These Euroregional projects are targeted at enhancing quality and quantity of cross boundary public transportation. However, the exact procedure of how this enhancement should take place remains largely unknown. This research will aim at partly filling this gap. Given the relevance of establishing public transport networks and the lack of use and evidence of network organizations as a Euroregion in scientific literature, this thesis will focus on combining both concepts: public transport connections and network structures in the Euroregion.
Therefore, the following research question will be answered:
To what extent do network structures contribute to interregional cross-boundary public transport connections?
This research aims at explaining to what extent a Euroregion can enhance the structure of cross-boundary networks to establish international public transport connections. The cooperation is researched by analysing the network and actors concerning the public transport connections. The main organization in this case is the Euroregion, as it is seen as a major organization strengthening international cooperation (Wassenberg et al., 2015). In this research, a network structure consists of two central aspects; the network organization, which focuses on the network as a whole and how it functions, and the network (management) strategies, of which the individual actors are observed and management strategies are analysed.
The analysis will be retrospective as it looks at the current situation and what these Euroregions have been doing to organize interregional public transport. The research is explanatory and descriptive. Based on the information collected during the interviews, it explains the role of the Euroregion in the process of building on international infrastructure. Many actors are involved in the organization of public transport networks in the Netherlands: the Dutch railways agency (the NS), the provinces, the municipalities, public transport ‘concessions’ (the ordering of public transport connections by governments), the national government, to name a few. In this playing field, the Euroregion lacks formal decision-making power. However, it can organize different actors for its sake of enhancing cooperation.
In this thesis, network theory will be used to discuss the phenomenon of international public transport connections and how they are established. This research will be conducted through a case study or ‘small-n comparative research (Toshkov, 2016, 259), that is combining both secondary sources and own observations in the field using interviews with key professionals.
Societal and scientific relevance
In this paragraph, the societal and scientific relevance of this research will be explained. Mobility of people is increasing over time: people are getting more comfortable and over a longer distance from A to B, while using public transport. Public transport has many benefits for society, as it is better for the environment to reduce car use and it makes it possible to transport large groups of people within a relatively short time span. The American public transport association (2007) points out that public transport usage could help reducing the oil dependence of a nation, it is beneficial for air quality, and it increases mobility of the users of public transport. It is however very difficult for governments to encourage people to replace cars with public transport (Nijland & van Meerkerk, 2017).
High quality interregional public transportation connections are beneficial to society, as they may improve welfare on the national level. Societal relevance can therefore be found in the evaluation of how public transport connection networks are established the way they are. For policy makers this could supply a background of how and why they function as they do. With retrospection on how the networks are involved with the public transport connections in their region, policy-makers can be
made aware of how to enhance interregional cooperation to comply with the goal of strengthening the(se) networks.
Scientific relevance can be derived from the fact that this case study on networks and establishing cross border public transport is high on the political agenda of the EU and other institutions. The Euroregions claim to help establishing these public transport connections, however without extensive evidence from scientific reports and papers. Despite the fact that there are manifold studies involving public transport quality (Beirao & Cabral, 2007), transport quantity (Mashiri, Molomo & Venter, 2014), and interregional/international cooperation (Chira-Pascanut, 2014), the interaction between these subjects is hardly studied.
Interesting in this respect would be if insights from this research would confirm the benefits from Euroregions for well organised public transport connections. This means that this research clearly would fill a lacuna.
LITERATURE REVIEW
The theories used in this context will first be analysed in a broad context, to make sure the theories are understandable and make clear how this research fits in main public administration theories. This literature review provides an overview on the main developments and theories in the literature to get a clear understanding of the function and usage of literature in this thesis.
Organizing public transport in public administration theories
Shibayama (2017) analyses the different ways of organising public transport connections. She regards public transport as being a very complex phenomenon. She not only emphasizes on the sometimes difficult relation between the actors asking for public transport connections and the executors. She also explains that there could be a multitude of other factors which lead to establishing public transport connections (Shibamaya, 2017). The focus will therefore be on network theory and governance; the foundation for studying different actors working together in public administration (Provan & Milward, 2009).In addition, network theory is regarded to be an excellent fit for complex situations like interregional public transport. Dörry and Decoville (2016) made a contribution on Euroregions in the field of public transportation. As the INTERREG programme supports establishing international public transport connections in Luxembourg, they described the implementation of INTERREG programme policies for their organization. According to Dörry and Decoville the network analysis of public transport policy making could help in identifying what is needed to strengthen public transport connections. This is especially necessary for cross-border connections where the network is essential in creating cooperation. Due to high investment costs, nation states are mostly focusing on their own high quality public transport system,
Kübler and Koch (2008) also describe cooperation in a public transport context. They evaluate two different systems, where in one city, Bern, a lot of cooperation (network) between actors in creating public transport connections Exist. In Zürich, on the other side, negotiations between stakeholders involved did not result in a regional public transport system. This has some serious consequences for dealing with establishing new infrastructures for public transport. The main finding of Kübler and Koch is that the city of Bern where there is more institutionalized cooperation the actors find each other and policy making follows through the network in a natural way, where in Zürich a top-down and hierarchical decisions were needed to enforce policy-making (Kübler & Koch, 2008).
Network theories in a governance perspective
Davies (2012) explains a shift from ‘government’ to ‘governance’. For some decades governments were steering society in a traditionalist way while currently governments are steering networks, which in turn steer society. Bargatti, Hesterley and Jones (1997) describe the same development from a traditional ‘hierarchic’ form of governance to a more networking form. Klijn and Koppenjan (2016) use the same narrative to describe the emergence of network governance. However, they put this in the light of the current development of the world. Globalization means that borders become vaguer and therefore international problems become much more caught in networks, instead of problems remaining in the state. This is relevant for the thesis as it concerns such an international problem which is described in a network setting. They add up that emphasis should not be on governing when looking at such problems, but on network management. Therefore, the way networks are managed in network governance can be essential in solving problems. Thus, network management must be analysed thoroughly in this context.
Koliba, Meek & Zia (2010) performed a comparative study on networks. They explain that networks are all-around in policy-making and emerge in many different policy situations. Interorganizational cooperation is concerned with networks, within different stages of the policy-making process. Therefore, analysing a network might be a comprehensive way to understand the network-level-outcome of cooperative policy (Provan & Kenis, 2007). According to Klijn & Koppejan (2010), networks are an effective mechanism to deal with complex policy making. Issues which entail many technical difficulties and involve many actors require strong policy networks.
International cooperation and networks
This thesis focuses at cross-border public transport connections and thus the international cooperation aspect is weighing heavy in this thesis. Organizing a public transport connection comes with a lot of obstacles, due to the international component of the particular connections discussed in this thesis. Therefore, the scientific knowledge of international cooperation described by main scholars must be analysed to explain how certain difficulties could affect cooperation. As the cases in this thesis are situated in a multi-level scale where the EU is the main driver of cooperation between countries, the EU has been analysed thoroughly in this respect.
International cooperation through Euroregions is analysed by Svensson (2015). Svensson looks at Euroregions through the perspective of the social capital theory and then tries to find a relationship between having a Euroregion and an international cross-border governance space. If a municipality wants to work together with other actors in a Euroregion, then a dense network should be formed. If this is not the case and a network inside a Euroregion is not the objective, then there is less chance of the development of networks. Also, the border is clearly visible in the forming of networks in the research by Svensson, this means that even with an organization which aims at bringing two sides of the border together, there is still a clear division between two sides of the border. More specifically Svensson elaborates on the communication between actors in the cross-border network. Following from her quantitative study, she ends up with three conclusions (Svensson, 2015):
1. Spontaneous contacts between different entities across borders are rare. Contacts mostly take place in institutions or within a formal setting.
2. Problems are often not fully addressed. Mostly problems are depicted in vague terms to avoid conflicts.
3. The best way to organize a network of actors around an Euroregion is when two parties really formalize their cooperation and invite the rest of the actors to join them.
Molle (2007) describes international cooperation as cohesion policy. He first proclaims that the most obvious reason for cohesion policy is a financial one. In this respect, there are two major theories which could help interpret cohesion policy. First there is the theory of convergence which focuses on neoliberal ideas. In this framework market integration would lead to more wealth and therefore, to form cohesion, regions should be integrated in the common market and boundaries for this integration should be taken away. Another theory of cohesion is the divergence theory, which claims there is a tendency to disintegrate automatically, this means countries or regions are focused internally instead of externally.
On a later stage, the author also focuses on social cohesion (Molle, 2007). The social cohesion inside of the European Union is regarded as under pressure. This is due to different reasons. It is obvious that recent crises like we have seen in the past years influence solidarity and cohesion. As Molle (2007) also explains, the gross domestic product (GDP) is an important factor in cohesion. If countries have a relatively equal GDP, people will be more likely to act cohesive. Also, the migrant crisis plays an important role in a lack of cohesion, whereas people tend to be more nationalist in this issue. Leonardi (2005), sees an important role for European cohesion policies intending to strengthen regions, which could be transnational. This is a different approach than nation states or other lower levels in a multi-level governance system use. With this approach of cohesion policies, the EU could look at what certain regions need to strengthen certain aspects which can be essential for the development of networks in this region.
The EU and cross-boundary projects
Piattoni and Polverari (2016) research the concrete cohesion policies through the years. For the period 2014-2020 they found that most objectives of the cohesion policies are aimed at economic development. Nevertheless, there is one point that is highly relevant for this thesis which is number seven: “sustainable transport and improving network infrastructure” (Piattoni and Polverari, 2016, p. 32)”, corresponding with the subject of this thesis.
Different funds are involved in strengthening interregional cooperation and regional strength. As it is impossible to discuss all funds supporting this aim, this would go beyond the scope of this research. However, one fund must be described explicitly to understand the policy aims of the European Union concerning regions; the European regional development fund. The aim of this fund is mostly economical (Armstrong, Giordano & Macleod, 2015) and tries to enhance the economic position of regions which are financially less strong as other regions. As seen before, enhancing public transport connections, might contribute to this goal.
The European Commission presented a document which is aimed at explaining the implementation of this policy. This document states for which projects and investments the cohesion funds and the European regional development funds can be used (European Commission, 2014). This document explains different ways the financial budgets from the funds could be used. Looking more specifically at these projects leads to the conclusion that they are most clearly focused on getting to a common railway territory, that is connecting all railways of the European Union. The project to attach the railways of the Baltic state to the railway network of Germany serves as an example for extending the railway territory. These projects also entail connecting regions to the main network, through establishing cross-border (regional) public transport connections, which connect localities to main hubs.
Different forms of cooperation can also work out differently in policy making. The way of territorial and functional integration do impact cooperation, so to analyse the networks, a clear understanding of how they function and integrate is obliged (Scherer & Zumbusch, 2015). Moreover, to counter problems of interregional cooperation, the INTERREG program is brought into life (INTERREG, 2014). This program is made by the European Union to strengthen interregional cooperation. This is, according to the strategy context of the program, performed in the light of the cohesion policy. INTERREG is a program of the European Commission which seeks strengthening cohesion policy in regions. This is mainly done by bringing regions on different sides of a border together. As Prokkola explains: “the EU's programmes, and particularly its INTERREG projects, have provided new sources of funding for cross-border border activities and regional development. Cross-border cooperation within the INTERREG framework is often considered to be a concrete manifestation of cross-border regionalization in the EU area.” (Prokkola, 2011, p.2) This quote portrays why the INTERREG program is so essential for cross-border cooperation, and thus for this thesis. Prokkola then follows with
explaining that INTERREG should be placed in a cross-border context. With just the Westphalian model and territorial predetermined entities (the multi-level governance system) cross-border cooperation is hard to achieve and the INTERREG program is changing that.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
In this part of the thesis, the theories concerning the relevant concepts in this thesis are introduced. Networks, international (or: interregional) cooperation and the establishing of public transport connections will be elaborated, as they are important for the research question. In the analysis of this thesis, the theories from this framework will be compared with the results of the thesis. Concepts on public transport will be used to discuss the dependent variable in this thesis: public transport connections. The theory of network governance will be elaborated to put this research in perspective. After this, the adaptation of networking theory by different scholars in the fields of public transport and international/ interregional cooperation will be considered and discussed.
Efficiently managing a network is essential in reaching network outcomes. Therefore, it must be investigated how a network is managed to be able to find its effectiveness and strengths and weaknesses. Network management primarily focuses on getting results from the networks. By managing differences in culture, strategy and goals by different actors participating in the network, the means and ends could be combined by ‘good’ management to get results from the network.
Public transport connections in cross-border regions
Public transport connections is the dependent variable in this study. In this chapter the main attributes and context of this variable will be explained, to be able to assess it in the methodological part. A comprehensive study on public transport quality indicators is performed in England (Balcome et al). Deriving from this research, five ways in which policy could influence the quality have been identified: infrastructure, management, pricing, information promotion and marketing. Redman et al. also assessed the quality of public transport systems in a broad comparative study. They come with the following qualifications following from the scientific pool (Redman et al., 2013, p. 121): reliability, frequency, speed, accessibility, price, information provision, ease of transfers, and vehicle condition. Since customers of public transport are not interviewed and thus not participate in this study, perceived attributes which Redman et al. also describe are not central in this study; only the physical attributes are analysed. The physical attributes portrayed above can be divided in roughly three different categories; frequency, service, and maintaining service.
Network governance
The network structure is the independent variable in this research. It will be discussed on two levels: the actor level and the organizational level. As it is expected that the intermediate organization between two borders functions as a network, it must be explained how network organizations function and what their way of ‘governance’ entails. Provan and Kenis (2008) explain what network governance
actually is and how it can be related to a traditional way of governance. Their analysis helps in explaining why network governance is a relevant theory for this research. They claim, that networks are made up of different actors which have the same means, which then collaborate to achieve these means. The ‘governance’ of these networks has to do with allocating and distributing resources through this network to accomplish certain goals. They also explain that network governance is helpful when an organization could not reach certain goals on its own, but if a certain topic requires collaboration between more than one actor (Provan & Kenis, 2008, p. 8).
Another study, by Stijn, Kleijn & Edelenbos (2010) states that networks are “more or less stable patterns of social relations between mutual dependent actors, which form around policy program and/or cluster of means and which are formed, maintained and changed through series of games” (Stijn, Kleijn & Edelenbos, 2010, p. 2). This definition comes relatively close to the definition of Provan and Kenis, however it is adjusted to the public policy making as such. They also emphasize on the actors working together in this respect and interact to achieve goals just as Provan and Kenis (2008), collaboration is essential in achieving policy goals.
Provan & Kenis (2008) add to this that, to come to results, network management might be necessary to keep the actors aimed at the same goals. In a network there are always different actors with different backgrounds and different approaches on policy. They act upon institutions following the logic of the institution they work for and therefore are not loyal to the network at the first place. In their research, they emphasize on different network strategies and how to come to successful network governance. In a comparative study on different network strategies, Compston (2016, p.2) defines policy networks as a combination of resources in a network for common goals, more specifically: ‘a set of political actors who engage in resource exchange over public policy (policy decisions) as a consequence of their resource interdependencies.’ The political component of this definition must be seen in a broad perspective as this implies that an actor has a certain goal for society. To be able to understand the networks concerned in this thesis and thus to answer the research question, goals and resources by actors must be identified in the network.
Provan and Kenis (2008) find two different dimensions on which networks are formed. How the network is brokered and where the governance capacities lie in the network. This leads to identifying three different forms of how resources and goals in networks are allocated (how networks are governed). Their framework of network governance fits in this thesis, as their concept of network governance models the different aspects of network governance which are described before. The first and most common form of network governance they describe are the participant-governed networks. These are egalitarian networks where the input and influence of different members to some extent is ought to be equal. Therefore, these networks are mostly relatively small, trust between the different participants is high and they share the same goals. A major difference between the participant-governed network and the second form, the lead organization network, is the presence of an
organization which has the most resources and capabilities of leading a network. This leads to a more centralised network where only one actor has decision-making capacities. Trust between actors could be decreased, as they just have to do what the lead organization claims. The third form of network governance is the network-administrative organization where a network organization is solely occupied with governing the network. This leads to more network-level competencies and more equal power between the actors, therefore, medium trust between actors is generated in this form of network governance. As Provan and Kenis (2008) state that to be an effective network, the ideal type must meet the network as close as possible, and it is expected for this thesis that the network governance form and the way the network is organized around this form, in other words: network governance is essential in reaching network outcomes. The following hypothesis is developed: H1: Besides network governance forms, allocation of goals and resources affect organizing cross-border public transport connections.
NETWORK MANAGEMENT
A question going further on this matter is why networks are important and why did network governance emerge. The power of institutions and organizations is increasingly important in network management (Davis, 2011). In the former traditional worldview, networks were not perceived as the main institutions which build policy making, however with the current ‘postmodernist’ way of looking at networks, power and dispersion play major roles. Nowadays, where power and dispersion are seen as important in decision-making through networks, analysing them has become a prerequisite to find network outcome.
Many researchers who describe the developments in network governance, emphasize on network management as well. In this respect, network management should be the tool to enforce policies. Therefore, to be able to see if and how public transport policies are enforced through networks and how this could work, one should focus on how network management functions. In a comparative study, Agranoff and McGuire (2001) describe how network management works and how it can be addressed. They ask themselves if traditional management approaches align with public management theories. They clearly identify some traditional management ways of functioning in public management, as for example ‘activation’: when actors simply become active in a network. For example, when a municipality sees the opportunity for a railway station on its territory, it is likely to become active in the networks which arrange railway station allocation and railway lines. Therefore, this framework of activation in networks will be used in this study.
This also counts for allocating resources in management. Organising through networks leads to sharing resources, which is beneficial for the efficiency of the common means (Agranoff & McGuire, 2001, p.5). In this context, not only in public but also in traditional management, framing is used to accomplish goals and puts problems in a certain frame. Therefore, managers need to keep contact with
their main organization to maintain support and resources to be able to fully function inside the network.
Effective network management demands certain qualifications, for example leadership. Balkundi and Kilduff (2005) look at the functioning of leadership in social networks. To come to leadership, social relations must be managed properly and common goals must be set. The authors focus on different kinds of networks in which leadership plays a role. The type of network which is relevant for this thesis is the interorganizational network. The role of leaders in these kinds of networks is to structure ties between different nodes of the network, this could be done both formally and informally. In this respect there are different tensions which need to be addressed. Leaders need to manage two different aspects, the internal and the external structures. In order to properly analyse networks therefore, both the informal and formal ties inside the networks must be analysed.
Normann (2013) conducts research on the deeper meaning of leadership in governance networks. In his vision there are two variables which lead to effective networks. These are trust and power. Trust is especially in local or regional networks an essential aspect of collaboration. Therefore, to see if networks are capable of coming to policy-making, internal ties and trust are essential to measure. Trust is a characteristic of a tie between two nodes in a network (Koliba, Meek & Zia 2010). Trust and reciprocity define the social relationship between two actors, to build on this, if trust is high in a network, it is ought to be more effective. In power they concentrate on the routinized values and norms inside of a network. This means that the structural way of working organises power around certain actors who can push through their policies in the networks.
These factors lead to the following hypothesis:
H2: Employing management strategies of trust and power in a network leads to better cross-border public transport connections.
Cross-border cooperation and networks
The research question of this thesis focuses on network structure. Therefore, the following paragraph will provide theoretical insights in networks and cooperation of actors across borders which are vital in exploring the structure of the networks. Networks across borders are of a different shape than networks inside a country. Borders change structure of cooperation and mobility. As networks in this thesis are internationally oriented, to get a good image on how they function, a theoretical framework on this matter has to be provided. It might seem obvious, that interregional networks are atypical compared with normal networks between organizations. Especially, if there is a border between different actors, this could be a hurdle in achieving effective cooperation. For example, Cerina et al. (2014), found that borders are a barrier between international networks and that this should be researched more. For example, in this era of globalization and Europeanisation, the networks concerning trade are more or less nationally orientated. Sohn & Giffinger (2014) explain that with the
European Union integrating regions and countries more and more borders have become opportunities instead of separating elements, and therefore cross-border cooperation has increased over time. The importance of discovering culture effects in addition to individual-level and group-level differences is that, holding everything else constant, differences in cultural background can lead to differences in behaviour in otherwise identical environments. Thus, accounting for individual and implied group-level differences is not enough to understand the whole breadth of variation in cooperation. Culture needs to be accounted for.
Kramsch and Hooper claim: “Governing the ‘networked border’ suggests a border regime in which governing is practiced (theorized, activated) as multi-scalar and multi-levelled with nodes of control operating together in degrees of overlap and interaction rather than a single centre of control.” (Kramsch & Hooper, 2004, pag, 10) This seems to be more focused on a shared approach on who has the lead in the situation. Therefore, it is expected that the leading party in interregional cooperation is an important factor in how the cooperation is set up, which correlates with the management approach of the former chapter. The expectation that borders are a difficulty in achieving cooperation, leads to the following hypothesis
H3: international cooperation could lower hurdles in establishing cross-border public transport connections.
RESEARCH DESIGN
In this chapter the methods used in this research will be described. First, the research type of this thesis will be outlined to be able to put the research in a broader perspective and explain why different choices have been made to execute this research in a solid way. Second, the methods of this research will be specified, to shape a clear image of how the hypothesis will be tested and finally the research question can be answered. In this part also the cases selected will be described and justified. Thirdly, the variables in this research will be operationalized. Finally, the threats to causal inference of this design will be analysed and a plan will be developed to help counter these threats. The main goal of this design is to show how the independent variable (network structure) influences the dependent variable (public transport connections).
Research method
To go further in-depth on cooperation in these different regions, interviews will be conducted with different stakeholders in both regions. In these interviews a holistic image of how cross border cooperation on public transport is seen on both sides of the border is depicted. One political and one administrative representative of the municipalities dealing with the problems will be interviewed. Also the organizations in between, structuring the cooperation will be interviewed, to hear from them what their role in the process is. After these interviews, the results will be analysed and then followed by a conclusion and discussion.
The research strategy applied in this research will be the ‘case study’, through interviews and document analysis. More concrete, this research entails a small-n comparative causal case study, which relies on the use of semi-structured interviews and analysis of secondary sources and data to draw causal inferences. The method used is causal process tracing (Blatter & Haverland, 2012). The two cases presented are unique, and therefore, must be analysed thoroughly to shape an image of how they are structured.
Results from the interviews will be put into the most-similar systems design by Toshkov (2012, p. 262). This design tries to select cases as similar as possible. To find causality the main dependent variable is the only variable which is different in the cases, and other variables are the same or controlled for. This leads to a clear ‘isolated’ mechanism in which the outcome is unknown. In this case, as will be explained later, network cooperation is the main independent variable, where the Euroregion counts as a precondition which influences the cooperation. More cross-boundary public transport connections is the main independent variable in the following table:
Table 1: The Most Similar Systems Design I – Source: Toshkov (2011).
Variable Case 1 Case 2
Main explanatory variable 1 0
Possible confounding variable 1 1 1
Possible confounding variable 2 0 0
Other possibly causally relevant variable 1 1
Outcome ? ?
The dependent variable: Public Transport
Public transport connections is the independent variable in this research. This will be operationalized by measuring the qualitative and quantitative aspects of cross border public transport connections. This includes:
1. More cross-border connections
2. Better information/ticketing for customers 3. International problem solving on public transport
In this thesis however, the establishment and the enhancement of cross-border public transport connections are analysed. Frequency is one of the main (if not the main) indicators of the quality of public transport (Too & Earl, 2010). Not only the frequency is measured in this thesis, but also the amount of connections is a topic. The main indicator of measuring public transport connections will be the amount of possibilities to go from one side of the border to the other side. In Too & Earl (2010),
this also entails transfer synchronization (Nesheli & Ceder, 2015). In addition, customer information is seen as a major indicator of public transport quality, this is expected to be even more problematic, as cross-border information sharing might be more demanding then inside of a country (EC, nd.). Ticketing is also regarded as an important indicator for qualitative public transport (Redman et al., 2013). Therefore, the ticketing will also be analysed as it is expectable that different ticketing systems are apparent on different sides of the border, which will be a hurdle to travel with public transport. The ticketing and customer information of the national countries are seen as set in this research, the difficulties around these topics will therefore be analysed by finding difficulties in the combining of two systems in cross-border connections and seeing where difficulties arise. For example, on the German side of the border and of the Dutch side of the border one should be able to buy tickets for the train between Münster and Enschede, even though it might be possible that the ticketing systems are completely different.
The problem-solving of public transport operation is additionally analysed in this study, if there might be a problem of a damaged bus or a conflict between different actors on prices, crisis management or other issues, good cooperation might lead to better problem-solving.
The independent variable: Network structure
Network cooperation structure consists of a few main elements following from theory, which must be operationalized to provide a comprehensive measure on how networks work in the two cases described. Networks consist of three different ‘levels of analysis’ (Koliba, Meek & Zia, 2010). The individual actor level might be analysed to find out why an actor appears in a policy network and what it does contribute to it. Contributions by individual actors might be for example legitimacy, resources and expertise. The second level is the tie between two actors. This tie represents the relationship between the two and represents a flow of resources or other networking necessities. The final level of network analysis is the network-level, which could be seen in a broader perspective. Network input is transferred to network outcome. The same means and goals can be identified in order to extract the building parts of a network. In this thesis, following from the research question, networks will be analysed on two different levels, the individual and the network level. However, ties between actors might be vital in understanding the network level as such, the three levels of analysis by Koliba, Meek and Zia (2010) are researched in this thesis.
These operationalisations are also based on two levels of analysis, the actor level and the network level, the three main topics are:
1. The function of the network organization
2. The organizational form of the interregional network 3. The network management strategy
THE FUNCTION OF THE NETWORK ORGANIZATION
Euroregions are set to be interregional cross-border institutions which should foster cooperation between two sides of a border (Yoder, 2003). Yoders article is helpful to study these objects, as she explains how to conceptualize and research Euroregions. A Euroregion is an organization which brings together two or more organizations on different sides of the border (most likely governments). Their main goal is to structurally formalize cooperation between these two sides of the border, wherein the organizations cooperating (and financing, except subsidizing from the European Union) have a voice. The concrete way how this is formalized is not decided on a national level but up to the cooperation partners.
Dörry and Decoville (2016) portray the necessity of analysing networks in public policy making on international public transport. Due to multi-level system differences and national orientated government on this policy topic, extensive networks with different actors are to be set up to enforce policy making. The role of the network organization is supposed to take a large role in the network cooperation as the Euroregions are working on strengthening the networks around international policies to strengthen those (Hooper & Kramsch, 2004). As Yoder (2003) pointed out, the goals of Euroregions are to set different sides of the border together, therefore, it is expected in this research that Euroregions play a role in the organization and structuring of a network and therefore, help creating more cooperation and policy outcome. This is going to be measured by asking respondents in the interview in how apparent the Euroregion is in their field and how they think this helped in achieving policy goals. Also in Breda, where there is no Euroregion present, the need for this organization will be measured by asking in what extent such a structure is missing and how cooperation could be strengthened. Furthermore, projects on which the Euroregion contributed will be analysed and the impact of their (or other network strengthening organizations) will be found. This will be done by assessing qualitatively what the role of the Euroregion is in the network. A comparative study has been performed by Koliba, Meek and Zia (2010), and they come up with the following taxonomy of actors roles in a governance network according to the most prominent scholars in the field (pag. 61-62), these descriptors will be found in the interview to identify the role of the Euroregion: Table 2: Network actor attributes (source: Koliba, Meek & Zia, 2010)
Variable Variable descriptor
Social scale Individual
Group
Organizational/institutional Interorganizational
Social sector Public
Private Non-profit
Geographic scale Local Regional State National International Role centrality Central-peripheral
Trajectory Capital resources actor
provides Financial Physical Natural Human Social Cultural Political Knowledge Providing
Accountabilities to Elected representatives Citizens and interest groups Courts Owners/shareholders Consumers Bureaucrats/supervisors/principals Professional associations Collaborators/partners/peers Receiving accountabilities from Elected representatives Citizens and interest groups Courts Owners/shareholders Consumers Bureaucrats/supervisors/principals Professional associations Collaborators/partners/peers Performance/output
and outcomes criteria
Tied to policy function and domain
ORGANIZATIONAL FORM OF THE NETWORK
According to Klijn & Koppejan (2016) and following the social network theory which is mostly analysing policy networks the organizational form of the networks is essential (p. 24). Here, exchanges between actors but mostly the frequency of contact is used to measure the effectivity of the network. Dowding (1995) describes that the density of a network is essential in speeding up decisions. Also, the way in which the network is formalized and the evaluative/structural aspects therefore must be measured.
Goal orientation is regarded important by Agranoff (2011) and Stijn, Klijn and Edelenbos (2010) and Provan and Kenis (2008) in network management and achieving goals in the network. The expectation is that this is one of the premises for good cooperation inside a network which will lead to establishing more public transport connections. However, it could also be seen as a more underlying theory to why the cooperation is actually apparent. In this sense, shared goals are more kind of a prerequisite to start cooperation. From the literature however, it is able to derive the preposition that goal orientation is necessary to continue working on good cooperation and it is essential that during the processes inside of a network, goals and means are evaluated and reformulated to keep the cooperation running. Provan and Kenis (2008) as described in the theoretical part of the thesis explain three forms of networks, to be effective. These three forms are as discussed in the theoretical chapter:
1. Lead organization networks
2. Network administrative organization 3. Participant governed networks These work out the following way:
Table 2: Key predictors of Effectiveness of Network Governance Forms (source Provan & Kennis, 2008, pag. 9).
Governance Forms
Trust Number of Participants
Goal Consensus Need for Network-level Competencies Shared
governance
High density Few High Low
Lead organisation Low density, highly centralized Moderate number
Moderately low Moderate
Network administrative organization Moderate density, NAO monitored by members Moderate to many
The Governance forms Trust, Number of Participants, Goal Consensus and Need for Network-Level Competencies will be measured, to see which network governance form is used and what implications this has for effective policy-making.
A third way to measure network cooperation is the network management strategy. This has been conceptualized in the theoretical framework very intensively. But in this paragraph the results of this conceptualization will be made measurable. To do so, typical network management arrangements will be tried to track down in the networks analysed. The form of leadership, trust and power (Agranoff, 2001) must be identified in the network. It will be researched what the networking management strategies are and which organizations are in control of the networks leading to establishing public transport connections.
Cases
In this chapter the units of analysis will be selected and justified. The focus will be on a Dutch Euroregion as the regions are situated close to each other and therefore probably relatively homogenous and relatively old, Euroregions partly situated in the Netherlands are selected (Wassenberg, Reitel & Peyroney, 2015). Also one case with very limited cooperation will be researched, as this will improve internal validity of the results according to the case study research design.
The institutionalisation of these networks makes it more likely that cooperation is formalised and institutionalized over time. Also one case with very limited cooperation will be researched, as this will improve internal validity of the results according to the case study research design. Different cases will be selected on the opportunities that are present which would lead to international network cooperation which could lead to establishing international public transport connections. The cases of this research are selected through the MSSD system by Toshkov as explained before. This implicates that the most similar cases are selected. Researching similar entities allows for better comparisons to be made (Toshkov, 2016). The cases selected will be the cities of Breda and Enschede as they are relatively similar on the dependent variable, but differ on the main independent variable. Enschede is the city which is central in a Euroregion (the EUREGIO) which is aimed at facilitating cooperation between the border-region in which Enschede is situated and the German neighbour ‘border-region’. The other case selected is the city of Breda, which, on first sight, does not have a tight cooperation with the Belgian neighbour region and this cooperation is not formalized in a Euroregion. This choice is justified by the similarities of the regions, but the main differences in the cooperation with the neighbour country is that no Euroregion is to be found in the province of Brabant and there is one on the eastern border. Many similarities are found between Breda and Enschede. They both border with a neighbour country and have a function for the region they are situated in. Also they are of relatively the same size (Breda 182.000 and Enschede 157.000 inhabitants). Both cities are originally catholic which might make the socio-economic structures relatively equal.
Making a meaningful comparison for the research question at hand can be accomplished through comparing between cases (i.e. Euroregions/ no Euroregions) situated in (at least) one similar bureaucratic structure, which strengthens validity of this research. One border region where there is an active Euroregion on the topic of public transport, the EUREGIO will be selected and analysed. One other similar region is selected, where there is no Euroregion. This is the region of west-Brabant, as this region is relatively similar to the region of the EUREGIO, but does not have a central coordinating organization to deal with cross-border public transport. However, in other fields there definitely is cooperation, e.g. in the Vlaams-Nederlandse delta which deals with logistics (Vlaams-Nederlandse Delta. ND.) or in the programme where an organization coordinates the service of emergency services on both sides of the border (http://vlaamsbrabantwest.be/, nd.). This study tries, following from the research question, to answer the question how these cooperative actions arise and how this works out in the public transport connections.
Interregional cooperation in the region chosen is formalized in an INTERREG region focusing on sustainable development, this is a European funded region which enhances cooperation on a certain topic which emerge in a cross-border region. This INTERREG region does not focus on strengthening public transport connections across borders and is more an executor and supplier of economic and logistic resources. It is not actively looking for strengthening network cooperation. Why this formalized structure has come into force and if it helps strengthening public transport connections is to investigate in this thesis.
Another organization which fosters cooperation in this region is the Belgian Dutch border organization, the BENEGO This organization is created to formalize cross-border cooperation between Belgium and the Netherlands (Breda.notubiz.nl, 2015, pg, 30). This is an organization where different informal contacts and cooperation forms between different sides of the border are formalized. They focus on elderly care, culture, tourism, sport, education and safety. This means their aim is not focus on public transport. Their organization does not seem like a lead organization, it is focusing on bilateral talks between two different sides of the border.
The three structures mentioned above show that there is in fact cooperation between the regions of Breda and the Belgian side of the border, but this has not been formalized in the form of a Euroregion.
Data collection
The interview method in this research will be by using qualitative, semi-structured interviews. By interviewing different professionals concerning cross-border public transport, a holistic image of the field is trying to be achieved. The method of interviewing is a very useful method for a qualitative study, as it offers the respondent a way to answer questions on a qualitative way and to share aspects of the problem he thinks are important (Nohl, 2006). Together with documents and a scientific theoretic background and support this leads to a full image of to what extent the hypothesis can be withdrawn or accepted. Main differences is of course the border country. Enschede borders Germany and Breda
borders Belgium, this might also have cultural implications for the cooperation between the countries. Of course, there are other demographic or cultural differences between these two regions, however, as the research is performed qualitatively, a holistic image of the situation is formed and differences in cases will be detected and accounted for.
There are different forms of interviews which could be performed in public administration research. Lamont describes (2015) three different kinds of interviews in the social sciences. The open interview is an interview which could be seen as a ‘normal’ open conversation which has no structure. This allows for a broad interpretation of the problems at stake but makes it more difficult to structure results. A structured interview works with a much more ‘closed’ system. In this structured type, the questions are fixed and sometimes even with fixed answers (on a scale i.e.). In this research, the middle between the two is chosen, the semi-structured interview. The main advantages of this way are that it brings the structure of the structured interview. It is possible to find a certain trend or commonalities in the answers, as the same questions are posed to every respondent. However, it also brings an own interpretation by the respondents, which can bring new theories and show a new light on the topic. The structured interview might not completely image the full complexity of the problem which is very difficult in this thesis.
The interviews will be performed until saturation of information has been reached. Local and regional civil servants from all three countries which deal with public transport are interviewed and people knowing more about cooperation between the two countries. Furthermore, the Euroregion has been interviewed and also professionals from the public transport companies which transport people over the border, which leads to a mix of relevant actors concerned with the problem at hand. Information they provide is handled carefully and sometimes recorded to transcribe it later, only if asked consent. The questions posed entail the whole causal mechanism. Features of cooperation, network organizations and public transport all come forward, to form a holistic image of the public administration side of these cross-border public transport connections.
The interview will consist of eight different questions which could be divided in three main themes: the cooperation on two sides of the border, the establishing of new public transport connections, and obstacles for implementing international public transport solutions. This is of course after a short introduction, in the end the question if supply or demand is the main driver of establishing new public transport modes is asked, to find out a deeper basic attitude on public transport.
Threats to causal inference
The mechanism and hypothesis presented in this thesis seem clear and isolated. However, there are a few threats to inference which might confound the results of the study, when not controlled for. The most obvious reason might be differences between the two regions. The socio-economic position, the culture of the municipalities and other reasons might be influencing cooperation across borders. This is however countered by taking as similar municipalities as possible as described above. Also, public
transport connections might have another reason to be established than good cross-border cooperation. Another difference between the regions could be cultural, the importance of finding of culture effects in addition to individual-level and group-level differences is that, holding everything else constant, differences in cultural background can lead to differences in behaviour in otherwise identical environments.
This is countered by looking at the extent to which the network cooperation did help, and being more descriptive on the establishment of the connections. After all, communication between two entities when there will be a public transport connection is obliged. Another threat of the causal mechanism is that snowball-sampling has been used to find interviewees, however, the interviewees were mostly the ‘only’ specialist from their organization concerning this very specific subject, so there was little chance to speak with other professionals in this topic.
RESULTS
In this chapter the main results of this thesis will be provided. The data gathered from the interviews will be combined with sources provided by interviewees and reports from practice. First, the two cases and the main tendency of results will be provided. Afterwards, a more in-depth analysis of the cases and different variables is presented where after a conclusion follows. This research has been executed by visiting different municipalities and organizations on two sides of the border. Professionals working in the administration or with private public transport connections, mostly concerned with developing new connections or the cooperation with the neighbouring country were interviewed, three of them by telephone and fourteen in person. One interview could not take place due to practical issues and three people did not react on the interview request. The exact details on the interviews are found in the appendix.
Context of the cases
GERMANY AND THE NETHERLANDS (MÜNSTERLAND/TWENTE-ENSCHEDE)
From this study the main finding is that the nodes in this network are interconnected and very ‘open’ to more cooperation. They are mostly adapting on the other side of the border and organize their policy with eye for the other actors in the network, like a governance region (Svensson, 2015). The most obvious example of this is where the community of Enschede and its context is portrayed with a circle around it, even in Germany. This shows that the ‘hinterland’ of the community is also seen as Germany, this complies with Sohn & Giffinger (2014), who state that integration is strengthening and borders are fading due to Europeanization. From the German side of the border, a feeling of community is also sensed, the German respondents showed that many German students study in Enschede or further in the Netherlands and on a German national holiday the shopping streets are full with Germans (interview 1,2,3,7,8,14).
The cooperation between the two countries could be seen as relatively warm. The actors know where to find each other. For example, when a civil servant needs to make contact with its cross-border colleague, he is able to find him directly and if this is not possible, the Euroregion helps in facilitating cooperation (Interview 1). A difficulty in the cooperation is the difference in state structure between the countries (Interview 3). The different levels of government have different tasks and therefor it is not always easy to find the right person who has the formal authority to enforce policy.This is in line with what Dörry and Decoville (2016) explain, on the problem that it is hard to work together with different multi-level systems in different regions.
The task of the Euroregion is mostly organizing cooperation between the two regions, on individual but also on organizational level. This means they could either help an individual trying to work in a neighbour country, or help organizations or companies which want to start an activity over the border. Their clients are mainly the communities and regions which also fund the organization. This leads to the fact that they are focusing on helping these clients, instead of initializing policy themselves, which they do not always have sufficient funds for (interview 1,2,3). Thus, the way for them to start something new is to come up with an idea which should be implemented by the partners, and facilitating ideas which should be implemented between two countries. In this sense the Euroregion function likes a network administrative organization (Provan & Kenis, 2008), this will be elaborated on later in this thesis.
The main public transport connections which are object of the conversations and networks around public transport in the region are the regional train from Enschede to Münster (RB61), run by Deutsche Bahn, the small bus from Nordhorn to Denekamp and a bus try-out between Aalten and Borken (interview 7, 14). The quality of the connections and the networks around these connections will be analysed more specifically in the next chapter.
BREDA AND FLANDERS
The main finding of the cooperation between Breda/West-Brabant and Flanders is that the two regions seem to be more focused on the own country and hinterland instead of over the border. Breda is in many different city-bonds, for example with the main cities of Brabant, but it does not focus on its neighbour municipality in the public transport domain. Where the municipality of Enschede came with the example of a circle drawn around Enschede as its hinterland, in Breda and Belgium some examples where provided where there was an imaginary ‘wall’ between the two countries (Interview 4, 5, 9). Cooperation is also not formalized in an organization, however, in some themes this is constituted by separate organizations only established for one policy theme. This seems more like the ‘hurdle’ image of Cerina et al. (2014), This cooperation form also leads to the fact that there is a larger gap between the civil servants of the different countries, if a civil servant needs to contact its neighbour colleagues this is seen as more difficult, and a larger cultural gap seems to be apparent, this will be explained later.
As there is no Euroregion in this region, there is not a common ‘agenda’ as such in the municipality of Enschede. This leads to the fact that for every new project new contacts should be made. Also, this region knows the same difficulties as the municipality of Enschede. The provinces of Belgium and the provinces of the Netherlands have different tasks. In addition, the Flemish government level is a governance level which is not even known in the Netherlands which mostly shares its responsibility of public transport with local and regional governments (interview 10,11). The Netherlands work with ‘concessions’ in which the local public transport responsibility is ‘auctioned’ and could be won by different carriers (e.g. Arriva, Keolis or Connexxion). On the other side, the Belgians work with a different system which is more dominated by national carriers like De Lijn and NMBS (Interview 10,12). The reorganization of this system and of ‘de Lijn’ makes cooperation even more difficult at this moment. However, on the level of the carriers, the cooperation could be considered close. The main railway agencies, de NS/ProRail and de NMBS work together on various topics and have direct contact on many cross-border issues, also de Lijn and Arriva (Bus carrier in West-Brabant) find each other and have close contact, which however does not always lead to effective public transport planning (Interview 10,12,13,14,15).
Analysis of cases
In this chapter the analysis of the results will be given more broadly. This will be done regarding three themes, concerning the two cases selected. The themes that emerged from the interviews are: network cooperation, public transport connections, and problem solving/ other subjects. First the public transport connections, the dependent variable, will be explained to describe how this variable works out in practice. After this, the independent variable, networks, will be described by explaining if and how the hypotheses are confirmed for the different cases.
PUBLIC TRANSPORT CONNECTIONS; NO DEMAND, NO SUPPLY
Breda
From the interviews comes forward that in Breda and Brabant generally the need for more international public transport connections is not identified and therefore, the connections do not become priority (interview 4). However, new developments could lead to new connections, as the new international train between Breda and Antwerp/Brussels brings more visitors to Brabant, a new bus service between Breda and the theme park the Efteling, to be able to anticipate on this need from the Belgian visitors (Interview 5 & 11). With this new train Breda becomes a central place where all connections come together, more projects in connecting Breda and its hinterland faster with Belgium and main hubs are being rolled out. For example, a train from Belgium to Eindhoven, and extending the local train from Roosendaal to Essen to Breda might be possibilities (Interview 4,5,13). Better connections might be needed. Small pilot projects could help in identifying the need and success rate of international public transport. The reason why not so many connections are established are two-fold. At first, the different system of Belgium without tendering connections is important and second, travellers feel a kind of wall between the Netherlands and Belgium, more specifically, the individual
