FACULTY OF HUMANITIES DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS
MASTER’ S PROGRAMME
LINGUISTICS OF EUROPEAN LANGUAGES MASTER TRACK: ENGLISH
Master Thesis
How could literature help in Second Language Learning; A core syllabus in English
Student: Maria Tsitinidou Supervisor: Roos van der Zwaard
2 Contents
1. Introduction 4
1.1. Aims of the study 5
1.2. Data and methodology 6
1.3. Definition of the term ‘literature’ 7
1.4. Presenting the role of iconicity in language 8
2. Literary review (part one): Learning theories 9
2.1. Cognitive theory and L2 learning 9
2.2. Sociocultural theory and L2 learning 10
3. Literary review (part two): Approaches of using literature in L2 learning 11
3.1. The communicative approach 11
3.2. The cultural approach 12
3.3. The linguistic approach 13
3.3.1. Stylistics as part of the linguistic approach 14
3.4. The personal-growth approach 14
4. Literature in education context 16
4.1. Arguments for the use of literature in L2 learning classes 16 4.2. Arguments against the use of literature in L2 learning classes 16
4.3. The use of literature in L2 classrooms in the past 17
4.4. The use of literature in L2 classrooms nowadays 18
4.5. The connection between L2 learning and literature 20
5. The notion of iconicity 22
5.1. The idea of iconicity 22
5.2. Types of iconicity 23
5.2.1. Imagic iconicity 23
5.2.2. Diagrammatic iconicity 23
6. Learning English as an L2- Designing the syllabus 25
6.1. The target group 25
6.1.1. Independent users (B1-B2) defined by CEFR 25
6.2. Applying learning theories in the syllabus 26
6.3. Suggested approach (-es) 27
3
6.5. The use of short stories in the syllabus 30
6.5.1. Selecting short stories 30
6.5.2. Designing activities for short stories and setting the learning aims 31
6.5.3. A short-story example 33
6.5.3.1. Pre-reading activities 35
6.5.3.2. While-reading activities 36
6.5.3.2.1. Incorporating iconicity in while-reading activities 39
6.5.3.3. Post-reading activities 41
6.6. The use of poetry in the syllabus 42
6.6.1. Selecting poems 43
6.6.2. Designing activities for poetry and setting the learning aims 43
6.6.3. A poetry example 45
6.6.3.1. Pre-reading and while-reading activities 46
6.6.3.1.1. Including iconicity in the pre/while-reading activities 48
6.6.3.2. Post-reading activities 53
6.7. The use of novel in the syllabus 55
6.7.1. Selecting novels 55
6.7.2. Designing activities for novels and setting the learning aims 56
6.7.3. A novel example 58
6.7.3.1. Pre-reading activities 59
6.7.3.2. While-reading activities 60
6.7.3.2.1. Incorporating iconicity in while-reading novel activities 62
6.7.3.3. Post-reading activities 64
6.8 Conclusion and recommendations 66
References 69
4 1. Introduction
In his Nobel Prize acceptance speech on the 10th of December 1962, John Steinbeck said that “literature is as old as speech. It grew out of human need for it, and it has not changed except to become more needed”, Steinbeck expressing the importance of literature in people’s life. He calls the development of literature through the years a “human need”.
In order to understand such a need, it is important to mention some of the primary functions literature serves. To begin with, literature is used for communication; artists express themselves through visual arts or music while writers express themselves verbally. Another significant function is entertainment and pleasure, since literature was used to entertain people. Moreover, literature is a valuable means of transmitting culture; through literature personal thoughts, experiences or emotions are presented but also different points of view, traditions and overall, civilizations. As Kramsch and Kramsch (2000: 553) summarized it, literature has “symbolic prestige, artistic and cultural meaning, entertainment and educational value”.
Literature has multiple functions depending on the context in which it belongs each time; yet one of its significant functions is in education, since literature is used as a tool to teach language, history, even culture and sociology. In this study the use of literature in educational context is examined. The major question which initiated the study is regarding the use of literature in second language (L2) acquisition and more specifically if literature is used as a means to learn the L2 and in what ways. The following literature review shows that much research has been done into L2 education and different approaches have been suggested for adults and primary to high school students. In order to understand the role of literature in L2 learning classes, learning theories and approaches of literature in L2 learning are presented along with their effectiveness.
Part of the research question is devoted to iconicity and its use in L2 learning. Iconicity is an indispensable part of language and it helps to shape links between language and the world. Since iconicity assists in mapping a language, it would be fair to include it in L2 learning classes to help students make strong links and lift the second language to a high level. In spite of this initial hypothesis, relevant research excludes the idea of iconicity during the L2 learning process. A possible explanation for this avoidance is the complexity of the term itself. Iconicity may exist on all language levels, as it is explained in the next sections, yet it is challenging for the teachers to reconstruct and incorporate it in L2 classes.
In the second part of the study, a core syllabus in English as an L2 is designed and three literary examples are included in it. This syllabus refers to secondary education and specifically to the senior classes. At the end of secondary education, students already have good knowledge of English as an L2 – they are between B1 and B2 level as explained in the upcoming sections – which means English is the language used by teachers and students during the entire learning process. Finally,
5 students are acquainted with literary texts, at least in their mother tongue. The aim of this syllabus is to be a general framework that L2 teachers will use and adjust according to the students’ needs.
1.1. Aims of the study
Νon-experienced language teachers, including myself, face difficulties designing a teaching plan and choosing a suitable yet effective way of teaching. This task becomes even more challenging when taking into consideration the variety of the existing learning theories and approaches which include both advantages and disadvantages. This plurality of different theories and approaches, which often contradict each other creating confusion especially to the less experienced, was the inspiration and my main axis to determine and form the subject of this study.
The primary goal of this study is to collect and present in a compact way the main learning theories in L2 learning. In addition, the study focuses on presenting different approaches of using literature in L2 learning showing that despite the fact that these approaches have different goals and use different tools to achieve these goals they can be used complementing each other.
Literature and L2 learning used to be connected and in some cases taught simultaneously. This combination has been – still is – broadly discussed despite the argumentation against it. For instance Or (1995) believes that literature will not help students reach their goals in L2 learning due to its complexity; in fact he claims that the use of literature in L2 learning can be damaging to students who have a basic level of English knowledge and are not familiar with literary language. Additionally, Robson (1989) and Savvidou (2004) agree with Or’s idea of detrimental results, and explain that language in literature, creative as it may be, deviates from the standard non-literary language in terms of syntax and grammar. Τhis deviation from the standard language together with the difficult – sometimes even obsolete – vocabulary makes literature a non-appropriate tool in L2 learning.
Nevertheless, multiple studies, e.g. Gajdusek (1988), Nasr (2001) and Yilmaz (2012), show that literature is a useful tool in L2 learning, contributing in various ways; ranging from learning basic language skills, i.e. reading, writing and listening, to developing critical thinking and cultural awareness of the target language. Even when researchers acknowledge problems that might occur in practice, such as non-clarified goals regarding the role of literature in L2 classrooms or teachers’ lack in literature training (Hismanoğlu, 2005), the benefits of literature surpass such issues.
Paran (2008) accepts this connection between language learning and literature. Through his four quadrants created by a two axes intersection, he presents different ways of using literature in language learning classes (see section 4.5). Paran offers a new perspective because he shows how the level of language learning and literary focus defines the goals of the learning process, and the
6 process itself. What so far was considered as a problem, i.e. non- clarified goals, may not be a problem if it is perceived in a different learning context (quadrant four).
In order to support the argumentation for the use of literature in L2 classes, I design a syllabus for secondary school students embedding the presented theories and approaches and focusing on the use of literary texts, which belong to different genres, in L2 class. The syllabus extents over the first and second quadrants in Paran’s intersection. The ultimate goal is the development of students’ language skills while literary qualities are pointed out since they are important in achieving this goal. For this purpose iconicity is used as means to reveal these qualities. In other words, developing language skills is principal yet improving literary skills is encouraged through certain activities.
Apart from combining theory with practice (designing and using the syllabus as a guide for language teachers), the main aspiration of the study is to help language teachers perceive the principles of each theory and understand that despite their differences parts of each theory and approach can be mixed and used in the L2 learning process.
1.2. Data and methodology
The study is divided into two main sections. In the first section the theoretical framework is presented. This includes the analysis of literature as a method in second language education, the presentation of the advantages of such a method and the background of the students (age, type of school, knowledge of English and of literature in the first and second language). In the second section the core syllabus will be presented; consisting of a number of literary texts, including short stories, poetry, and novels and activities based on them.
Part of the study is devoted to iconicity in language and literary texts as part of stylistics. As mentioned in the introduction, iconicity is a valuable aspect of language and it is present in all linguistic manifestations, including literature. Types of iconicity can be identified from the basic stylistic devices such as onomatopoeia to complex relations of syntax and mental structures. The types of iconicity on every level, visual, auditory and lexical, are presented in the first section along with the theoretical framework. As part of the activities in the syllabus, exercises focusing on iconicity are included. The exercises are presented according to their degree of difficulty; in the beginning they are simple, e.g. iconicity on visual level, and gradually they become more complex, e.g. sound symbolism and finally iconicity in syntax. The literary texts have been chosen according to their iconic consistency along with the students’ interests.
The subject of this study, then, is related to language learning, literature and education. The ultimate goal of the proposed syllabus is to reinforce the use of literature in second language learning and to become a meaningful tool for language teachers who would like to create an
7 interdisciplinary learning environment in the classroom. An environment where literature will help students develop skills in their second language in terms of lexicon and syntax and they will be able to distinguish among different kinds of discourse while at the same time they will learn more about literature itself.
1.3. Definition of the term ‘literature’
The definition of the term ‘literature’ should precede the discussion about using it as a tool in second language learning. The Concise Oxford Dictionary (1951) defines literature as “the realm of letters, writings of country or period, writing whose value lies in beauty of form or emotional effect”. A recent edition of the Oxford Dictionary of Modern English (2000) describes literature as “pieces of writing that are valued as works of art, especially novels, plays and poems (in contrast to technical books, newspapers, magazines, etc.)”.
A great number of definitions have been proposed by researchers through the years; definitions which belong to different theories, approaches and points of view. A broad and general definition is given by Lazar who states that literature is thoughts and emotions in words; Boas (1931, as cited in Koutsompou, 2015: 74) extends the definition including the personal interpretation of thoughts, emotions and experience explaining that literature shows the need of people to express themselves, give life a meaning and create beauty. Eagleton (1986: 101) defines literature as a kind of discourse that goes beyond functional uses to a transcendental space. Societies give different names to such discourse but our society named it literature. Eagleton refers to literature as moral technology which has the objective to “*…+ map, measure, assess, and certify the emotive and experiential aspects of subjectivity, which in our society will tend to be called simply human” (ibid: 97). In other words, Eagleton’s definition emphasizes the impact of literature on forming people’s personalities including social and political nuances of the term.
A more specific definition is proposed by the formalist approach. For formalists, literature is a type of human knowledge which should be examined in its own terms. In addition, literature is the kind of discourse that is connected with the uncanny; to be more specific literature challenges our belief about reality and has the power to transform the world and our perception of it (Bennett and Royle, 2004: 35). Formalists focus on the structure, form and style of a literary text, since these components define the text and its impact on the reader.
An alternative explanation of literature, which resembles the Oxford Dictionary term, is the prototypical approach1. According to this approach, literature is a superordinate of genres such as
1 The prototypical approach classifies discourse in three main categories: concepts, subordinates and superordinates. Genres are incorporated to concepts, subgenres to subordinates and abstract classes of discourse to superodinates (Steen, 1999:112).
8 novel, poem and play. Each of these genres embodies various subgenres; for instance, the novel genre consists of detective, western, historical and many other subgenres (Steen, 1999).
Literature is composed by language; as a result we should take language into consideration when we define literature. So far, Lazar’s definition (1993, as cited in Koutsompou, 2015: 74) is the one which implies language and perceives literature as an “ally of language” whilst the last three definitions do not support the idea that literary language differ from the common language but they explain that “common language is used in literary texts but there is high concentration of linguistic features like metaphors, similes, etc. *…+ These features also appear in ordinary language use and in nursery rhymes, proverbs or publicity slogans. However, in literature these show a higher incidence. We talk therefore of a literary use of language” (ibid: 75).
1.4. Presenting the role of iconicity in language
Iconicity is a complementary yet essential part of this study; hence the role of iconicity is discussed here in order to highlight why a thesis relevant to the use of literature in L2 classes includes the idea of iconicity as well. In fact, the explanation lies in the role of iconicity in language which is to create and reinforce connections between form and meaning. Such reinforced connections facilitate language processing and provide significant help for building a new language system during acquisition (Thompson, 2011: 609). Iconicity practically makes the connection between language and real world more obvious and understandable. The idea of such a connection is the core of embodied theory of language. According to this theory, “language comprehension and production require mental re-enactment *…+ the extent to which re-enactment activates the same systems is unclear but there is evidence that some degree of embodiment is involved in language use” (ibid: 609). As a result, another possible role of iconicity is in language development.
This means that iconicity can offer a link between language system and real world during the first stage of mapping. In fact, research proves that children can match form and meaning easier when there are iconic links between them (Maurer et al., 2006, Lupyan & Casasanto, 2014, Nygaard et al., 2009, Imai & Kita, 2014). Moreover, iconic words are easy to learn and to remember and they can also help learners focus on perceptual differences and make categories (Dingemanse, 2015: 610). Considering that iconicity is an important factor not only in mapping a language but also in communication itself, it is assumed that it would facilitate learners in mapping the L2 and finally in communicating in it. This study aims to discover whether the notion of iconicity is introduced in L2 classes where literature is used and, if so, in which way it is presented.
9 2. Literary Review (part one): Learning theories
The first part of the literary review is devoted to describing different learning theories that have been developed over the years, in relation to L2 learning. Learning theories are language teachers’ defining starting point as their perception of L2 learning determines the teaching-learning approach and the use of tools, such as literature, in the classroom.
Cognitive and sociocultural theories are presented in the following sections of this review. Cognitive theory perceives L2 acquisition different from sociocultural theory. Throughout the syllabus it is clear that the sociocultural theory is adopted.
2.1. Cognitive theory and second language learning
Cognitive theories present the idea of the thinking mind and emphasize the way mind perceives, categorizes and recalls knowledge. Accordingly, learning is a mind process which becomes significant when information from long-term memory storage is transposed to short-memory in order to incorporate new knowledge (Grinder, 1993: 4). Learning is a process of connecting pieces of information, creating patterns and making unities. Learning is linked with language and in fact it shapes human thought (Bandura, 1998: 14). Therefore, cognitive theories focus on second language learning.
To begin with, second language learning is a conscious process where learners intentionally adopt various learning strategies. Cognitive theory, however, explains internal mental representations that are responsible for higher-order mental functions, i.e. language (Harrington, 2002: 125). Moreover, the interest is in the learner as an individual. Second language learning is gradual process during which learners gather a number of subskills; the so called subskills are procedures such as learning grammatical and syntactic rules, appropriate vocabulary, constraints and conventions of the language (Fitzgerald, 1994: 348). In the beginning, learners have to think about subskills in order to recall the right rules and vocabulary; as they become more proficient in the second language they recall such subskills automatically. Second language teachers who follow cognitive learning theories emphasize teaching subskills, strategies and rules of grammar and syntax. Furthermore, they explain to students how to choose the correct rules; at this point, practice in reading and writing is very important.
The perspective of such a theory is that second language learning might be a complicated cognitive process but if learners understand the patterns of the language they will be able to learn and apply correct rules or adequate vocabulary. The primary goal of the theory is to make learners understand the structure of the language not to make it easier for them to use it (Xiangui, 2005: 122).
10 2.2. Sociocultural theory and second language learning
Sociocultural theory focuses on the aspect of cultural context since all human activities happen in a cultural context and are expressed through language and other symbol systems. In order to understand them we need to historically examine their development (John-Steiner & Mahn, 1996: 191). The theory supports that mental functioning is a mediated process and language use and structure are basic channels of mediation. Human participation in cultural, linguistic and socially structured environments, such as family, school and work place, helps developmental processes to appear and evolve (Lantolf & Thorne, 2006: 197). In other words, has a social nature since people learn through participation in organized sociocultural activities.
According to sociocultural theory, learning is realized through participation in cultural activities. In such activities interaction is required; interaction involves speech, dialogue and written products, e.g. texts. Learners observe the language used by the peer and then they imitate and adopt it. Hence, exposure to input is essential in second language learning. Additionally, learning a second language is an intentional and goal-oriented process; we learn in order to accomplish a high goal and language is the tool we have. We learn to read, write and speak a language to communicate, to facilitate our lives in another country, to write research in this language and so on (ibid: 214).
Second language learning does not have the same outcome for every learner which means that learners do not reach the same level during second language acquisition. The level L2 learners reach is based on the mediation they get, the motivation and goals they set to learn the language. Nevertheless, we should not forget the impact of L1 on the acquisition of the L2; in fact, sociocultural theory explains that first language has a “pervasive effect” in second language learning (ibid: 215). The first language is the one we use to control cognitive processes and we build new language systems on it.
11 3. Literary review (part two): Approaches of using literature in L2 learning
The use of literature in L2 learning classrooms is practiced through different approaches. In the upcoming sections, four approaches which endorse the use of literature in L2 learning process are presented. These are the communicative, cultural, linguistic and personal growth approach. The four approaches accept literature in L2 learning, especially because they recognize the value of authenticity in a literary text. This means that literature is used in L2 learning as authentic material; these approaches acknowledge literary language as meaningful and inspiring. Yet each one emphasizes specific objectives for the learners and uses the authentic literary texts differently in the language classroom. Language teachers who choose an approach should focus on creating an engaging environment where students will be motivated to use language they can learn from (Widdowson, 1998: 714).
Relevant studies where specific approaches are adopted in order to examine the effectiveness of using literature in L2 classrooms are included in the discussion, i.e. Paran (2008), Rahimi (2014). The syllabus which follows in the sixth chapter does not follow strictly one of the four approaches; instead, it uses elements from all four of them.
3.1. The communicative approach
The ultimate goal of the communicative approach in language learning activities is the development of communicative competences in the target language. In this approach literature is used as a message transmitter since the writer communicates with the reader through a text, poem and so on. At the same time, literature focuses on form and as a result learners can develop their competences in the L2. Through communicative approach learners are encouraged to interact and communicate in the L2 and improve both in language and communication.
Literature is a valuable tool mainly because it “provides with authentic linguistic and cultural material” (Llach, 2007: 8). As Collie and Slater (1987: 5) explain, literature is not written with the aim to teach language. As a result, when used in the class, students are exposed to genuine language of real life. In addition, literary texts were written for native speakers – at least in the past – and as a consequence students will be acquainted with various linguistics forms and conventions such as narration, irony and argument. Such a material is useful for students who have an intermediate level in the L22, hence they understand longer and more complicated texts.
Another value in the use of literature in L2 classrooms is that it encourages interaction in the classroom (Llach, 2007: 8). A real interaction with the text, the teacher and the other students is created because literature has numerous interpretations which produce various opinions between students. In fact, interaction plays a crucial role in communicative approach because the language is
12 learned by interaction (ibid: 9). The use of literature in L2 classroom motivates students to actively participate in the learning process, negotiate, cooperate with each other and become more autonomous. Overall, the main skill taught and developed through the communicative approach is to communicate in the L2 not in a fabricated environment but in real communicative situations (Rahimi, 2014:2). In order to achieve its objective, communicative approach brings the student in the center of the learning process. Students’ active participation, interaction and co-operation are necessary during the learning process while language teacher becomes the guide and counselor (Mitekwa, 2013: 541).
Among the researchers who accepted the communicative approach and introduced literature as a tool are Lazar (1993), Hismanoğlu (2005) and Khatib, Rezaei and Dehakhshan (2011). The latter explain that literature apart from its authenticity, rich vocabulary and complex syntactic forms, is in agreement with the values of communicative approach for the improvement of writing, reading, listening and speaking skills (Khatib, Rezaei & Dehakhshan, 2011: 203).
3.2. The cultural approach
The cultural approach resembles the communicative approach since the latter recognizes the cultural information provided by the use of literature in L2 learning. Communicative approach acknowledges the importance of culture in L2 learning whilst cultural approach uses communication as a means of learning the L2 including the target culture. In addition, both approaches support the idea that language learning does not equal knowledge of linguistic structures but development of communication in the target language. Through this approach culture is taught together with language skills. In other words, the linguistic elements of the L2 do not outweigh the cultural ones.
What is really achieved through cultural approach is cultural enrichment. As Collie and Slater (1987: 6) explicate, the ideal way to learn a language in depth is to spend extended time in a country or countries where the language is spoken. Unfortunately, this is not possible for the majority of learners. However, there are indirect ways which help students understand the life of the country and have an insight into the society and people of the target language; literature is one of the indirect ways. It reflects real life, thus students can discover thoughts, feelings and beliefs of the characters and have a taste of how they behave in various situations. In addition to Collie and Slater, Kramsch (1998: 7) explains that “culture focuses on the way in which a social group represents itself and others through its material productions over time *…+; such materials are technological achievements, monuments, works of art etc.” Kramsch refers to literature as a product or work of art, suggesting literature as an expression of culture and directly connecting it to culture.
Teachers who apply the cultural approach focus on the overall value of literature within the culture; literary texts are used in order for the students to discuss the plot and learn about history or
13 traditions and have insight of the society described in the story. Through this process students can appreciate the literature written in the target language as well as the different traditions and ideologies of the whole culture (Koutsompou, 2015: 75).
Finally, it is worth mentioning that the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (2010) in Europe has re-considered the importance of culture in L2 learning and now L2 learning and teaching focus on the following competences: knowledge, skills, existential competence and ability to learn. These competences show the importance of culture in the language learning process (Byrd, 2014: 76). The significance of culture in L2 learning is also accepted by the Standards for Foreign Language Learning in the United States. According to these Standards (2006) language learning areas are communication, communities, culture, connections and comparisons.
3.3. The linguistic approach
This is a language focused method which has as an ultimate goal to present various uses of language within a text to the students. This method emphasizes theory and structure of the language and presents practical matters and problems in which language is pivotal (Seedhouse, 2004: 223). Literary texts are used because they provide examples of specific grammatical points and rich vocabulary. Stylistics analysis of literary texts may be promoted in this approach; although it would be geared to advanced students.
Some the main advantages of the linguistic approach are the expansion of vocabulary and reading fluency. Moreover, the ability to interpret different kinds of discourse is developed since students work on various genres and deal with complex linguistic situations (Bibby & Mcllroy, 2013: 19). In different words, the linguistic approach is connected to language enrichment. As mentioned in former sections, students can familiarize themselves with linguistic forms and conventions through literature. As a result, extensive reading increases students’ vocabulary and helps them acquire a more active knowledge of the language. Through authentic material, students understand rules of syntax and the structure of the language better but also enrich their writing and communication skills (Collie & Slater, 1987: 6-7).
Despite all its benefits, the linguistic approach has been criticized for not motivating students and for being a mechanistic method which may have harmful effects. Language activities in this method take away any pleasure of reading and learning through literature since the goal is to learn the good use of language and to find out how linguistic forms express literary meaning (Bottino, 1999: 212).
14 3.3.1. Stylistic analysis as part of the linguistic approach
The stylistics analysis used in linguistic approach is considered to beneficial. Abrams (1999:305) describes stylistics as “a method of analyzing works of literature which undertakes to replace ‘subjectivity’ and ‘impressionism’ of standard analysis with an ‘objective’ or ‘scientific’ analysis of the style of literary texts”. Traditionally, stylistics distinguished between content and form of a literary text, but at the end of 1960’s, the supporters of stylistics expanded their field of research and include in the definition the entire range of the general characteristics of language as a means of literary expression (ibid: 307).
The teaching of stylistics and L2 learning has been widely discussed and created oppositions. The main argument against stylistics is based on the emphasis of stylistics on textual analysis than on understanding a literary text. To be more specific, stylistic analysis does not imply issues with regard to language learning or the concerns of stylistics tend to differ from the concerns of the language teacher in the classroom (Paran, 2008: 486).
On the other hand, the purpose of stylistics is to explore language and creativity in it. Hence, through stylistics language learners think about language and their understanding of literary or non-literary texts. Those who support stylistics in L2 learning refer to the contribution of stylistics in language awareness. This means that pedagogical stylistics intend to “promote linguistically aware readers who can perceive the qualities of language which are manipulated for particular effects” (Clark & Zyngier, 2003: 342). As a consequence, stylistics can be meaningful in language learning when they deal with issues language teachers and students are concerned with (Paran, 2008: 487).
3.4. The personal growth approach
The personal growth approach is student-centered aiming to encourage students to read by choosing literary texts related to their experiences. Such texts will motivate students to express their personal opinion and use their imagination. Literature is used as a means to “educate, promote critical awareness, evaluate and discuss issues within a text and provoked by a text *…+ this approach is well suited to developing language learner reflecting on development through childhood and adolescence, and thus is suited to the high school and undergraduate university classroom ” (Bibby & Mcllroy, 2013: 19).
The ultimate goal of this approach is to urge students to engage with reading, develop their personalities and their relationship with the others. Apart from teaching how language operates as a rule-based system, the language material should take into consideration the socio-semantic function of language. Through literature, students enrich their vocabulary but they also inhabit the text and wish to see how the plot develops. They come close to the characters and share the characters’ emotions and agonies. In this approach, learning the L2 happens with personal involvement. As
15 Collie and Slater (1987: 7) state “language becomes transparent – the fiction summons the whole person into its own world”. If fiction has such an impact on students then it is logical to claim that it will also benefit the language learning process. In order to make students be interested in a text and share emotions, great attention should be given during the selection of literary texts. The selected texts should align not only with the language level of the students but also with their cultural background, interests and needs.
Nevertheless, this approach is suitable for high school or university students who have an intermediate or even an advanced level of knowledge in the L2 and they have also developed their communicative skills enough to be able to discuss and argue about literature in the L2.
16 4. Literature in education context
4.1. Arguments for the use of literature in L2 learning classes
The values of using literature in L2 learning classes discussed in the third section are supporting indicators in favor of using literature in L2 learning. Nevertheless, in this section a list of clear arguments is presented. To begin with, literature gives people the opportunity to look into different dimensions of human experience and to deal with important issues and personal thoughts regarding life, death, love, justice and evil. Literature presents social values and issues, brings the reader in front of ethical dilemmas and calls for the reader’s reaction and participation (Gillespie, 1994: 20). This participation and connection with other people’s lives and choices cultivates imagination and empathy of the reader. In the case of L2 learning, it entails communication which helps students develop their skills in the L2.
Self-involvement is important but there are more reasons why literature should be used in L2 learning classes, such as linguistic, cultural or even methodological. The linguistic advantage of using literature is the demonstration of different uses of language. As a matter of fact, the purpose of using literature in language learning is to expose students to different types of language use (Koutsompou, 2015: 75). As explained in 3.3, working on various genres allows students to expand their vocabulary and become acquainted with grammar and syntax rules or the exceptions to the rules. Povey (1972: 187) summarizes the benefits of using literature in L2 arguing that literature develops all language skills because it enhances linguistic knowledge “by giving evidence of extensive and subtle vocabulary usage, and complex and exact syntax”. In terms of culture, literature brings the target culture closer to students through the plot, the ideas, actions and decisions of the characters. Regarding methodology, both teachers and students are benefited by the use of literature. Literary texts are a rich source which can provide numerous kinds of writings, expressive manners and rudiments and linguistic diversities, therefore, it is a useful tool in language learning.
In a broader sense, the use of literature in L2 learning classes contributes in creating an interactive environment where students communicate using the L2. The originality of literary material has an impact on the learning process as well as on the students’ mind. Apart from their creativity which is developed primarily through writing assignments, students also develop critical thinking in order to discuss about the texts read and analyzed in the classroom. Thus, literature is a great source for learning activities and it can be really motivating for students.
4.2. Arguments against the use of literature in L2 classes
Despite the fact that there are valuable arguments for using literature in L2 learning classes, there are academics and language teachers who believe that literature is not suitable for language learning. A major opponent of literature in L1 and L2 learning is Edmondson (1997: 46). He claims
17 that the use of literary texts in language courses does not benefit students compared to the use of any other texts. Moreover, he believes that literary texts are not motivating; in fact they may be dull according to the way they are used. Another important issue for Edmonson is that including literature in language classrooms means a teacher-centered approach is chosen, since the teacher’s ideas and interpretations of the texts are accepted in the end. In contrast to Collie and Slater’s argument about cultural enrichment through literature, Edmondson suggests that there are other subjects which can give an insight to the target culture than literature.
In agreement with Edmondson, McKay (1982: 529) explains that in literature language conventions are sometimes deliberately neglected or that it is structurally complicated. As a result, it is difficult for L2 teachers to use literature when teaching grammar. McKay indicates the cultural aspect of literary works as another drawback; since it can create from difficulties in reading to misinterpretations.
With regard to methodological arguments against literature, the idea that literature is not real life but a product of imagination can be supported; as a result literary texts cannot be acknowledged as authentic material. Nevertheless, the same argument was used by Collie and Slater in favor of literature.
Another argument against the use of literature in L2 learning relates to the increasing use of new technologies which has made reading seem old-fashioned (Sell, 2005: 87). However, such an argument can be easily contradicted; as Miller (2002: 1) explains that literature, as we traditionally know it, might be in its end but as “it can survive historical and technological changes. It is a feature of human culture at any time and place”. Miller’s argument is supported by the fact that contemporary literature for young adults, i.e. ‘Harry Potter’, ‘Lord of the Rings’ and ‘The Hunger Games’, is in revival (Craig, 2015). Since children and young adults continue to be interested in literature, then L2 education should focus on preparing students to read in the L2 and language teachers have to include literature in their plans. The education system of Canada is a great example in this case, since reading in the L2 is introduced in early stages before students learn to read in the L1 (Johnson & Swain, 1997: 4).
4.3. The use of literature in L2 learning classrooms in the past
In the beginning of the 20th century language study and study of literature were merged; literature was used as an “uncontested source” in teaching modern languages (Kramsch & Kramsch, 2000: 554). At least in the States, teaching language meant teaching literature in the target language. With the use of literature foreign languages (L2s) and nations (target cultures) would become more attractive to the students. Until the end of the 1920’s, literature was used in L2 classrooms but L2 teachers preferred different genres. For instance French language teachers preferred poetry while
18 German language teachers chose narrative prose and Spanish language teachers focused on drama (ibid: 555-557). In the case of French, teachers used to choose the literary text according to its stylistic beauty and thematic significance and give a 40 to 45 line text to the students. Basic assignments included the biography of the author, find when the text was written and published, describe the main idea of the text, indicate literary allusions and interpret each line of the text. German language teachers on the other hand, were encouraged to use music, pictures and performance to help students experience emotions with the text in order to like and understand it. Yet the students had to read almost 12 plays per semester, not including the additional plays or the dramas and novels (ibid: 558).
In the 1930’s, social sciences rose and literature was seen as a social practice; this meant that it was taught through an interpretative approach. Furthermore, students were motivated to read but also to write and compose in the foreign language. The assignments included quizzes regarding literary texts or mimeographed questions on the texts to accompany the reading. During the Second World War, foreign language learning was used to rescue the mind from ignorance. Critical thinking was developed through the analysis of texts; the goal of using literature in L2 classrooms was to protect students from ideological influence and persuasion (ibid: 562).
After the war until the end of 1950’s literature was left out of the L2 classrooms; only when the students reached an advanced level of the L2 they had the opportunity to read literary texts in class. At this point, emphasis was given to the methodology of L2 teaching rather than literature. The audio-lingual method was the one preferred for teaching an L2 (ibid: 564). Literature and culture were no longer necessary and the human factor in L2 learning was set aside. In the late 1960’s teaching an L2 was separated from teaching a foreign literature. On a worldwide level cognitive theory in linguistics was discussed and reflected on L2 acquisition as well. The humanistic approach which involved the use of literature in L2 classrooms was not eliminated but it came back to discussion in the 1980’s.
Literature was used as an authentic source in L2 classrooms, but it was presented in an obsolete way. The teaching methodologies were either teacher-centered or text-centered while student was a receiver during the learning process. As described above, teachers gave more attention to the analysis and interpretation of every line and sentence of a literary text or supported the idea of extensive reading, i.e. German teachers in the States.
4.4. The use of literature in L2 classrooms nowadays
In the 20th century United States, literature was included in L2 learning classrooms because it was viewed as an original source of language. From the second half of the century to present time L2 teaching and learning is separated from literature. Literature is used as a tool in the L2 classroom,
19 especially after the 1980’s when new teaching approaches, such as the communicative approach, emerged (Paran, 2008: 468). Since the 1980’s not only authenticity of literary texts was more appreciated but more focus was given to the students’ abilities, interests and background; hence, literary texts are used to provide an authentic experience in the target culture and help students construct the L2 based on their experience (Kramsch & Kramsch, 2000: 568).
Despite the fact that the use of literature in L2 classrooms is fruitful and its benefits on language learning are beyond doubt or despite the introduction of new methodologies and techniques in the use of literature in American L2 classrooms there are still three main issues discussed regarding the dominance of the teacher, the participation of student and then the role of the preferred tasks. As Paran explains the involvement of the teacher, the active role of the student and the characteristics of the activities may have a great influence on the L2 learning. In order to help students develop their skills in L2, teachers should coordinate and support interaction in the classroom and promote group activities that would become the setting of dialogue over a literary text and themes related to it (Paran, 2008: 482).
In the United States, language and literature learning started as one track but in the end of the previous century they were already divided into two different tracks. The value of literature as a necessary tool is recognized, yet the aim according to the Modern Language Association Ad Hoc Committee of Foreign Language (MLA) is to teach the L2, target literature and culture in an holistic way in order for the students to “create a translingual competence or in other words to be able to operate between languages” (Piasecka, 2013: 219).
In Europe literature is also present in L2 learning policy set by the Council of Europe in the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR). CEFR according to its group of authors “provides a common basis for the elaboration of language syllabuses, curriculum guidelines, examinations, textbooks, etc. across Europe. *…+ It describes what language learners have to learn in order to use a language for communication and what knowledge and skills they have to develop to act effectively *…+. By providing a common basis for the explicit description of objectives, content and methods, the Framework will enhance the transparency of courses, syllabuses and qualifications, thus promoting international co-operation in the field of modern languages” (Council of Europe, 2001: 1).
CEFR has a great impact not only on the state members of the European Union but also on other continents (Hulstijn, 2014: 4); the fact document includes literature in L2 learning is paramount. The importance of literature is acknowledged and its various functions in language, culture and morality. To be more specific, CEFR, like MLA, supports the idea of including culture in language learning yet the use of literature is entailed. For instance, CEFR indicates different uses of language together with relevant activities; literature is presented in artistic uses of language (chapter 4, section 4.3.5. of the document) together with aesthetic activities. Such activities vary from reading and writing literary texts (poems, short stories and novels) to performing dramas and listening to
20 operas (Council of Europe, 2001: 56). Moreover, CEFR implies the use of literature in the assessment of proficient users (C1 and C2) where understanding literary texts and writing summaries or reviews on them is expected (ibid: 235). Even though CEFR refers to literature and offers useful relevant activities, it does not provide explicit ideas and expectations regarding the use of literature in L2 classrooms.
Overall, the use of literature in L2 learning is officially promoted nowadays both in the United States and in Europe. Nevertheless, in Europe the situation is different since CEFR is a common basis for guidelines and orientation but each member state adopts its own policy and designs its own syllabus, curriculum and textbooks. As a result, some countries include literature in their syllabuses and suggest activities based on literature whilst some others do not. The French syllabus for English is an example where the use of literature is suggested. The French syllabus focuses on the significance of literature in L2 teaching and provides a list of various themes to be discussed in English together with a list of writers in every theme, such as Mark Twain or Agatha Christie (Coreia, 2011: 30). An opposite example is the Spanish syllabus where students are expected to be able to read extensive texts, yet there is no reference to literature or the use of literary texts (ibid: 33).
4.5. The connection between L2 learning and literature
The main idea established in this chapter is the link between language learning and literature. This connection may have loosened through the years, yet the discussion continues and there is a movement towards a stronger alliance between L2 learning and the use of literature. As already mentioned in the first chapter, Paran points out the connection of literature and language learning with an intersection of two axes. The following figure illustrates this intersection:
21 The intersection of the horizontal and vertical axis creates four quadrants. Each quadrant refers to different learning environments with different goals. The determinant factor in every quadrant is the level of language learning and literary focus in a language classroom. This factor makes Paran’s theory valuable and worthy to discuss. The first quadrant refers to a learning environment with equal focus on developing language and literary skills. A L2 learning classroom which belongs in the first quadrant, literature is not only used as a means to teach grammar and syntax and to broaden students’ lexicon but it is a goal; since through literature students develop their literary knowledge. In the second quadrant, the level of language learning focus remains, yet the level of literary focus decreases. As a consequence, there is no intention to use literature as a goal. Absolute priority is the development of language skills and literature assists in this process. This quadrant refers to language classrooms where literary texts are used but there is no reference to their literary values.
In the third quadrant the level of literary focus is high which means literature is discussed in the L2 but there is no focus in teaching the L2. This quadrant is suitable for students with an advanced level of L2 knowledge and experience in reading literature and discussing about it in the L2. The final quadrant represents courses of extensive reading where students have reached a level where there is no need to set language or literary goals.
The syllabus designed in this study is a combination of the first two quadrants. The main focus is on developing English as an L2 using literature, yet literary values are mentioned and discussed. To be more specific, iconic values of language in literature are indicated since iconicity is helpful in mapping a language. The development of literary skills is not crucial in the syllabus but through the learning process students will be more acquainted with reading and writing about literature in the L2.
22 5. The notion of iconicity
Iconicity, and to be precise, iconic qualities of language suggest a significant part of the study. Iconicity is used as a means in the language classroom to understand the structure of the L2, become familiar with complicated forms. Ultimate goal is not only learn and understand new forms in the L2 but to be urged to use them.
In the first chapter of the study, the role of iconicity and its significance in L2 learning classes was presented. This chapter focuses on the idea of the term on the different types. The following sections are a compact explanation of iconicity as well as its two main types: imagic and diagrammatic iconicity. In the syllabus, main focus is on diagrammatic iconicity on sound and structural level as well as on semantic level. Relevant activities help students enrich the L2 skills.
5.1. The idea of iconicity
Iconicity is one of the properties of language but it can be found in other domains of the world of signs (Langendock, 2007: 394); nevertheless, iconicity is a complicated term to define. Sonesson (1998: 293) explained it as “a semiotic notion refers to a natural resemblance or analogy between the form of a sign (‘the signifier’, be it a letter or sound, a word, a structure of words, or even the absence of a sign) and the object or concept (‘the signified’) it refers to in the world or rather in our perception of the world”. A more understandable explanation of the term was given by Thompson (2011: 603) who defines iconicity is as “the existence of non-arbitrary links between meaning and form”. Thompson’s explanation resembles Saussure’s idea of iconicity as “structural imitation, the use of appropriate means to depict a concept” (Engler, 1995: 40).
Iconicity is a complicated, ambiguous term used in many ways and concepts. Peirce emphasized the semiotic concept of iconicity and he distinguished between three different signs: icon, index and symbol. At this point, the focus is on the icon; icon is a likeness. In other words, icons “convey ideas of the things they represent simply by imitating them” (Peirce, 1998: 5). There are three kinds of icons: image, diagram and metaphor.
Image is the most iconic icon which means that in the case of imagic signs the sign resembles its referent visually or aurally. In the case of diagram, there is an arrangement of signs which relationships reflect the relationships of their referents (Nänny & Fischer, 2006: 463). As for the case of metaphor, there is not a direct relation between the sign and its referent; here the iconic structures depend on meaning (ibid: 470). Peirce explains that a metaphor “brings out the representative character of a sign by representing a parallelism in something else” (Langendonck, 2007: 398).
23 5.2. Types of iconicity
5.2.1. Imagic iconicity
Peirce’s categories are a starting point in order to understand iconicity but they also are the basic components which define the types of iconicity. There are two main types of iconicity: imagic and diagrammatic iconicity. Imagic iconicity on sound level includes onomatopoeia and sound symbolism. According to Langendonck (ibid: 402) onomatopoeia is a “marginal phenomenon of natural language”, where a word resembles the sound of a source that it describes; two examples are the words cuckoo or squeak. Onomatopoeia can be language-specific; for example the noise of a cat is “meow” is English, “miau” in Spanish and “miao” in Italian.
Sound symbolism refers to the meaning that phonemes may have. Langendonck (ibid: 394) explains that sound symbolism is conspicuous in some languages than in some others; a significant example is Yoruba and Japanese where gitaigo ‘mimetic word’ is an important aspect in linguistic elements.
5.2.2. Diagrammatic iconicity
Diagrammatic – or relative iconicity as it is called sometimes – stresses that iconic words both in spoken and signed languages can be seen as diagrams which have schematic correspondences between form and meaning (Dingemanse et al., 2015:603). Diagrammatic iconicity can be motivated by isomorphism or motivation. According to Haiman, isomorphism is a “one-to-one correspondence between points of a diagram and reality” (Langendock, 2007: 399). Violations of isomorphism are the examples of polysemy, homonymy and synonymy. Regarding motivation, Haiman describes it as a “property whereby diagrams exhibit the same relationship among their parts as their referents do among their parts” (ibid: 400).
Diagrammatic iconicity in literature could be expressed through rhythm and meter; at least on sound level. Rhythm and meter help poets indicate their feelings in an iconic way (Nänny & Fischer, 2006: 465). Moreover, repetition of sounds through rhyme and alliteration are part of diagrammatic iconicity; it should be mentioned that rhyme works as a “phonetic metaphor which links a sign with another sign” (ibid: 466). On visual level, diagrammatic iconicity is served by lineation, including spacing, punctuation, colors, size of letters and many others.
Except for the sound and visual level, diagrammatic iconicity exists on structural level as well. The role of syntax is primary at this point. Fischer (2015: 381) explains that the way linguistic elements (sequential ordering) are arranged can shape meaning. According to Fischer this is the reason why a good poet is the one who puts the right phrase or sound in the right place. There are specific mechanisms of iconicity in syntax which help researchers analyze literary texts and identify iconicity in them. Fischer refers not only to the arrangement of words in a sentence or line but also to the omission of words such as ellipsis, or to the repetition of words and syntactic patterns such as
24 chiasmus or polysyndeton (ibid: 381). The intentional use of ellipses, repetitions in literary texts as well as the use of syntactic patterns, such as the polysyndeton or asyndeton, is taken into consideration for the designing of activities in the syllabus.
The last type of diagrammatic iconicity is semantic iconicity which refers to metaphor (Fisher, 1997). Metaphors are present in everyday life or, as Lakoff and Johnson (1980: 4) explain, they are “pervasive in people’s language, thought and actions”. It is important to mention that metaphors are not only used in literature but they are used automatically in everyday language. In the syllabus diagrammatic iconicity is emphasized more.
Diagrammatic iconicity on visual level, as explained above, may not help students improve their L2 skills but it can still be included in some activities as long as it motivates students to actively participate in the class discussion always using the L2. On the other hand, diagrammatic iconicity on sound level is used in the poetry example so that students will make connections between words and phrases and manage to broaden their lexicon. Iconicity on structural level is significant in the syllabus since it helps students understand complicated arrangements, the importance of language conventions as well as the results of the deviation from them. Finally, semantic iconicity and specifically metaphor is used in all the literary examples, since metaphor forms human thought and knowledge (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980; Kövecses; 2010) and it contributes to acquiring new knowledge (Duit, 1991).
25 6. Learning English as an L2 – Designing the syllabus
In the previous sections, a literary review regarding learning theories, teaching approaches and the advantages or disadvantages of including literature in the L2 classroom was presented. It is clear that this study supports the use of literature in L2 classroom and tries to incorporate the idea of iconicity as a meaningful tool in the learning process. This syllabus is a means to put into practice what has already been discussed in the previous chapters.
Paran’s theory about the connection between L2 learning and literature is the starting point of the syllabus, which extends over Paran’s first two quadrants (see section 4.5). This means that the main goal is to develop students’ L2 skills with the use of literature. Literary qualities are not ignored; instead they are highlighted as they contribute to improving L2 skills. The role of iconicity is significant at this point.
The syllabus uses English as the L2 and is designed for independent users – students who have reached B1/B2 level. In the following sections three literary examples are offered together with various activities. The first example is based on short stories, the second on poetry and the third on novel example. Before designing these activities, learning objectives are set using Bloom’s taxonomy, especially on the cognitive domain (section 6.4).
Throughout the three following examples the structure remains the same and includes a discussion about the selection process, a theoretical framework for designing activities and finally the example itself. Each example shows in practice how to incorporate the theory into specific activities.
6.1. The target group
As mentioned in the introduction, the syllabus is designed to help L2 teachers organize and incorporate literature in the learning process and conduct activities that will engage and motivate their students. The target group is secondary school students who have an intermediate level in L2 and are used to working with literary texts, at least in their L1. To be more specific, the syllabus concerns students who have reached B1 and B2 levels as established by the Council of Europe in the Common European Framework of References (CEFR). When students reach B1 level they can describe events, experiences, hopes and ambitions and explain and argue about their opinions. On B2 level they can understand complex texts, produce written discourse and interact with fluency. Since the target group has the previously mentioned skills, it is taken for granted that the L2 is the only language used in the classroom.
6.1.1. Independent users (B1-B2) defined by the CEFR
According to the CEFR (2001: 24-35), there are three levels in language learning: basic, intermediate and advanced. Each level consists of two sub-levels which present the progress in L2 learning.
26 Figure 2: Levels in language learning (CEFR, Council of Europe, 2001: 23):
As shown in the figure, the intermediate level includes independent users (B1 and B2). Independent users on B1 or users on the Threshold level are able to interact in different contexts and deal with problems in everyday life; they can make simple transactions, such as shopping or going to the bank, get information, ask and give directions and use the public transport but they have also the ability to make a complaint, discuss and elaborate on an unknown subject. Learners who can easily use the L2 in the previous situations adding more descriptors are on the Strong Threshold level (B1+). According to the CEFR, learners can receive messages, explain problems, provide information with precision, support their ideas and personal opinions giving arguments and discuss about an article, book or a film. In addition, they can successfully perform on an interview and give factual information various issues with confidence.
Learners who reach B2 or Vantage level have acquired a new perspective and awareness of the language; they are able to initiate and support social discourse, argue, comment on a subject, explain, interact with a degree of fluency with native speakers, use different styles of discourse with regard to the environment and evaluate and correct unconscious mistakes.
6.2. Applying learning theories in the syllabus
In this study two main learning theories were presented and analyzed; the cognitive and the sociocultural theory. Each one has been developed over the years and both are still in use. The suggested theory in this study is the sociocultural learning theory which considers that learning is placed in various contexts such as cultural and social and is achieved through participation in organized activities. When students participate in such activities they use and develop their thought, speech and previous knowledge while at the same time they acquire and internalize new knowledge (Beach & al, 2016: 6-7).
The main goal of an L2 teacher who adopts the sociocultural theory is to make the class a safe yet interesting and challenging learning environment where students will feel motivated to learn
27 not only as individuals but also as a community. The second goal of the teacher is to design activities in which students will use different ways of thinking, arguing and knowing.
6.3. Suggested approach (-es)
In the third section of the study, four approaches in L2 learning were discussed; the communicative, cultural, linguistic and personal growth approach. Each approach focuses on different objectives but some of them overlap, i.e. communicative with cultural or with personal growth. The aim of this syllabus is not to compare approaches or demonstrate the more successful ones in L2 learning and exclude all the others. Nevertheless, there is a tendency towards the communicative approach in the syllabus; especially through specific activities that promote communication among the students, such as pair work, interviews and role-play. Elements of the communicative and linguistic approach exist in all the suggested literary examples, cultural approach elements are more obvious in the poetry and novel cases while elements of the personal growth approach are more distinct in the novel example.
In order to facilitate L2 teachers’ choice the CEFR approach is presented and reviewed here. CEFR (2001: 9) proposes an action-oriented approach which includes cognitive, emotional and volitional resources and specific abilities applied by learners. Communicative language competences which enable learners to act using linguistic means are emphasized; these competences include not only linguistic but sociolinguistic and pragmatic elements (ibid: 13). Linguistic competences refer to the knowledge of language as a system; as a consequence learners are expected to learn grammatical and syntactic rules and develop their vocabulary. Sociolinguistic competences involve the various sociocultural conditions when language is used and finally, pragmatic competences focus on the “functional use of linguistic resources drawing on scenarios or scripts of interactional exchanges” (ibid: 13).
CEFR takes into consideration the existing theories and approaches, incorporates parts of all the approaches and presents a general or holistic ‘super-approach’ titled as action-oriented. The objectives of each approach are presented here as competences. The action-oriented approach focuses on the anticipated competences, such as communicative, linguistic and sociolinguistic. The main difference between the CEFR action-oriented approach and the existing ones is the emphasis on action and competences. In other words, it is an approach which combines the present theories but emphasizes the results which in this case are the developed skills of the L2 learners. Nevertheless, it does not clearly indicate which are the helpful or necessary actions or activities to achieve such results.
28 After presenting the CEFR approach and the four commonly used approaches, each teacher is recommended to choose the most appropriate for his/her class or even to combine parts of different approaches to achieve his/her goals.
6.4. Designing classroom activities
In the syllabus the four approaches along with the CEFR approach, since it sets the framework for L2 teachers, are taken into consideration Nevertheless, the communicative and cultural approach are reflected in the activities. Since the syllabus expands over Paran’s first two quadrants, clear priority is given to the development of students’ L2 skills. The important addition in this syllabus is the reference to literary values as they assist in the L2 learning process. The wide range of proposed activities aims to develop students’ linguistic competences through assignments in stylistics, sociolinguistic competences through group activities from class discussion to role-playing, improvisation and debates; while pragmatic competences will be improved through practice with different genres.
To design such activities, educational goals need to be set first. These goals are the starting point which defines the learning process, from the activities, the material used to the time required to spend in order to achieve the goals. Bloom’s three-domain taxonomy of educational goals is used in the syllabus. This taxonomy is broadly used because it refers to the levels of competence expected to be achieved by the students. The taxonomy is helpful in setting the goals but also in defining the assessment to check these goals.
Bloom (1956: 6-7) refers to three domains of learning: cognitive, affective and psychomotor. The syllabus focuses on the first one. Cognitive domain refers to knowledge and the improvement of intellectual skills. This domain has six levels as presented in the figure below.
Figure 3: Bloom’s revised taxonomy (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001)
As Anderson and Krathwohl (2001, 67-68) explain the first and simpler level, remembering, refers to the students’ ability to recall information from memory. The next level, understanding,
