First-time international assignments: The South
African employee experience
CMP Adams
orcid.org
/0000-0002-6201-4139
Mini-dissertation accepted in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the degree Master of Arts in Industrial
Psychology at the North-West University
Supervisor: Prof E Botha
Graduation: July 2020
Student number: 29479835
DECLARATION
I, Candice Muriel Pennelope Adams, hereby declare that First-time international assignments: The South African employee experience is my own work. I further declare that the views and opinions expressed in this work are my own and that of relevant literature that has been
referenced in the paper.
Finally, I declare that the content of this research study will not be submitted for any other qualification at any other tertiary institution.
Candice Muriel Pennelope Adams 28 February 2020
PO Box 10148, Henbyl, 1906 South Africa Mobile: +27 (0)83 304 1006 E-mail: elizezywot631@gmail.com Website: http://ezlang.wix.com/ezcommslang
DECLARATION FROM LANGUAGE EDITOR
I, the undersigned, hereby confirm that I have language edited the mini-dissertation entitled “First-time international assignments: The South African employee experience” by Candice Muriel Pennelope Adams, for the degree Master of Arts in Industrial Psychology at the North-West University.
The responsibility of implementing the recommended changes and corrections rests with the author of the dissertation.
Elize Zywotkiewicz
Language Editor and Translator * 2020-02-15
* Accredited member of the South African Translator's Institute (SATI) *Membership No. 1000151 *Member of Professional Editors' Guild (PEG)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my sincerest gratitude to the following people who have provided support, guidance, and encouragement throughout this journey to obtaining my master’s degree.
Prof. Elrie Botha, your humility, humour, and no fuss approach made me believe that this indeed was possible. I thank you for your guidance and providing constant perspective throughout this journey.
My daughter Sthandiwe, I thank God for you. The gift of your life has pushed me to consistently work towards being the best version of myself and giving you an example of what you can achieve if you remain focused on your goals. Mommy loves you eternally. Lerato Morathi, I can confidently say that the stars aligned perfectly the day we met. Words
cannot express my gratitude for your presence in my life. Thank you for being a constant source of motivation, support, and strength on this academic journey.
My brother, Emmanuel Zwane, who never asked questions but simply showed up whenever I needed him. I appreciate you.
My family, your support has meant the world to me.
My very few friends who have remained by my side, even though walking away would have been so easy. Thank you for believing in me and my vision.
The participants of this study, whose insights have enabled me to bring my mini-dissertation to life.
Elize Zywotkiewicz, thank you for your support and expertise with language editing my work.
This work is dedicated to single mothers out there that are working hard every day to better themselves and to give their children the best life possible. Keep showing up daily, your goals
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ... I DECLARATION FROM LANGUAGE EDITOR ... II ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... III LIST OF TABLES ... VII SUMMARY ... VIII
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ... 1
1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT ... 1
1.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ... 3
1.4 EXPECTED CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY ... 5
1.4.1 CONTRIBUTION FOR THE INDIVIDUAL ... 5
1.4.2 CONTRIBUTION FOR THE ORGANISATION ... 5
1.4.3 CONTRIBUTION TO INDUSTRIAL/ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY LITERATURE ... 5
1.5 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ... 5 1.5.1 GENERAL OBJECTIVE ... 6 1.5.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES ... 6 1.6 RESEARCH DESIGN ... 6 1.6.1 RESEARCH APPROACH ... 6 1.6.2. RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY ... 7 1.6.2.1 Ontology ... 7 1.6.2.2 Epistemology ... 7 1.6.3 RESEARCH STRATEGY ... 8 1.7 RESEARCH METHOD... 8 1.7.1 LITERATURE REVIEW ... 8
1.7.2 RESEARCH SETTING AND GAINING ENTRÉE ... 8
1.7.4 SAMPLING PROCEDURE ... 10
1.7.5 DATA COLLECTION METHOD ... 11
1.7.6 RECORDING OF DATA ... 12
1.7.7 DATA ANALYSIS ... 12
1.7.8 QUALITY ASSURANCE ... 12
1.7.8.2 Transferability ... 13
1.7.8.3 Dependability ... 14
1.7.8.4 Confirmability ... 14
1.8 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ... 14
1.8.1 INFORMED CONSENT, VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION, AND CONFIDENTIALITY ... 15
1.8.2 BENEFICENCE AND NON-MALFEASANCE ... 15
1.9 CHAPTER DIVISION... 16
REFERENCES ... 17
CHAPTER 2:RESEARCH ARTICLE ... 21
ABSTRACT ... 21
INTRODUCTION ... 23
LITERATURE REVIEW ... 24
EMPLOYEE MOBILITY ... 24
MULTINATIONAL ORGANISATIONS ... 24
GLOBAL TALENT MANAGEMENT ... 25
EXPATRIATION ... 26 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ... 27 GENERAL OBJECTIVE ... 27 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES ... 27 RESEARCH DESIGN ... 27 RESEARCH APPROACH ... 27 RESEARCH STRATEGY ... 27 RESEARCH METHOD ... 28 Literature Review ... 28 Research Setting ... 28
Entrée and establishing researcher roles ... 28
Sampling ... 28
Data collection methods ... 30
Recording of data ... 30
Data analysis ... 30
REPORTING... 31
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ... 31
FINDINGS ... 32
THEMATIC ANALYSIS... 39
THEME 1: OVERALL EXPERIENCE OF WORKING ABROAD ... 39
THEME 2: PREPARATION FOR THE MOVE ... 40
THEME 3: ADJUSTING TO HOST COUNTRY ... 41
THEME 4: SUPPORT MECHANISMS ... 43
THEME 5: MOST REWARDING ASPECTS OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSIGNMENT ... 46
THEME 6: FACTORS THAT COULD HAVE ENHANCED OR IMPROVED THE TRANSITION ... 46
DISCUSSION ... 48
LIMITATIONS ... 54
RECOMMENDATIONS ... 54
CONCLUSION ... 55
REFERENCES ... 57
CHAPTER 3: CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ... 62
3.1 CONCLUSIONS... 62
3.2 LIMITATIONS OF THE RESEARCH ... 65
3.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ... 65
3.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY ... 66
LIST OF TABLES
Table Description Page
Table 1: Characteristics of Research Participants 28 Table 2: Themes and Sub-themes Emerging from Semi-structured 31
SUMMARY
TITLE: First-time international assignments: The South African employee experience
KEYWORDS: Global mobility, multinational organisation, global talent management, expatriate, globalisation
Global mobility of employees has become commonplace in a globalised economy. Many multinational organisations send employees on international assignments to gain a competitive advantage. These assignments hold great benefit for employees from a growth, development, and exposure perspective. A qualitative research design, with a total sample that consisted of eight participants, was utilised. The sample group consisted of employees from various multinational organisations, fulfilling different roles in different functions. Data was collected by conducting semi-structured interviews.
The aim of this study was to understand the experiences of South African employees who are sent on international assignments for the first time. The specific focus was on what support mechanisms they utilised while on assignment and also what could have enhanced or improved the transition to working in a foreign country. The findings showed that South African employees found the overall experience of working on an international assignment to be a positive one.
The support mechanisms most utilised are people, that is line managers, colleagues, friends, and family. South African employees found several aspects of being on assignment that are, in their view, rewarding. These include better career opportunities as well as the opportunity to work in a new country and build relationships with people from diverse backgrounds. The factors that could have enhanced or improved the transition are having a more holistic approach to the mobility process, better communication, a defined onboarding plan from the organisation, and accommodation arrangements.
This research adds to the existing research on expatriates, and in addition, builds on the limited research that is currently available regarding South African expatriates. The implication is that employees need to have a clear understanding of the expatriate cycle and what to expect from the employer at every stage.
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Problem Statement
While international assignments in foreign countries can offer employees good opportunities for international exposure as well as growth and development, they are also notoriously difficult. The challenges and stress that are faced by expatriates differ significantly from those of local employees, both in terms of the type of challenge and the magnitude thereof (Stahl & Caligiuri, 2005). They often require major professional and cultural adjustments, such as integrating into a new work environment and adapting to a foreign culture and language, among other things (Hine & Das, 2018). These difficulties that come with international assignments arise not only when leaving the home country, but also upon returning. The challenges that expatriates often face in new countries include, among other things, cultural and compensation differences, cost of living, and adjusting from a developed country to a third world country, (iMercer, 2019). As such, it is essential for employers and employees to be well-prepared for foreign assignments.
Employers need to ensure that the global mobility programme is well-defined and executed, and that there is enough support available for the employee throughout the process. Being prepared will result in a smooth transition and ensure that the employee remains engaged and productive. Especially since one of the aims of international assignments is to utilise the employee’s talents and skills within the company (iMercer, 2019). In addition, one of the main reasons that individuals take international assignments is the perceived benefit of the experience to one’s career, that is, the value of the experience for achieving professional goals as well as career advancement, for example, promotion (Zhu, Wanberg, Harrison, & Diehn, 2016). The 2019 Santa Fe Relocation Global Mobility Survey reported that while career progression of employees is not a reason for organisations to deploy employees on international assignments, business leaders do recognise the development value that mobility has for employees, with 90% of them agreeing that employees who have undertaken international assignments achieve greater career progression. International experience is not always easy for expatriates and not always beneficial to the organisations that deploy them to international assignments (Gullekson & Dumaisnil, 2016). While an expatriate’s career may benefit from being deployed on an international assignment, this positive impact does not always translate to other facets of an expatriate’s life. Many expatriates struggle to adjust to life in a foreign country, which can result in expatriates returning to their home country before the end of their assignment. Some of the literature reports that the estimates for premature return range from 20% to 50% (Gullekson & Dumaisnil, 2016). In some cases, many
expatriates who return home from working on international assignments (repatriate) experience decreased job satisfaction and sometimes even depression. Consequently, turnover intention (from the organisation) increases, with only 20-30% of repatriates reporting international assignments as having a positive impact on their career (Zhu, Wanberg, Harrison, & Diehn, 2016). As a result, repatriate turnover is alarmingly high – up to 38% in the year following return (Bolino, Klotz, & Turnley, 2017).
It is reported that in 2019 there were 675,000 globally mobile employees managed by the organisations that took part in the Santa Fe Relocation Global Mobility Survey (Santa Fe Relocation, 2019). With such a large number of globally mobile employees, it is important that companies have processes in place that will set their globally mobile talent up for success. The Harvard Business Review (HBR) recommends assigning a home and host sponsor to the expatriate, in other words, a mentor on both sides. The primary role of the sponsor is to act as a point of contact for the expatriate when problems arise and also to ensure that the expatriate settles into work life in the host country (Molinsky & Hahn, 2016). The sponsors have the added benefit of advising the expatriates on how to make the most of their assignment. The HBR also recommends having a plan for reintegration as well as ways for ensuring knowledge sharing from the expatriate’s experience (Molinsky & Hahn, 2016).
While there exists an immense amount of literature on expatriation and suggestions on how to make the process of moving and transitioning to a foreign country smoother and more positive, very little research has focused on support mechanisms that are utilised by South African employees when they undertake international assignments. In addition, there is currently no research that explores the subjective experiences of South African employees that are engaged in international assignments. An older study conducted by Vogel, Van Vuuren, and Millard focused on the preparation, support, and training requirements of South African expatriates (2008). They found that expatriates are not assigned mentors while they are engaged on international assignments. They also found that expatriates do not know their long-term career path within the multinational organisations (MNOs) in which they work (Vögel et al., 2008). Overall, the study showed that the possibility of a failed expatriate assignment can be reduced by the preparation, support, and training of expatriates for international assignments.
Another more recent study conducted by Naude and Vogel explored a four-phase repatriation process which aimed to determine whether a correlation exists between repatriation practices and repatriation turnover rate of South African multinational enterprises (2018). They found that
appointing a mentor to an expatriate supports the expatriate during his/her international assignment. Additionally, assigning a mentor assists with the successful repatriation of an expatriate and also decreases turnover intent once repatriated (Naude & Vögel, 2018).
A gap still exists in the current literature on South African expatriates in general, and in particular on how South African expatriates experience working on international assignments for the first time. Available literature is predominantly focused on making the process of moving and transitioning to a foreign country smoother and more positive. Also, the literature is not focused on the South African context nor the experience of South African employees. The aim of this study was to explore the experiences of South African employees that work for multinational organisations who are sent to work on international assignments for the first time.
1.2 Theoretical Framework
The notion of social capital is a broad term that has been conceptualised by researchers at both individual as well as group and community level. While social capital is a complex multidimensional concept that has different dimensions, types, and levels of measurement, at the heart of the concept of social capital are social relationships (Häuberer, 2011). Social capital is often defined as the capital accumulated by individuals and groups through their social interactions that can be used to facilitate co-operation among people and foster collective action for mutual benefit (Ferragina & Arrigoni, 2017). Social capital is therefore a collective asset that can exist in various forms, for example social relations, values, shared norms, and institutions, which subsequently facilitate co-operation and collective action for mutual benefit (Bhandari & Yasunobu, 2009). Similarly, according to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), social capital consists of networks, together with shared norms, values and understandings that facilitate co-operation within or among groups (2018). These networks could be family networks, networks of friends, networks of colleagues, etc., and they engender trust, which is necessary for people to work together.
The concept of social capital is becoming more prevalent in organisational studies (Adler & Kwon, 2002). There have been several significant findings relating to the benefits of social capital in the organisational context. Seibert, Kramer, and Liden (2001) identified the importance of networking for the achievement of career goals, while social capital was found to have an influence on career success. Holtom, Mitchell, and Lee (2006) found that social capital reduces turnover rate. These finding hold significance in the context of this study. Social relationships formed by employees
inside and outside the organisation are believed to create social capital. When employees leave on international assignments, these social relationships and networks are disrupted (Holtom et al., 2006). Furthermore, an expatriate starting out in a new country is at a significant disadvantage as he/she has minimal social capital owing to the fact that he/she is entering a new environment. Due to the challenges that are often faced by expatriates on international work assignments, the positive impact of being on an international work assignment does not always translate to other facets of an expatriate’s life. Many expatriates struggle to adjust to life in a foreign country. It is easy to see why when one considers that when expatriates move abroad to fulfil an international work assignment, they essentially lose out on the social networks that they have in their home country since they leave family, friends, colleagues, and community – among many other comforts – behind.
The second theoretical lens through which this research topic was explored is the capability approach. The capability approach, also referred to as the capabilities approach, is an economic theory conceived in the 1980s by Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum. Its primary focus is on what individuals are able to do or what they are capable of (Sen, 1985). The approach emphasises functional capabilities, such as the ability to work (employment), engage in economic transactions, or participate in political activities. These functional capabilities are interpreted in terms of the substantive freedoms that people have reason to value; as opposed to utility, for example choice, happiness; or access to resources, for instance assets, commodities, or income. However, this approach does not only emphasise function, it also stresses the capability to function, which is a practical choice (Sen, 2001). The ability to function refers to the capability to achieve outcomes that they value and have reason to value. Everyone could be deprived of such capabilities in many ways; for example, by government oppression, ignorance, lack of financial resources, or being in an unfamiliar environment. The importance of freedom of choice, individuality, heterogeneity, and the multidimensional nature of well-being underscores this approach to human well-being (Sen, 2001).
1.3 Research questions
What are the experiences of South African employees working on first-time international assignments?
What support mechanisms do South Africans rely on while on international assignments? How can the transition to working in a foreign country be enhanced or improved for
1.4 Expected Contribution of the Study 1.4.1 Contribution for the individual
While many South African employees are excited by the prospect of going to work abroad, the majority are inadequately prepared for the degree of change that comes with working on an international assignment or the adjustment that is required to settle into life in a new country. This study aims to shed light for South African employees on some of the experiences of working on international assignments by examining the experiences of South African employees that have gone to work on international assignments. Additionally, this study will assist these employees to have a better idea of what they can possibly expect in terms of support if they decide to undertake an international work assignment that is employer-initiated.
1.4.2 Contribution for the organisation
Multinational organisations that want to have a competitive advantage, understand that they need to focus on attracting top talent. Furthermore, because of the unique context in which MNOs operate, they generally need to have a workforce that is globally mobile. To achieve these objectives, MNOs often send employees on international assignments (Gullekson & Dumaisnil, 2016). It is also applicable within the South African context. Unfortunately, many organisations that send employees on overseas assignments do not have a complete view or appreciation of the challenges that are experienced by these employees in a new country and new work environment. The present study attempted to illuminate these challenges and therefore assist MNOs to improve global mobility programmes and thereby optimise the international work assignments of South African employees and decrease turnover intention upon their return to their home country. 1.4.3 Contribution to industrial/organisational psychology literature
As the world has become increasingly globalised, largely as a result of technological advancement, there has been a lot of interest in the topics discussed in this paper. However, there is a significant gap in the literature in terms of understanding the particular experiences of South African employees engaged in international assignments. It is envisaged that this study will add value for MNOs operating within the South African context.
1.5 Research Objectives
1.5.1 General objective
The general objective of this study was to understand how South African employees experience working on international assignments for the first time.
1.5.2 Specific objectives
To identify what support mechanisms South African employees rely on while on international assignments.
To identify ways in which the transition to working in a foreign country can be enhanced or improved for South African employees.
1.6 Research Design 1.6.1 Research approach
A qualitative research approach was employed in this study. Qualitative research is an approach that is, primarily, exploratory in nature. It is used to gain a deeper understanding about social phenomena within their natural setting (Ulin, Robinson, & Tolley, 2012). The goal of a qualitative researcher is usually to gain an insider’s view of the group under study (Antwi & Hamza, 2015). As such, qualitative research methodology often relies on personal contact between the researcher and the group being studied over some period of time (Ulin, Robinson, & Tolley, 2012). Unlike analytical and statistical measurement, qualitative research is a scientific method of observation that is used to gather non-numerical data about participants as it is concerned with the experiences of participants (Eysenck, 2014). Qualitative researchers use a variety of systems of enquiry to study human and social phenomena. These include historical analysis, biography, discourse analysis, case study, grounded theory, ethnography, and phenomenology (Petty, Thomson, & Stew, 2012).
Qualitative research is focused on the why rather than the what of social phenomena and relies on the direct experiences of participants and the meaning that the participants assign to their experiences (Antwi & Hamza, 2015). This was relevant to this study as it sought to gain a better understanding of the experiences of South African employees who are on international assignments. The study was concerned with exploring the meaning that the participants attach to themselves and to others, as well as the environment while they are assigned to a foreign country for work purposes (Eysenck, 2014).
1.6.2 Research Philosophy 1.6.2.1 Ontology
Ontology is the nature of the knowable or reality i.e. it specifies the form and nature of reality and what can be known about it (Goertz & Mahoney, 2012). The constructionist view best aligned with this study as it assumes that reality is the product of social processes (Antwi & Hamza, 2015). This study was further framed within the interpretive paradigm which is underpinned by observation and interpretation and aims to explain the subjective reasons and meanings that lie behind social phenomena (Scotland, 2012). Interpretivism focuses on the full complexity of human sense making as the situation emerges. This is done through using methodologies that are oriented toward meaning and that rely on the subjective relationship between the researcher and participants e.g. participant observation or interviewing (Phothongsunan, 2010). The researcher was interested in understanding the subjective experiences of South African employees who were engaged in their first international assignment. This was achieved through engaging with employees through semi-structured individual interviews. While the interpretivist paradigm is concerned with understanding the world as it is from subjective experiences of individuals, it stresses the need to put analysis in context (Antwi & Hamza, 2015). South African employees who were on active assignments were selected to participate in the study to ensure that they were reflecting on current events or phenomena and not recounting past experiences.
1.6.2.2 Epistemology
Epistemology refers to the nature of the relationship between the researcher and what is known. It is concerned with truth and legitimate knowledge (Antwi & Hamza, 2015; Tuli, 2010). The interpretivist/constructivist perspective was adopted for this study. Within this perspective, the world is viewed as constructed, interpreted, and experienced by people in their interactions with each other and with wider social systems (Scotland, 2012). According to this paradigm, the nature of inquiry is interpretive, and the purpose of inquiry is to understand a particular phenomenon, not to generalise to a population (Prasad, 2017). The aim of the study was to understand the experiences of a particular population i.e. South African employees engaged in international assignments for the first time. Consequently, interpretive researchers use data gathering methods that are sensitive to context. For example, interpretive researchers do not conduct experimental research within laboratories or controlled environments. Rather, research is conducted in natural settings where phenomena can be observed as it unfolds (Schwartz-Shea & Yanow, 2012). The participants of the study were asked to share their experience of being on an international assignment for first time while still engaged in their assignment.
1.6.3 Research strategy
The use of qualitative methods in research is driven by the requirements of the problem context (Heglar & Cuevas, 2017). In this study, the research questions asked and the subject matter did not easily lend themselves to quantitative methods. For this reason, a phenomenological research strategy was used. The main objective of phenomenology is to understand the lived experience and how individuals construct meaning (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Phenomenology sets out to uncover hidden phenomena by gathering data from individuals with experience that is relevant to the research being conducted. It is concerned with understanding a particular experience as a whole and assumes that meaning is embedded in these participant experiences and, furthermore, that this meaning is mediated through the researcher’s own perceptions (Tuli, 2010; Antwi & Hamza, 2015). Since the aim of the study was to understand the experiences of South African employees, this strategy was relevant as it would not be possible to evaluate these experiences using a quantitative strategy.
1.7 Research Method 1.7.1 Literature review
A complete literature review was conducted on the subject of globalisation, employee mobility, and expatriation. Articles, journals, and textbooks were consulted through database and internet searches. For literature to be deemed relevant to be included in the study, it needed to have been published between 2000 and 2019.
1.7.2 Research setting and gaining entrée
Participants for the study were selected using various sampling techniques as potential participants were very difficult to find. Purposive sampling was used in the first instance as the researcher knew a relatively small pool of individuals who were on international assignments. In addition to purposive sampling, and because of accessibility of potential participants, snowball sampling was also used to recruit additional participants.
The researcher drafted an email that was shared with each potential participant. The email contained information about the research topic as well as the research procedure. It also contained information about the researcher. Contact details were made available for individuals who wished to participate in the research. The researcher approached those individuals who met the inclusion criteria as set out in the data collection section and requested them to participate in the study. The
researcher realised that it may be difficult to source a satisfactory sample due to the nature of the research context. The criteria for inclusion was that the participants had to be:
1. South African citizens
2. Employed by a multinational organisation
3. Currently engaged on their first international assignment
When approaching the participants, the researcher provided a brief overview of the study as well as the research objectives. It was explained to the candidates that participation was voluntary and that they may choose to opt out at any stage. As the main data collection method was face-to-face interviews, the researcher also agreed with each participant on when the interviews would be conducted – taking into consideration the availability of the participants. It is recommended that interviews be conducted in areas that are free from distractions and at times and locations that are most suitable for participants wherever possible (Gill, Stewart, Treasure, & Chadwick, 2008). However, from a practicality perspective, the interviews were conducted via video conferencing facilities to allow for the participants to be interviewed while they were in their respective host countries.
1.7.3 Role of the researcher
Interaction between researchers and participants can be ethically challenging for the researcher in qualitative studies. The reason for this is the nature of qualitative research, which requires the researcher to be personally involved in different stages of the research study (Sanjari, Bahramnezhad, Fomani, Shoghi, & Cheraghi, 2014). Consequently, researchers in qualitative studies need to clarify their role in the research process (Sanjari et al., 2014). The researcher in this study was a black female who has a keen interest in travel as well as the possibility of working overseas. Therefore, the researcher was aware of personal bias that could have arose during the study, which could have had an influence on the way that the researcher conducts the interviews or interprets the data. The researcher was also aware of the possibility of “living vicariously” through the participants when gathering data on their experiences of being on international assignments and therefore lose focus on the subjective experiences of the participants. To counter this, Sanjari et al. (2014) recommend using the reflexive approach, which entails keeping a journal during the research process that the researcher uses to detail his/her own experience during the study. It allows the researcher to reflect when analysing and interpreting results in order to evaluate if and how personal experiences may influence the interpretation (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
1.7.4 Sampling procedure
Sampling is the process of selecting or choosing a suitable and appropriate sample from a representative population with the aim of deriving certain characteristics or parameters from that population (Acharya, Prakash, Saxena, & Nigam, 2013). One of the goals of qualitative research is to make sense of and interpret phenomena by studying and observing them in their natural setting. For this reason, non-probability sampling was determined to be the sampling method best suited for the study.
Non-probability sampling is a method where participants are selected strategically, as opposed to being randomly selected. Using this method means that participants are not given an equal chance of being selected to participate in the study as in probability sampling (Etikan, Musa, & Alkassim, 2016). A core characteristic of the non-probability sampling technique is that the sample is not selected randomly, instead, sampling is based on the subjective judgement of the researcher (Tongco, 2007). Non-probability sampling is used when the aim of the research is not to generalise the findings beyond the sample, meaning that the interpretation of results is limited to the population under study (Acharya et al., 2013). There are various types of non-probability sampling methods, such as quota sampling, snowball sampling, theoretical sampling, and purposive sampling. Purposive sampling, also known as judgement sampling, as well as snowball sampling were used for this study.
Purposive sampling is the process of deliberately choosing a participant due to the qualities he/she possesses (Etikan, Musa, & Alkassim, 2016). Purposive sampling is a non-random method which does not require underlying theories or a fixed number of participants (Vanderstoep & Johnson, 2008). Here the researcher chooses participants deliberately, based on the characteristics which the participants possess (Etikan et al., 2016). That is, the researcher chooses the sample based on who he/she thinks would be appropriate for the study. This method is usually used when there is a limited number of people that have expertise, knowledge, or experience in the area being researched or when the interest of the research is on a small group or a specific field (Vanderstoep & Johnson, 2008).
The researcher aimed to sample enough participants to be able to achieve the research objectives and therefore the intention was to have a sample size of fifteen (N=15) participants who met the inclusion criteria (Englander, 2012). However, owing to the research context, the final number of participants included in the study was based on the number of suitable individuals who were available and willing to participate in the study. The application of the research principle of data saturation was also used to determine the final sample size, when no new information could be
derived from the data and when further coding was no longer feasible (Fusch & Ness, 2015). Taking the above into consideration, a sample size of eight (N=8) was finally achieved.
1.7.5 Data collection method
Data collection is critical in research because the data is meant to contribute to a better understanding of a specific theoretical framework (Etikan et al., 2016). Various data collection methods, such as observations, interviews (individual or group), and textual or visual analysis (e.g., from books and videos) are available for qualitative researchers to use (Gill et al., 2008). Data for the study was collected through interviews with the research participants. Interviews allow the researcher to explore the experiences, views, motivations and/or beliefs of individuals on specific matters (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Research interviews are also useful for providing a deeper understanding of little-known phenomena that are being studied. (Gill et al., 2008). There are three main types of interviews in qualitative research, namely structured, semi-structured, and unstructured interviews.
The researcher used semi-structured in-depth interviews for the study as she wished to obtain detailed insights about participants’ experiences of being on international assignments in foreign countries. For semi-structured interviews, the researcher compiles several key questions that help to define the areas to be explored (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). However, because semi-structured interviews lend themselves to flexibility, they allow the researcher or interviewee to delve in order to pursue a response or idea in more detail (Gill et al., 2008). Consequently, semi-structured interviews are able to yield comprehensive and detailed responses from the participants (Kallio, Pietilä, Johnson, & Kangasniemi, 2016). The participants for this study were invited to engage in face-to-face semi-structured interviews using the interview schedule which contained open-ended questions. The interviews were conducted in English and the same semi-structured interview guide was used for all candidates to ensure a consistent and standardised approach.
The researcher is responsible for designing the interview schedule to be used during the interviews. As such, it is important that the questions to be asked are likely to generate as much information as possible about the study phenomenon, and able to address the aims and objectives of the research. Below are examples of some of the questions that were included in the interview schedule:
1. What was your overall experience of going to work on an international assignment for the first time?
2. Tell me about adjusting to life and work in the new country.
a. Please specify which of these have been provided by your organisation.
4. What do you think could have enhanced or improved the transition to working in a foreign country?
1.7.6 Recording of data
To ensure that the researcher is fully present during the interviews and able to pay full attention to the participants, all interviews were recorded using an audio tape recorder. The researcher then transcribed the audio recordings after each interview was concluded. The researcher asked for permission to record the interviews and to take notes during the interviews by means of the participant consent form at the start of each interview. The duration of the interview was expected to vary on an individual basis. Eventually, each interview lasted on average from thirty to forty minutes. To allow them to fully express themselves and to share their experiences openly no time restriction was imposed on the participants.
1.7.7 Data analysis
Qualitative data analysis primarily entails classifying events or phenomena according to the properties which characterise them (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Thematic analysis is a qualitative method of data analysis that is used to organise a set of data in rich detail by identifying, analysing, and reporting patterns (themes) within the data. Throughout the data analysis process researchers index or code their data using as many categories as possible. They seek to identify and describe patterns and themes from the perspective of the participant(s), then attempt to understand and explain these patterns and themes. This method of analysis was employed for the study. During data analysis the data was organised categorically and chronologically, repeatedly reviewed, and continually coded. Audio recorded interviews were transcribed verbatim and the researcher’s journal entries were reviewed regularly (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). A thematic analysis was conducted through an interpretive phenomenological analysis (Chan, Fung, & Chien, 2013). As this process progressed, the transcripts were subjected to member checking to ensure the accuracy of findings. Themes were identified as they emerged, after which the researcher compared participant data to determine common themes.
1.7.8 Quality assurance
Within the realm of qualitative research, the researcher is viewed as the “instrument of data collection”. Consequently, credibility of qualitative research depends on the ability and effort of the researcher (Golafshani, 2003). Various methods can be employed by the researcher to establish rigour of the qualitative inquiry (Anney, 2014). These quality assurance techniques are also a way
to ensure an accurate reflection of reality, or at least reality as it is constructed by participants. Lincoln and Guba’s (1985) notion of trustworthiness in naturalistic inquiry is grounded in this approach. Their model was used to ensure trustworthiness of the findings of the study. They propose four criteria that should be considered by qualitative researchers to ensure trustworthy data. These are credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Shenton, 2004).
1.7.8.1 Credibility
Credibility is the confidence that can be placed in the truth of the research findings (Anney, 2014). It is concerned with addressing the extent to which the findings are congruent with reality (Shenton, 2004). Credibility enables the researcher to assess whether a research account is believable and appropriate, with particular reference to the level of agreement between participants, the researcher, and the reader (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Credible research results are seen as believable and based on quality, that is, how rich the information gathered is as opposed to the quantity thereof. Various strategies, which may be used to check accuracy of findings, are available to the researcher. For the purposes of this study, credibility was satisfied through the use of member checking.
Member checking is the process of continually testing data and interpretations received from individuals who have participated in the study. Member checks are at the heart of credibility. They are conducted to eliminate researcher bias when results are interpreted thereby enhancing the rigour of the research (Anney, 2014). They entail an ongoing dialogue regarding the researchers’ interpretation of participants reality and experiences (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
1.7.8.2 Transferability
Transferability is the quantitative equivalent of generalisability and refers to the degree to which the results of qualitative research can be transferred to other contexts with other respondents (Ulin, Robinson, & Tolley, 2012). Transferability of the study is achieved when the researcher selects the participants purposively and provides a detailed description of the research. In the study, transferability was satisfied through the use of thick description. The researcher provides the thick description of the researched context and the findings, for example, experiences or views, which will allow other researchers to assess their transferability to another setting (Ritchie, Lewis, Nicholls, & Ormston, 2013). Thick description helps other researchers to replicate the study with similar conditions in other settings. One of the challenges in obtaining transferability in qualitative
studies is the fact that findings of qualitative studies are often unique to a particular context, setting, or group (Noble & Smith, 2015).
1.7.8.3 Dependability
Dependability refers to the stability of findings over time and it closely corresponds to the notion of reliability in quantitative research (Anney, 2014; Golafshani, 2003). Dependability involves participants evaluating the findings, interpretation, and recommendations of the study to make sure that they are all supported by the data received from the participants of the study. The researcher should provide enough detail to enable the reader to determine how dependable the study is. In this study, dependability was satisfied through the use of an audit trail. An audit trail can be used to examine both the process and the product of the research for consistency (Golafshani, 2003).
1.7.8.4 Confirmability
Confirmability refers to the authenticity of the research findings in as far as reflecting the situation being researched. It is of particular importance in qualitative research as it lends itself to subjectivity because the research “instruments” are people (Antwi & Hamza, 2015). Consequently, a challenge for qualitative researchers is ensuring that research findings have not been fabricated by them (Shenton, 2004). The notion of confirmability therefore is about maintaining distance between the researcher (observer) and the participant (observed) and minimising any possible influence of the researcher’s values on the process of inquiry (Ulin, Robinson, & Tolley, 2012). The implication is that researchers need to be aware of any of their own assumptions, beliefs, or biases that may have had an influence on their decisions during the research process. This then needs to be clearly observed and documented in the reflexive journal notes that the researcher will keep so that other researchers and readers may be able to accurately judge the authenticity of the research findings. In this study, confirmability was satisfied through the use of an audit trail (Carcary, 2009).
1.8 Ethical Considerations
The research proposal was submitted to the Research Ethics Committee at the North-West University for ethical clearance before commencement of the study. Once ethical clearance was obtained, the field study was initiated by recruiting participants.
1.8.1 Informed consent, voluntary participation, and confidentiality
Informed consent is central to ethical research practice (Miller, Birch, Mauthner, & Jessop, 2012). In order for the individuals to make an informed decision about participation in the study, the objectives of the study were discussed with them at the start of the study. Those individuals that wished to participate were requested to provide written consent prior to the study being undertaken. The consent form that was given to each participant to sign detailed the background of the researcher, the purpose of the research, the main aims of the study, and overall research design. The consent form also explicitly stated the measures that were taken to ensure anonymity of participants as well as confidentiality of data collected. The researcher did not use any form of coercion to secure participants (Miller et al., 2012). Participation in the study was completely voluntary and participants were free to withdraw at any time if they so wished.
1.8.2 Beneficence and non-malfeasance
During a research endeavour, it remains the responsibility of the researcher to consider the ways in which taking part in the study may be harmful to participants. The researcher then needs to take steps to ensure the physical and emotional well-being of the participants throughout the research process (Ritchie et al., 2013). The intention of this study was to be of benefit to individuals and organisations alike by highlighting potential gaps and strengths in the global mobility experience of South African employees. The intention was also to suggest strategies that could be used to potentially enhance this process. Therefore, the researcher ensured that the safety of the participants was foremost at all times. To ensure that no undue harm was brought upon the participants any risks that may be associated with participation in the study were declared from the onset. In addition, the researcher ensured that no form of intimidation or coercion was used in the recruitment of participants.
The researcher approached those individuals who met the inclusion criteria, as set out in the data collection section, and requested them to participate in the study. The privacy of participants was a top priority for the researcher throughout the process and therefore no unique identifiers were used (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). To further ensure confidentiality, and to protect the privacy of participants at all times, the research findings were stored and disseminated in accordance with strict ethical practices.
1.9 Chapter division
The chapters in the mini-dissertation are presented as follows:
Chapter 1: Introduction, problem statement and objectives, and research method. Chapter 2: Research article
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CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH ARTICLE
ABSTRACT
Orientation: Global mobility of employees has become commonplace in a globalised economy. Many multinational organisations send employees on international assignments to gain a competitive advantage in new markets and territories. These assignments also hold great benefit for employees from a growth, development, and exposure perspective.
Research purpose: The general objective of this study was to understand how South African employees experience working on international assignments for the first time.
Motivation for the study: This study was motivated by extant literature which indicated a lack of available research in terms of the experiences of South African expatriates. The focus of the study was specifically on employees who work for multinational organisations and are therefore more likely to be sent on international work assignments.
Research design, approach, and method: A qualitative research design was utilised with a total sample that consisted of eight participants. The sample group consisted of employees from various multinational organisations, fulfilling different roles in different functions. Data was collected by conducting semi-structured interviews.
Main findings: The main findings of the study were that South African employees find being sent on an international assignment to be a generally positive experience. The support mechanisms that these employees rely on while on international assignments are organisational mechanisms, such as human resources and relocation assistance; and people or networks in the form of line managers, colleagues, friends, and family in South Africa. Furthermore, South African employees feel that the transition to working in a foreign country can be enhanced or improved by organisations adopting a more holistic approach to the relocation efforts, better communication, well-defined onboarding plans, and providing clarity in terms of accommodation.
Practical implications: Multinational organisations (MNOs) can contribute towards the success of international assignees by supporting them at different stages of the expatriate cycle. In preparing for the international assignment, MNOs should focus on intercultural training. They could also make site visits to the host country available. During the transfer, there needs to be a well-defined and holistic approach to the relocation exercise, open communication channels, and measures to ensure that accommodation is available once the assignee arrives in the host country.
Having an onboarding plan for the assignee as well as assigning a mentor will further facilitate the process of adjusting and settling in.
Contribution or value add: The study has added to the existing literature on expatriate assignments within the South African employee context. It has also added to the current understanding of social capital theory as well as the capabilities approach in the organisational context.
Key words: Global mobility, multinational organisation, global talent management, expatriate, globalisation
INTRODUCTION
In a progressively more globalised economy, multinational organisations (MNOs) are increasingly sending talented employee on international assignments as they realise the strategic importance of these assignments (Collings & Scullion, 2006). MNOs do this for a variety of reasons, which include expansion into new and existing markets, streamlining operations across geographical locations, developing the organisation’s top talent, and gaining new perspectives (MacLachlan, 2018). Unfortunately, it is reported that 40% of international assignments fail. Considering that the cost per assignee is on average 311,000 USD, the cost of failure is very high (MacLachlan, 2018). Expatriate failure is usually regarded as premature return from an international assignment (Harzing & Christensen, 2004). To mitigate the risk of failure, employers need to understand the relevance of both practical and personal support for their employees. A such, it is essential that organisations have well-articulated plans to manage their expatriates at various stages of the expatriate life cycle. They also need to provide adequate support to expatriates at every stage which in turn will assist in expatriates successfully completing their assignments (McInnes, 2019). While there is extensive literature on expatriates, there is a notable gap in the literature on studies focusing on South African expatriates in particular. The paucity of literature on this demography was one of the main motivators for conducting this research. The main aim of this study was to understand how South African employees experience first-time international assignments, specifically focusing on international assignments that are initiated by the employer. The traditional or classic expatriation cycle, that is, selection-preparation-assignment-repatriation, was the focus of this research (Mayrhofer, Reichel, & Sparrow, 2012).
Traditionally, expatriates were individuals in senior management and executive positions who were sent abroad, usually from a head office, for a specified period, for instance 2-4 years, to look after the interests of the multinational organisation in the new geographical location (Zárraga-Oberty, 2017). These individuals would be expected to return after the completion of their international assignment (Mayrhofer, Reichel, & Sparrow, 2012). One of the traditional aims of expatriation was development and career management of future leaders for the organisations. There has been a marked shift in this profile as the world continues to become increasingly more globalised. This has given rise to different types of global mobility assignments and different types of expatriates. Progressively more younger professionals are considering international work assignments at the early stage of their careers. Correspondingly, organisations are no longer limiting international assignments to tenured executives. Also, the type of assignments has
changed significantly. Today, international assignments take the several different forms including short-term assignments and traditional expatriate assignments.
LITERATURE REVIEW Employee Mobility
Globalisation means that global mobility of employees has become commonplace. In order to gain a competitive edge, organisations are increasingly sending employees on international assignments (Gullekson & Dumaisnil, 2016). Employees who work for MNOs are commonly asked to take on work assignments in other operating countries or new territories that MNOs want to expand into (Collings, Scullion, & Morley, 2007). This trend is showing no signs of slowing down as organisations look to establish operations in increasingly remote locations to remain competitive (Santa Fe Relocation, 2018). It has also led to many MNOs establishing local operations within various African countries – South Africa included – to better serve their customers, which in turn has resulted in an increase in global mobility of employees both into and out of South Africa. Even with this general rise in global mobility, Africa still has some of the lowest numbers of MNO headquarters.
Of the many MNOs that participated in the Santa Fe Relocation Global Mobility Survey (2018), only 2% are headquartered in Africa; with Europe having the majority at 63%, and Asia (16%) and North America (14%) ranking second and third, respectively – albeit by a significant margin from Europe. In terms of the common destination countries for international assignees, the US, China and the UK rank as the top three. The top sending countries (that is, where most assignees are transferred from), are the UK, France, and the US (Santa Fe Relocation, 2018). South Africa (and other African countries) do not feature on either the list of common destinations nor sending countries. This demonstrates the lack of research focused on the African continent and, more importantly, the South African context in relation to globally mobile workforce. Africa is commonly viewed as a major sufferer of brain drain, losing its highly skilled and academic talent to more developed countries, especially in western Europe and North America. Brain drain is defined as the migration of highly skilled individuals from developing countries to developed countries (Docquier & Rapoport, 2012). In spite of this, there is a lack of empirical research on how South African employees experience life as expatriates in foreign countries.
Multinational Organisations
Emerging research highlights the importance of international employee mobility as a key element of MNO’s global talent strategies (Collings, 2014). Mobility of employees and how to develop a
truly globally mobile culture are the top priorities for chief executive officers (CEOs) when considering the task of expanding their operations internationally (Groysberg & Connolly, 2015). The rise in MNOs has meant that employees are commonly asked to take assignments in company locations outside their home countries (iMercer, 2019). For MNOs, operating in a global marketplace means that finding and managing talent presents unique challenges. Global mobility and international assignments also come with specific disadvantages to individuals. Taking on international work assignments is a huge task that results in significant disruptions to the lives of employees. They remove employees from regular routines, friends and family, colleagues, as well as other familiar comforts, and the security of home (Zhu, Wanberg, Harrison, & Diehn, 2016). Global Talent Management
The talent market has become increasingly competitive. Multinational organisations are realising more and more the need to have the best talent within their businesses and competition to attract and retain the best international talent is fierce (Harvey, 2013). As a result, organisations compete for top talent by offering various value propositions which has resulted in a practice that has been termed a “war for talent” (Michaels, Handfield-Jones, & Axelrod, 2001). The “war for talent” occurs in various industries and it often sees organisations competing for talent against direct competitors and other industries which are seen as offering more attractive career prospects (Misthal, 2017; PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2014). Talent management embodies the timeless principles of attracting, developing, and retaining highly talented employees. It is about recognising the strategic importance of human capital because of the enormous value that having better talent creates (Michaels et al., 2001).
Within the context of globalisation and MNOs, talent needs to be managed on a global scale. A global talent management strategy becomes useful in this regard as it enables MNOs to identify key positions that contribute to the organisation’s sustainable competitive advantage on a global scale (Collings, 2014). The implication is that organisations need to be more focused on talent and the need for innovative talent strategies (Santa Fe Relocation, 2018). Since the global footprint of many MNOs increases the need for movement of people from different parts of the world to countries where the organisations operate (Kicsi & Buta, 2012), MNOs need to be able to attract, engage, and retain talent globally. As such, international employee mobility becomes a key element of the global talent management strategy of MNOs (Collings, 2014).
A study conducted by the Harvard Business Review identified talent as one of the top three priorities for CEOs – that is, one of the top three things that keep CEOs awake at night (Groysberg & Connolly, 2015). They worry, in particular about whether their high potential employees are
