An analysis of how the spatial dynamics of a social design initiative
affect the urban community.
Radboud University Faculty of Arts Creative Industries Jorien Simmelink Master Thesis Supervisor: Dr. Lászlo Múntéan
Second reader: Prof. Dr. L. Plate
Research Abstract
This research examines how a social design focused initiative positions itself in a creative area within the Dutch city landscape and in what ways its spatial dynamics influence the surrounded urban community. This is done by exploring the field of both urban theory and spatial theory, and the appliance of a spatial analysis to the case study of choice. Within this scope, I have also studied concepts that relate to this field of research such as the creative city and the
recognition of space and place. The initiative is founded from a social design perspective, and therefore, the concept of social design will be extensively explained. Before the appliance of a spatial analysis of the case study, I will also concentrate on the initiative’s history and values to reinforce its context.
Table of contents
Introduction
______________________________________________________________________________________________ 5 Research Focus and Research Question ______________________________________________________________ 6 Method ______________________________________________________________________________________________ 6 Thesis Structure ______________________________________________________________________________________ 6 1 | The Concept of Social Design ____________________________________________________________________________ 8 1.1 ‘Social’ and ‘Design’ ______________________________________________________________________________ 8 1.2 What is Social Design? ____________________________________________________________________________ 9 1.3 The Relevance of Social Design _________________________________________________________________ 12 1.4 The Application of Social Design in the Netherlands ____________________________________________ 14 1.4.1 Social Design and Education ___________________________________________________________________ 14 1.4.2 Social Design Initiatives in the Netherlands _____________________________________________________ 15 Summary ___________________________________________________________________________________________ 17 2 | The Creative City _______________________________________________________________________________________ 18 2.1 Florida’s Creative City___________________________________________________________________________ 19 2.1.1 Creative districts _______________________________________________________________________________ 20 2.2 The 3T’s ________________________________________________________________________________________ 21 2.3 “Geography is dead” ___________________________________________________________________________ 23 2.4 The Creative Class ______________________________________________________________________________ 24 Summary ___________________________________________________________________________________________ 26 3 | Urban and Spatial Theory ______________________________________________________________________________ 26 3.1 Urban Theory __________________________________________________________________________________ 27 3.2 Spatial Theory __________________________________________________________________________________ 29 3.2.1 Space and Place: exploration of two spatial concepts__________________________________________ 29 3.2.2 The Sociology of Space _______________________________________________________________________ 30 3.2.3 Public Space __________________________________________________________________________________ 313.3 Henri Lefebvre and the Production of Space ____________________________________________________ 32 3.3.1 Politics of Space _______________________________________________________________________________ 34 3.4 Edward Soja’s Thirdspace _______________________________________________________________________ 35 Summary ___________________________________________________________________________________________ 36 4 | Method ________________________________________________________________________________________________ 37 5 | Case Study _____________________________________________________________________________________________ 38 5.1 Social Label ____________________________________________________________________________________ 38 5.1.1 Vision __________________________________________________________________________________________ 39 5.1.2 Goals __________________________________________________________________________________________ 39 5.1.3 Social Label’s products _________________________________________________________________________ 39 5.2 The Werkwarenhuis ____________________________________________________________________________ 47 5.2.1 The relationship between the Werkwarenhuis and Social Label ________________________________ 48 5.3 De Tramkade ___________________________________________________________________________________ 49 5.4 Development of creative areas in Noord-Brabant ______________________________________________ 50 5.4.1 Brabant C ______________________________________________________________________________________ 50 5.4.2 Innovatief Brabant and Designlabs _____________________________________________________________ 51 Summary ___________________________________________________________________________________________ 52 6 | Analysis ________________________________________________________________________________________________ 53 6.1 The Werkwarenhuis: the home of Social Label __________________________________________________ 53 6.1.2 Restaurant van Aken ___________________________________________________________________________ 56 6.1.2 Social Label Store _____________________________________________________________________________ 59 6.2 How the Tramkade and the WWH affect each other ____________________________________________ 62 Summary ___________________________________________________________________________________________ 64 Conclusion ________________________________________________________________________________________________ 65 List of figures ______________________________________________________________________________________________ 69 Works Cited _______________________________________________________________________________________________ 72
Introduction
During the course of my Master program, I became more and more interested in the social aspect of design. Beforehand, I was merely familiar with the aesthetic aspects of design during my studies in Textile design. However, through visitations of exhibitions and talking to
colleagues I noticed an increased attention towards the social aspect of design in the Dutch design landscape, which stimulated my personal interest as well. In our contemporary society, the aesthetic aspect of design is subject to the social issues it addresses (Margolin 24, 29). These social issues occur for example in a political, economic, and cultural context.
Different scholars researched and discussed social design and related projects. Victor Papanek challenged the perspective towards design with his book Design For The Real World
(1972). Papanek was the first to address the idea of social design and he argued that designers need to acknowledge social responsibility for the world. Victor Margolin and Anne van der Zwaag examined social design from a more recent perspective. Margolin summarizes in
Design For The Good Society (2015) five editions of a Social Design manifesto that took place in the Netherlands. This publication reflects on engaged design and explores the relationship between society and design.1
Anne van der Zwaag illustrates the importance of social design concerning changes in our society in Looks Good Feels Good Is Good: How Social Design changes our world (2014). Van der Zwaag uses examples of existing products in different sectors that are designed from a social design perspective. Both scholars have done research that results in relevant case studies that are supported by images and interviews. The projects addressed in van der Zwaag’s work are driven by co-creation of designers and people who have social needs.
When I started to examine the concept of social design, I came across the presence of the (urban) environment wherein social design exists. Social design challenges issues in society and therefore the surroundings wherein these issues exist produce value as well. As a result, I gained interest in the relationship between social design and the urban environment wherein it exists. The research of van der Zwaag and Margolin show that there are many social design projects in our society. Yet, in what way affects social design the environment wherein it exists? Therefore, I decided to research the relationship between a social design initiative and its (urban) environment.
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Research Focus and Research Question
This thesis will analyze the Dutch social design initiative Social Label located in Den Bosch, the Netherlands. In short, Social Label aims for an inclusive platform that brings designers and people who experience a distance from the labor market together. The home of Social Label is located in an area in Den Bosch that is transforming into a highly creative district. The main objective of this thesis is to examine Social Label’s spatial dynamics and how these dynamics affect their surroundings. Therefore, I will answer the following research question: In what ways do the spatial dynamics of the social design initiative Social Label affect the urban community around it?
Method
In order to answer the research question, I will employ a spatial analysis to the case study. Before I do this, I will examine the field of urban theory and spatial theory to create a proper context for the research. In further extend of urban theory and spatial theory I discuss the sociology of space with help of The Sociology of Space: Materiality, Social Structures, and Action (2016) by Martina Löw. Löw explores a definition of space that includes social structures and material objects. She assumes that space exists through the interaction of those material objects and social structures. Furthermore, I will discuss the idea of space and place and how they are recognized as two different concepts. I introduce the work of Henri Lefebvre and his perception towards the production of space. Lefebvre developed a spatial triad that
deconstructed space in three different dimensions. These three dimensions: conceived space, perceived space, and lived space deconstruct space according to different observations.
Thesis Structure
This thesis starts with the theoretical framework that includes relevant concepts and a brief summary of the method. Thereafter, I will introduce the case study and apply a spatial analysis to answer the research question. The first chapter explores the concept of social design and highlights important scholars that have done research in this field of interest. The explanation of social design helps to get a better understanding of the case study of choice. Furthermore, this first chapter looks at relevance of social design and how it exists in the Dutch design landscape. Chapter two deals with the concept of the creative city according to Richard Florida
and concerned notions such as the creative class and the 3T’s from a critical stance. I will delve into Florida’s work and use the work of other scholars to critically analyze his findings. In the third chapter, I will explore the field of urban theory and spatial theory. Here, I will discuss the work of Henri Lefebvre and Edward Soja and decide which perspective I will apply to the case study. Chapter four gives a concise explanation of the method I will use for the analysis. The fifth chapter addresses the case study extensively, which includes a description of the history and its current goals and values. In addition, this chapter also introduces related initiatives that have a close relationship with Social Label and are of importance for my research. The final chapter concentrates completely on the spatial analysis of the case study. The implementation of discussed theories and concepts helps to examine in what ways the spatial dynamics of Social Label affect the urban community.
1 | The Concept of Social Design
Social design is a buzzing concept in the temporary design landscape: both the field of
research and the practice of design have developed a strong interest in this socially responsible form of design (Van der Zwaag 12; Chen et al. 1). In addition to his, the Netherlands has quite a well-known position in the world of design: ‘Dutch Design’ has become a recognized term for objects made by Dutch designers with a recognizable aesthetic (Thomas, introduction). Within the Netherlands, events such as the Dutch Design Week have seen an increased focus on social design during the past editions. In addition, the field of education seems to have an increased focus on the social aspects. Although the idea of social design might sound quite new, it is an idea discussed widely in the past decades by a variety of academics such as Victor Papanek and Victor Margolin.
The case study of this thesis operates from a social design perspective and it is of vast importance to construct a clear definition of social design to fully understand the rest of the research. Therefore, I will start deconstructing the concept and discuss ‘social’ and ‘design’ and individual concepts in subchapter 1.1. Afterwards I will present a definition of social design using the work of scholars who have done research in the field of social design in subchapter 1.2. This subchapter will be divided into a part that concentrates on past research, which discusses the origin of social design, and one part that elaborates on the meaning of social design in our contemporary society. Subchapter 1.3 addresses the relevance of social design in contemporary society. Furthermore, subchapter 1.4 illustrates the appliance of social design in the Netherlands.
1.1 ‘Social’ and ‘Design’
In this subchapter, I will start with a brief explanation of the two aspects that construct the concept social design: ‘social’ and ‘design’. I do this to create a general understanding and thereafter implement scholarly sources that examine the definition of social design more extensively. This section starts with Victor Papanek’s research concerning social design. Moreover, I will include the work of other scholars that explore the meaning of social design from a more recent perspective.
The division of the concept gives us two separate terms to work with: ‘social’ and ‘design’. The Oxford Learners Dictionary describes the adjective ‘social’ as something that is
“connected with society and the way it is organized”. In addition to this description, ‘social’ also refers to “activities in which people meet each other for pleasure" (The Oxford Learners Dictionary, “social”). Both explanations touch upon the topics that are often dealt with by social design initiatives: issues concerning society and interaction between people are frequently motivations for said initiatives. Subchapter 1.3 will delve further into the relevance of social design in society.
“Design” is defined in The Oxford Learners Dictionary as “the way that something works, looks or is used (“design”). Guy Julier discusses different definitions of design in his book
The Culture of Design (2000): he argues that its meaning is often contested and susceptible to various interpretations (48). From his perspective, the practice of design is not a fixed concept but something that changes according to its circumstances. Victor Papanek claims in Design For The Real World (1972) that everyone is a designer and that designing is a human activity from commercial practices. The act of designing is not limited to educated designers but an activity accessible for anyone in our society. Papanek’s theory is more extensively explained in section 1.1.2. The recognition of design as something that is adaptable to the people or the context in which it is seen is valuable for the definition of social design. Given that the ‘social’ in social design refers to communication and interaction between different factors, Papanek’s view of the inclusive designer fits right in with this definition. If design only limits itself to designers or educated people in the field, how social would it actually be?
1.2 What is Social Design?
In subchapter 1.1, I discussed the two aspects of social design separately to enhance the understanding of the concept of social design. In short, ‘social’ refers to an activity that involves the interaction between multiple people within a community or a society. ‘Design’ concerns the act of shaping both tangible and intangible objects. Merging these two together implies a solid definition of the concept ‘social design’, one would assume. However, understanding the real value of social design should not rely on explanations found in dictionaries as this form of design occurs right in front of us, in our society and between people. In this subchapter, I will elaborate more extensively on research done by Victor Papanek concerning social design in 1972. Afterward, I will discuss more recent work of Anne van der Zwaag, who has written a book about social design in our current society.
Victor Papanek is the author of the cult book Design For the Real World (1971) in which he introduced the concept of social design. Note that this book was published some
decades ago and that his work is influenced by the period it was published. Papanek argues in this book that during that time, the current society was experiencing an age of mass
production and that design had become an extremely powerful tool to shape environments (14). He writes that designers must recognize a social and moral responsibility concerning the issues related to design. This shift in perception of design also asks for a better understanding of designers and their creative process. Designers start to address issues in society by
implementing design into everyday life to increase responsibility. As a result of this employment, the practice of design is no longer restricted to an elite group but has transformed into a practice that concerns a larger part of society.
In addition, Papanek addresses the following issue he sees as problematic: “little design and so few products are really relevant to the needs of mankind” (73). During the time of writing and publishing his book, Papanek experienced that designs were often focused on luxury products in the Western world targeted to the middle class and excluded groups that did not conform to this class (73). When a designer tries to design with a more worldly perception (meaning one not restricted by the designers' discourse and including groups that normally are excluded2
), he or she is often accused of designing for a ‘minority' (Papanek 73). Designing for a certain group can be experienced as restrictive, however, addressing a variety of those ‘minorities’ results in a more inclusive approach of design.
Papanek disagrees with the accusation that designing for minorities limits the field of design. He claims that this is “foolish”, “completely false”, and “reflects the misconception and misperception under which the design field operates” (73). In response to this, he reinforced design students from that time to design in a more inclusive way and focus on minorities as well. In other words, Papanek encouraged students to design in a more socially inclusive way. Victor Papanek was the first to recognize the importance of a more social based form of design. To summarize, Papanek addressed in Design For The Real World that he hoped for a change regarding the way design was perceived. Design should no longer be limited to the needs of the West but also reach out to minorities in order to become more worldly and concentrate on more global concerns.
Papanek’s Design For The Real World was first published in 1971. Since then, social design has become a more present topic in the field of design. Regarding the Netherlands, social design projects have emerged in the past years, elaborated upon in Subchapter 1.3. The previous paragraphs discussed Papanek’s work wherein he aimed for the recognition of social and moral values concerning design. He addressed the importance of an inclusive approach of
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design that concentrated on sustainability and wellbeing. A more recent definition can be found in the book Looks Good, Feels Good, Is Good (2015) by Anne van der Zwaag. She argues that social design touches products or projects that are strongly concerned with or for society (13). This corresponds with the definition of the word ‘social’ described in subchapter 1.1. Van der Zwaag also adds that the purpose of design has shifted. Nowadays, “design conferences and exhibitions are increasingly dedicated to social, ecological and economic issues and to what designers can potentially contribute in these areas” (Van der Zwaag 13). This corresponds for instance with the theme for the Dutch Design Week 2018, which was “If not us, then who?” and addressed the importance of taking responsibility for our environment.3
The Dutch Design Week is an event that known globally and reaches out to both designers and non-designers.
Although the term ‘design' is incorporated into the definition, social design concentrates not only on design-related projects but also offers more multidisciplinary solutions to various problems in current society (Van der Zwaag 13). Social design encloses not only actual tangible products such as furniture and clothing but also includes intangible concepts such as projects to enhance the safety level of a local neighborhood or, on a more global level, address food production or the consumption of energy (Van der Zwaag 13).
Another valuable contribution to the concept of social design is the Social Design Futures: HEI (Health Effects Institute) Research and the AHRC (Arts and Humanities Research Council) (2014) report by Leah Armstrong, Jocelyn Bailey, Guy Julier, and Lucy Kimbell. The research was performed in collaboration with the University of Brighton and The Victoria and Alberts Museum. Although the research concentrates on the development of social design in the UK, it provides some definitions that are useful for a more complete understanding. In the report, social design is defined as a practice that concentrates merely on the satisfaction of human needs rather than the consumption of goods and consumer-oriented objectives (Armstrong et al. 6). The emphasis on human needs and how to fulfill these through collective effort distinguishes social design from ‘ordinary’ design with “predominantly commercial objectives” (Armstrong et al. 15).
To summarize, this subchapter examined the concept of social design with the help of scholars that have done research in the field of social design. Social design addresses relevant issues in society and aims for an inclusive approach. Thus, social design is not limited to designers but also incorporates non-designers and therefore has a broad approach. After
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having constructed a definition, I will now discuss the relevance of social design in the next subchapter.
1.3 The Relevance of Social Design
The previous subchapters constructed a general understanding of the concept of social design. In contrast to ‘ordinary’ design aims social design towards a more inclusive form of design that speaks to all sorts of people. Furthermore, social design concentrates on contemporary issues in society. But what makes it relevant in today’s contemporary culture, and how does it add value in a world where new designs pop up every day? In this subchapter, I will discuss the relevance of social design in today’s world. Subchapter 1.2 explained that social design focuses on social issues within different levels of society and on both global and local scale. In short, it adds social value to the practice of design, and it is no longer restricted to aesthetics only. To support this, Van der Zwaag mentions that social design projects are “broad and diverse, as are the issues that social designers address” (13). Addressing social issues and explaining how to deal with such concerns through creative and interactive ways challenges people to participate more actively.
Rachel Cooper argues that one of the main goals of designers is the urge to add value to the world with their designs: “it is an underlying consumption that most design graduates hold as they pass through the portals of education into the profession” (10). From my personal perspective as a designer, I agree with Cooper’s argument. During my study, I often discussed the intentions of my designs and how it contributes to society. Besides the individual urge to design meaningful objects, Cooper also discusses “a stronger focus on the designer’s responsibility and the contributions he or she can make to society, our lifestyles, and the environment in general..” (10). This increased focus implies that designers are no longer seen as “just” designers, instead, they are expected to deal with issues relevant to the context they design for.
Looks Good, Feels Good, Is Good by Anna van der Zwaag discusses several topics, and wellbeing is one of them. This theme involves the quality of life of both individuals and communities (19). As I will analyze the effects of a social design initiative on the urban
community, this theme is relevant to this research. Van der Zwaag mentions that the quality of our living environment has a large impact on our lives. This includes, for instance, the existence of nature, the availability of inspiring places to meet other people, and the opportunity to practice sport or hobbies. Furthermore, as explained in subchapter 1.2, social design creates creative solutions for (in)tangible issues in society. Within the process of tackling those issues,
there is often a focus on the involvement of people and shaping a community. Social design is something practiced together; a form of design that connects and interacts. To recap, Rachel Cooper addressed that designers focus on adding value to their design. Seeming to agree with Cooper, Van der Zwaag argues that human beings in general “are much attached to
participating meaningfully in society” (19). Addressing human beings, in general, implies that not only designers but also consumers are being held responsible for their decisions in relation to design in a world with various issues concerning e.g. climate change and wellbeing (Melles 144).
Van der Zwaag recognizes this responsibility as a feature of the ‘maker movement’ (213). The maker movement includes a more active attitude from the consumer: the prosumer. The prosumer is a consumer who has transformed into a consumer as well as a producer (Van der Zwaag 213). Consumers are no longer restricted to consuming but participate in the process of creating. Van der Zwaag claims that “[m]Making is the new buying, sharing is the new having” (213). The maker movement corresponds with the urge to add meaning or value to designs, discussed earlier in subchapter 1.3. Although social design projects (can) result in a tangible product, the overall process is much more focused on an intangible experience: contribution, interaction, and co-creation. Social design gives us the opportunity to address problems from a creative perception, stimulating both designers and target groups (minorities) to exchange ideas and come to decisions together.
In subchapter 1.2 the Social Design Issues report of Armstrong et al. introduces a definition of social design. In addition, the report addresses the current relevance of social design. The research is performed with the UK as a case study. Nevertheless, the motives can be valuable for other case studies as they do not address UK-specific problems or initiatives. First, Armstrong et al. argue that society “currently faces extensive large-scale complex challenges, which social design is suited to addressing” (20). These challenges include “climate change, migration, chronic diseases, and wealth disparities” (20). Secondly, the
acknowledgment of the importance of cross-disciplinary research and design stimulates interaction between different disciplines (Armstrong et al. 20). Lastly, social design is operating in an expanding field (Armstrong et al. 20) and challenges current design education. In the past, design concentrated more on technological or commercial developments. However, social design asks for a broader perspective that incorporates other areas such as healthcare and social welfare (Armstrong et al. 20-21). This emphasizes the importance of crossing your boundaries in terms of valuable design. Exploring other fields, collaborating with people or
companies with a different set of skills, and stimulating interaction enriches every form of social design.
To summarize, social design can provide new ways to improve the quality of life and stimulates consumer participation. It also encourages a new perspective regarding design: design is no longer limited to products that only focus on consumption. Instead, they touch upon current issues in society. Additionally, the consumer has a more active and contributing role: the prosumer is involved in the creative process and adds personal values to the designed objects. My research is built around a social design initiative located in the Netherlands and explores the influence on the Dutch city landscape. Therefore, the following subchapter will elaborate on the appliance of social design in the Netherlands.
1.4 The Application of Social Design in the Netherlands
The Netherlands has been known for a design tradition wherein there was great attention for social ideals and cultural values (Thomas, introduction). Therefore, social design has been a frequent theme in the Dutch Design landscape for the past decade. In this subchapter, I will examine the implementation of social design in Dutch (art) education and introduce different social design initiatives in the Netherlands.
1.4.1 Social Design and Education
There are numerous art- and design-based BA and MA programs across the Netherlands. The vast majority focuses on fine art, fashion-, product-, and graphic design. However, there are existing programs that emphasize on social design and acknowledge its value. One of the most straightforward programs is the MA specialization in Social Design at the Design Academy in Eindhoven. This MA program aims to “develop new models, strategies and products that can play a decisive role in the development and transformation of society.”4 They
acknowledge the difficulties that our society is currently facing in terms of economic, governmental and sustainable issues and see a solution in social design. The designers are trained to develop a “self-critical, reflective and constructive attitude towards the world in flux”.
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In addition, they are stimulated to acquire an individual definition of social design, which they can use in their career. 5
Secondly, the HKU University of the Arts in Utrecht has an MA program called ‘Crossover Creativity’, which offers a learning environment for all sort of people from the creative field. During this program, attendees are “expected to create socially responsible solutions in the field of Future Health, Smart Living and Social Inclusion”.6 In correspondence
with the MA Social Design of the Design Academy concentrates the MA program Crossover Creativity on the designer’s individual perception towards social design.
Lastly, the Technical University (TU) in Delft offers an MA program in Interaction Design. Although it focuses not necessarily on social design, the program focuses on the interaction between people and products, something that is also of vast importance for design with a social context. In addition, the TU Delft also provides the possibility to join their initiative ‘Design For Values’. Design for Values concentrates on responsible innovation and
encompasses different design approaches. One of these approaches is social design; which “aimed at transforming society towards the realization of certain values”. 7 Design for Values
concentrates on different values; it can vary from sustainability and safety to responsibility and democracy. 8 Even though it operates in a slightly different field than for instance the MA
programs discussed earlier, it is as an interesting and valuable addition to the field of (social) design.
This section shows an increased awareness of the social aspect of design education. Design students are challenged to research the impact of their designs and how it contributes to our temporary culture. Being aesthetically pleasing is no longer a design’s main goal: its deeper meaning and (social) context wherein it exists is as important.
1.4.2 Social Design Initiatives in the Netherlands
Not only is social design used as a theme in education, but there are also several independent projects that incorporate this way of design into their work ethics. This thesis will analyze one case study in chapter 6, which is an initiative that implements social design into their business model. However, during my search for social design projects in the Netherlands I came across
5 Https://www.designacademy.nl/study/master/general/social-design, 15.01.2019
6 Https://www.hku.nl/Opleidingen/HKUCollege/Masters/MasterCrossoverCreativity.html, 15.01.2019 7 Http://designforvalues.tudelft.nl/design-for-values-an-introduction/, 15.01.2019
multiple examples. Social design can be practiced in different ways: it can refer to tangible products that are designed to prevent certain issues (concerning sustainability for instance) or it can refer to intangible (and more spatial) products such as solutions for increasing the safety in a neighborhood. To create a more complete understanding of social design in the
Netherlands I will give a brief introduction of a number of projects that are currently existing. The first initiative I want to discuss is the Utrecht Manifesto. This manifesto took place five times between 2007 and 2014. The events aimed to stimulate the development of a socially engaged and critical design practice (Margolin et al. 6). At first, their target groups were designers and other people in the creative field. However, the organization quickly acknowledged that for instance consumers, businesses and policy makers are also of vast importance for the development and recognition of social approach (Margolin et al. 6). This broad approach led to a large diversity of projects and workshops. In addition, each manifesto focused on a different topic and therefore addressed different issues. In honor of these manifesto’s, the organization published a book called Design For The Good Society to capture their findings from the five editions. And although the Utrecht Manifesto is something in the past, their aim to encourage a more social approach towards design seems to have found a way into the current design landscape.
A more recent example is the Dutch Design Week, which I addressed multiple times in previous subchapters. The Dutch Design Week is one week of design-related events in Eindhoven, the Netherlands. The event is organized each year and finds its origin in 1998, where it was only a one-day event. 9 Over the years, it has slowly emerged into one of the
most popular events concerning design. Their main focus is innovation and development and they attempt to provide a platform to existing and upcoming designers. As a frequent visitor of the Dutch Design Week I noticed an increased focus on the social aspect of design the past few years. For example, the Dutch Design Week 2018 offered a so-called ‘social design route’10, which led the participants to designers and exhibitions that focus on social design. In
addition, there were also various lectures that challenged a discussion around social design. One of the highlights of the Dutch Design Week is the graduation show of the Design Academy. As expected, the students of the MA program Social Design exhibit their final projects as well.
Besides these two larger initiatives, there are also several smaller ones that operate on a more regional or local scale. An example is T+Huis in Eindhoven. They describe themselves
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Https://www.ddw.nl/nl/over-ddw 15.01.2019
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as “a social design initiative that applies design thinking to social and cultural issues.11 Their
target groups are both children and students and they have co-creation as an important value. T+Huis is a local initiative that concentrates on the development of the various neighborhoods in Eindhoven. Within these areas, they aim to reinforce the interaction between children, adults and the neighborhood they live in.12 Across the Netherlands, there are similar initiatives that
apply a socially responsible approach into their designs to enhance the (urban)environment.
Summary
Subchapter 1.1 and 1.2 explained the concept of social design. It includes a concise overview of its origin and its current position in society. In short, social design is a way of design that incorporates human needs and addresses issues in contemporary society. It also concentrates on the interaction between people and their surroundings. However, it still is a broad and maybe even ‘fuzzy’ concept: social design does not limit itself to tangible products, it also operates between intangible forms of design as well. I explained the relevance of social design in subchapter 1.3. Since it tackles current problems, such as sustainability, it can reinforce the quality of current and future life. In addition, it also stimulates communication between groups and individuals. Lastly, I briefly discussed the position of social design in the Netherlands by explaining its role in education and discussing some existing initiatives. As shown in section 1.4.1, social design is a topic that is more and more present in education, especially in the field of design. Design students are expected to be aware of current (social) issues and have to develop the knowledge to handle those. When looking at existing social design projects, section 1.4.2 illustrates that social design is a topic that is discussed on both a national scale (Utrecht Manifest and Dutch Design Week) and a local level (T+Huis).
The following chapter studies the notion of the creative city and focuses on the concepts of the creative class and the 3T’s, which are extensively discussed in Richard Florida’s work. With the help of the work of other scholars, I will look critically to his published work.
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Https://www.t-huis.info/our-roots, 15.01.2019
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2 | The Creative City
As explained in chapter one, social design is concerned with the practice of design that addresses socially responsible issues such as healthcare and well-being. It is a form of design that concentrates on the interaction between groups and finds human values of strong importance. Social design initiatives can involve different participants, such as designers, the government, and the neighborhoods within a city. During my search for finding a solid definition of social design, I concluded that this form of design always relates to its environment. ‘Social’ is intrinsically linked to the interaction between people and their interaction with their surroundings. As pointed out in the introduction of this thesis, I am primarily interested in the urban environment in which the social design initiative Social Label operates. This thesis concentrates on how the urban environment is affected by the spatial dynamics of a social design initiative. Since creativity, design and the urban environment are important topics of my research, I will focus on the concepts ‘the creative city’ and ‘the creative area’ in this subchapter.
Numerous Dutch cities have so-called ‘creative areas’ which are hubs for all sorts of creative activities. Often, these are places located in former industrial buildings, such as an old factory. These areas are in a constant process of exchanging creative and innovative
knowledge. Young (creative) professionals are mixed with restaurants, entrepreneurs, designers and so on. They all have in common that they stimulate creative growth and are always in search of new creative concepts to develop. Examples in the Dutch landscape are Strijp S in Eindhoven, the Honig Complex in Nijmegen, the NDSM-wharf in Amsterdam, and the Tramkade in Den Bosch. The latter is of particular importance for my research since my case study is situated in this area. I am interested in how social design initiative Social Label and the Tramkade relate to, interact, and exchange information with each other since this area is known as the creative core of Den Bosch.
In subchapter 2.1, I will explain the concept of the creative city more extensively. I will do this with the introduction of the work of Richard Florida, who has written a well-known book concerning the development and growth of creative cities. Florida has received some critical responses to his publications. In order to construct a proper understanding of the value of the creative urban environment, I will include the work of scholars that concentrate on a
counterreaction on Florida’s work. In addition, section 2.1.1 briefly introduces the notion of the creative cluster and illustrates how it can exist within a (creative) city. Next, subchapter 2.2
examines one of Richard Florida’s most famous concepts: the ‘3T’s, which function as
guidelines to measure a city’s creative capital. Subchapter 2.3 illustrates the importance of real places versus online activity concerning the development of creativity. Lastly, subchapter 2.4 elaborates on the concept of ‘the creative class’ introduced by Richard Florida. This subchapter also includes comments by various scholars that have taken a critical stance towards his findings.
2.1 Florida’s Creative City
In this subchapter, I will introduce Richard Florida and his widely discussed work Cities and the Creative Class (2005). As said in the introduction, I will also integrate other perspectives that react to Florida's claims. A decade has gone by since Florida published this book. It contains a number of promising claims concerning the development of the creativity within (Western) cities and how creative people could contribute. However, the past few years have shown that these statements turned out differently than expected. In the following paragraphs, I will briefly introduce Florida's point of view regarding the creative city. Since his work received critical responses, and reality proved that developments went different than expected, I will also include critical notes from other scholars. As I mentioned in the introduction, I want to examine what creativity does for an urban area and how creative areas within a city develop.
“Cities are cauldrons of creativity” is the first sentence in the introduction of Cities and the Creative Class (2005) by Richard Florida. He argues with this statement that the urban environment is the driving force behind the growth of creative energy (Florida 1). According to Florida, cities have the power to transform this energy into different ways of innovation (1). Therefore, it also stimulates “new forms of commerce, new industries, and evolving paradigms of community and civilization” (Florida 1). These claims suggest that creative power is a necessary factor to develop and expand their innovative knowledge. When creativity is
acknowledged by a city, it also has the strength to do something with this force. Florida argues that “every human being is creative...”, and produces creative energy (4). This energy can be used to stimulate new (creative) developments. Human thoughts and actions are needed to stimulate and enhance innovations. Florida’s argument concerning the fact that everyone is creative suggests that places with a large number of people are almost automatically affected with a sense of creativity (4). These claims of Florida suggest that creativity is almost intrinsically linked to an urban environment since every human is creative in its own way.
In addition, I want to introduce the work of Charles Landry: he argues in the preface of his book The Creative City (2008) that “[a]At the heart of creativity are creative people and organizations who have particular attributes: when these come together in one area they establish a creative [urban] milieu” (xiv). Landry addresses this again in a different section of his book: “There can be no creative organizations or cities without creative individuals...” (107), which, when strategically placed, “can transform a city if they are in the right positions of influence – not necessarily of power” (107). Although Landry agrees with Florida on this part, I will use his work later to emphasize critical topics in Florida’s work. Florida acknowledges that not every city has the same creative level or possibilities to become a creative city. Subchapter 2.2 will elaborate on the concept of the ‘3T’s’ Florida uses to develop creativity within a city. But before this, the following section discusses the concept of creative districts.
2.1.1 Creative districts
After having explored the concept of the creative city, I will concentrate briefly on the creative districts within the (creative) urban environment. In short, a creative area or district is a place where “cultural, social, and economic activity takes place”. 13
Moreover, businesses involved with the creative industry, cultural facilities, and artists are involved with these districts and often support these places. 14
As mentioned in the introduction of this chapter, these areas are often former industrial sites which are now used for cultural purposes. Greg Richards and Julie Wilson introduce in Tourism, Culture and Regeneration (2007) two important aspects for successful creative districts: ‘clustering’ and ‘co-makership’ (16). Clustering of creative
businesses, colleagues, and suppliers enhance the exchange of cultural and economic capital: they can exchange knowledge and the spatial clustering of those initiatives increase the accessibility for the public sector (Richard and Wilson 16). Strijp S for example, located in Eindhoven, is a former industrial area which has transformed into a well-known creative hotspot over the past few years. Strijp S offers a mixture of art galleries, startups, various design agencies, and restaurants. This combination of different places results it an area that speaks to a large variety of people. According to Richard and Wilson, ‘makership’ or co-creation is necessary in order to function properly as a creative cluster (17). The integration of both producers and consumers stimulates creative production (Richard and Wilson 17). In addition, the exchange of information between cultural initiatives enhances individual and
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Https://www.arts.wa.gov/arts-in-communities/certified-creative-districts 25.06.2019
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communal creative development. Besides these two aspects, Richard Florida acknowledges three different aspects including creative districts, that are essential for a highly creative city. In the following subchapter, I will introduce and discuss these aspects more extensively.
2.2 The 3T’s
As described in the introduction of this subchapter, the Netherlands has several prosperous cities that have a creative area. In comparison, there are multiple other post-industrial cities that do not have such innovative districts focused on creativity such as Tilburg and Venlo. This raises questions such as: what are the essential factors that foster creativity and innovation? And what enables a city to concentrate on those developments? Florida addresses the importance of an open culture in order to grow as a creative city. An open culture is one that does not single out people and does not categorizes them in different classes. (Florida 5). Furthermore, it allows people to be themselves and stimulates growth and development on both personal and economic levels (Florida 5). This implies that in order to gain a healthy economic environment where creativity is an important factor, it is essential to have
openminded cultural surroundings. The notion of an open culture leads us to the three factors that are, according to Florida, necessary for a high level of creativity in a city. However, a decade after the publication of Cities and the Creative Class, wherein these factors were introduced, Florida has revised these theses. Nevertheless, I will still introduce these factors, also known as the “3T’s of economic growth (Florida 5), since it contributes to a more complete understanding of criteria for creative cities.
The 3T’s is an aggregation of Technology, Talent, and Tolerance. The choice of Technology as the first T is based upon the argument that “technology is the key to economic growth” (Florida 6). For Talent, the second T, Florida agrees with the idea that the level of creative capital “includes people based on their current work rather than merely their education levels” (6). This implies a larger focus on the skills of people and their creative capital. Therefore, Florida argues to substitute the measurement of creative capital through looking at education or degrees for one’s creative occupation (6). He describes the third T, Tolerance, as “the key factor to mobilize and attract technology and talent” (6-7). Although Tolerance is the last T, it is the one that is necessary in order to stimulate the first two. An open and more tolerant environment in a city makes technological developments and the
improvement of talent more accessible. Moreover, he sees Technology and Talent as “highly mobile” factors that are in a constant flow by moving in and out of places (Florida 7). This flow
is only possible in a tolerant environment: one that accepts this flow and sees the importance of such developments. The 3T’s function as a guideline that helps to understand a cities creative level and what its position is in the creative field. Although Technology and Talent are the first two T’s, which implies that they are the most important, Tolerance is actually the most essential one. As described earlier, a high level of tolerance yields an open environment that makes movements of technology and talent possible. Innovative (and technological)
developments will faster expand in an environment that accepts such changes. In addition, talented and creative people are more attracted to a city that is known for its open-minded culture. In the end, it is an interaction between the three concepts.
Opposed to Florida’s theory concerning the three ‘T’s’ and how to develop creativity within a city, I will now elaborate more on Creative Cities’ and the Rise of the Dealer Class: A Critique of Richard Florida’s Approach to Urban Theory (2010)by Stefan Krätke and The Real Creative Class (2008) by David Wilson and Roger Keil, which challenge Florida’s principles and show a critical stance towards his claims. Krätke argues that “Florida’s approach can be criticized for its highly affirmative concept of class and the current mode of capitalist development” (835). Florida starts his approach with the assumption that ‘creativity’ is necessary for economic development (Krätke 835). As a response to these three ‘T’s’, Krätke claims that these factors “have become an attractive shorthand used often by members of the political class to justify and advertise urban development projects geared towards making a city magnet for creative types” (840). As mentioned, technology is seen as the key to economic growth. However, Florida does not mention the possibility that cities can achieve economic success through other factors:
“Furthermore, Florida seems to neglect the fact that the presence of a scientifically and technologically creative workforce has to be combined with further constitutive factors of a regional innovation system. The assumption that a regional concentration of talent might be a prerequisite for achieving a
particularly high regional innovation output would be theoretically plausible and open to empirical testing. However, successful innovation activities might be located in quite different subsectors of a regional economy.” (Krätke 840)
David Wilson and Roger Keil unpack the notion of Tolerance in their article The Real Creative Class (2008). They question both the meaning of this concept and what makes some American cities more tolerant than others (845). In their article, they take the city Toronto as an
example.15
First, it is unclear what Florida specifically means with tolerance and for whom it is most important: is it related to a community, to individuals or classes of people? (Wilson and Keil 845). In addition, they argue that Tolerance is not relevant to “the issue of poverty, class division, and structural inequalities” (Wilson and Keil 845). To support this, they elaborate on the city’s current reality: “[a]As the Toronto region retools itself into some sort of post-manufacturing creative economy, it has developed diametrically opposed and rapidly
diverging poles of development” (845). Therefore, the city has changed to one where incomes are unequal concentrated (Wilson and Keil 845). Within this context, the low-income have a hard time finding a voice and when they do speak up, the mainstream media “continuously marginalize their voices and demands” (Wilson and Keil 845). This inequality questions the ‘Tolerance’ Florida claims to experience:
“As Florida continues to talk of Toronto as a paradigmatic tolerant city, public resources continue to be deployed to favor a supposed (but elusively) propulsive ‘creative’ elite. Disregard for the needs of socially disadvantaged citizens
(particularly the racialized and gendered poor), who lose all connection to the economy’s successful parts, is unmistakable.” (Wilson and Keil 845)
So far, critical responses on Florida’s work shows that a method such as the “3T’s” often lacks context, which is illustrated by the Toronto example. In theory, this model functions as a helpful tool to indicate a city’s creative character. However, in reality, there can be questioned if the 3T’s apply to all classes. The given example illustrates that often a small group of ‘elite’ is recognized and the socially disadvantaged people are distanced from the growing creative economy.
2.3 “Geography is dead”
I have already stressed that an open environment helps a city grow and develop on a creative level. Therefore, the number of residents of a city and its relation to the level of creative success is a relevant notion to examine. Florida argues that “the most successful regions welcome all kinds of people...” (22). There is no limitation in terms of race, gender, education or age. In addition to this, he also claims that “...human creativity is the ultimate source of
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economic growth. Every single person is creative in some way, and to fully tap and harness that creativity we must be tolerant, diverse, and inclusive” (22). I have already discussed Florida’s argument concerning the fact that everyone is creative. Besides the required factors for a creative and successful city, I want to elaborate on the importance of where people decide to locate as well. Florida has found that besides the availability of (creative) jobs, the location is a key essential for deciding where to live (25).
In the second chapter of his book Cities and the Creative Class, the first sentence is "Perhaps the greatest of all the modern myths about cities is that geography is dead" (28). The strong increase of internet use and modern changes regarding ways of transportation have revealed that being together while working together is no longer necessary (Florida 28). It implies that contact through email or Skype replaces actual workplaces where co-workers work together. However, Florida claims that real places are still important in order to reinforce creativity. During his research for Cities and the Creative Class, he found that it actually does matter where people decide to locate: “...it made more sense to pick several different locations in which to live first, and then go back and find potential employers in those locations. This reminds us that real places are important” (25). In contrast to digital communication, these real places encourage social relationships, matching jobs, and the ability to validate their identities (Florida 25). In addition, David Sternberg argues the following:
“Finally, one needs an environment that is supportive and rewarding of creative ideas. One could have all of the internal resources needed to think creatively, but without some environmental support (such as a forum for proposing those ideas), the creativity that a person has within him or her might never be displayed” (Sternberg 89).
These arguments show the importance of a real place and its environment when it comes to fostering creativity and the creative city.
2.4 The Creative Class
Besides the 3T’s being a noticeable factor for the creative status within a city, Florida also introduces the so-called ‘creative class’ that is responsible for the creative level in an urban environment. This creative class is a group of people that practice work that has a strong purpose and focuses on creating new forms (Florida 34). Florida acknowledges two different
groups in this creative class: “the super-creative core” and the “creative professionals” (34). The super-creative core “includes scientists and engineers, university professors, poets and
novelists, artists, entertainers, actors, designers, and architects, as well as the thought leadership of modern society: nonfiction writers, editors, cultural figures, think-tank researchers, analysts, and other opinion-makers” (Florida 34).
Florida explains that the main purpose of this group is to create designs that are useful and applicable to a broad field of interest and can be used multiple times (34). The second group, the creative professionals, works “in a wide range of knowledge-intensive industries such as high-tech sectors, financial services, the legal and healthcare professions, and business management” (Florida 35). Florida argues that the people in this group need to have a high degree of formal education since they work on “creative problem-solving” and seek
“innovative solutions” (35). Stefan Krätke addresses the problematic character of this “creative class and how this newly found group experiences struggles within their class (842).
Before I elaborate on this, it is of value that I explain the concept of gentrification since it plays an important role in Florida's work and the critique against him. In short, gentrification is the process of renovating a deteriorating area (in e.g. a city) that follows with the increase of middle class people and often results in the dislocation of previous less wealthy citizens.16
As mentioned in the first part of subchapter 2.3, Florida holds the creative class responsible for creative growth in the city. He argues that formerly neglected neighborhoods are developing with the help of this class (4). The struggle within the creative class lies in the fact that the actual people who discover these ‘new’ neighborhoods have “low economic and high cultural capital” (Krätke 842). Krätke based his point of view on the work of Charles Landry, whom I introduced earlier in this subchapter, who gave a response to Florida’s statements as well. Landry wrote about Florida’s creative class and how this group is not the core of creative areas:
“Classically artists agglomerate in interesting yet run-down areas, often subject to potential redevelopment pressures, but where the process has not yet started. The artist in effect is the explorer and the regenerator kick-starting a gentrification process, bringing life to run-down areas and generating the development of support structures such as cafes, restaurants and some shops. They then attract a more middle-class clientele who would not have risked being the first, either through fear, the dislike of run-down areas or
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pressure from peer groups. Only when the ‘grottiness’ has been tamed and made safe by the artist will this second group arrive.” (125)
Both Landry and Krätkes view express a strong critique of Florida’s creative class. Overall, it sounds very promising and quite logical. However, in reality, creativity cannot be forced within a certain (middle class) group: it grows and develops more organically, in addition to this, the use of ‘class’ already suggests a distinction between groups of people and its existence limits inclusiveness. The two groups Florida introduces belong to this ‘creative class’ and both concentrate on people who belong to the elite middle class.
Summary
In this chapter, I concentrated on the widely discussed work of Richard Florida concerning his vision towards the creative city, growth, and innovation. I elaborated on his perception of the creative city and included sources that take a critical stance towards his visions. This helped me to put his work in perspective and gave me the insight that creative development in urban development is a complex situation when class differences and social structures are included. Since the topic of social design is entwined in my research, it seems reasonable to apply this framework to this form of design. The case study, Social Label, is located in a part of Den Bosch that is known for its heavily creative and cultural atmosphere. Both Florida’s work and its critique will help me to get an understanding of Social Label’s effect on the city and the district Social Label is located. The following chapter will concentrate on urban and spatial theory as an introduction to the methodology I will discuss further on in this thesis.
3 | Urban and Spatial Theory
As human beings, we always are somewhere: during our lives, we are continuously moving in and out of spaces/places.17
We tie emotions to certain locations and give those which are experienced as meaningful a name (e.g. our home). Space and place are strongly related to
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Before I will elaborate on the differences between space and place in section 3.2.1, I will use these terms at the same time to prevent confusion or incorrect appliance of the concepts.
social actions and therefore are both socially produced (Gottdiener xiv). The latter is a claim I will elaborate later in this chapter with the support of the work of different scholars. This social connection to space/place is relevant for the case study I will analyze for my research: the social design initiative Social Label. In brief, Social Label employs strong social values to their projects and is located in a highly creative area in Den Bosch. I will elaborate more extensively on the initiative’s philosophy in chapter 5. Chapters 1 and 2 discussed two major concepts that are relevant for my topic: social design and the phenomenon of the creative city. Since the geographic location of Social Label is an important factor for answering my research question, I have come to the decision to use spatial analysis as the method for my research. In order to be able to perform this analysis, it is essential to explain the idea of both urban theory and spatial theory.
Before I dive in the theory of spatial analysis, I will start with a concise explanation of urban theory in subchapter 3.1 with the help of definitions provided by different scholars that have done research on this topic. Next, I will move over to the concept of spatial theory in subchapter 3.2. Within this theme, I will also discuss the difference between space and place and describe the concept sociology of space. Lastly, subchapter 3.3 concentrates on the Trialectics of space, which is a way to analyze spatiality, with support of the work of Henri Lefebvre and Edward Soja. This final part is essential to construct a solid framework for the analysis in chapter 6.
3.1 Urban Theory
The analysis I will apply in chapter 6 requests an understanding of spatial theory. As I
mentioned in the introduction of this chapter, I am going to explore the field of spatiality more extensively in subchapter 3.3. First, I will focus on the idea of urban theory since the urban environment plays an essential role in this thesis. Therefore, this subchapter starts with the construction of a definition concerning urban theory. I will include work of Simon Parker, Alan Harding, and Talia Blokland since all did research in the field of urban theory. Next, I reflect on the concept and explain how it connects to spatial theory.
The word ‘urban’ reveals the concept’s connection to cities and urban environments. Alan Harding and Talja Blokland describe in their book Urban Theory that it is “a body of ideas explaining one or more aspects of reality, within, or of, towns and cities” (19). In addition, Simon Parker defines urban theory in Urban Theory and the Urban Experience: Encountering the cityas the following:
“[Urban theory] has become accepted in academic circles as shorthand for a range of perspectives and interpretations of the urban world that aim, in their different ways, to provide a general understanding of city life that goes beyond the contingent and the local, while retaining a focus on the essential
characteristics of the urban experience” (3).
Parker, therefore, argues that it can be seen as a subcategory of social theory (3). Additionally, he introduces four aspects that urban theory has to deal with: culture, consumption, conflict, and community. These aspects are also called ‘The Four C’s’ (Parker 4). Culture refers to “the physical built environment, the contents, and means of communication, as well as traditional cultural production” (Parker 4). Secondly, consumption stands not only for the use of goods and services but also focuses on the motivation by which the products are produced (Parker 4).
He also addresses that conflict not only relates to physical violence but also reinforces “less visible struggles over resources or social classes...” (Parker 4). Finally, community “involves all aspects of the social life of cities...” (Parker 4). Moreover, it is also described as a “‘value-term’ for a contiguous association that bears with a series of assumptions about how we, as humans, should live in close confine with one another” (Parker 4). Introducing these four aspects illustrate that urban theory involves different areas and that the social life within a city is included as well.
To summarize, urban theory explores a variety of ideas that are concerned with life in the city or urban area. It tries to understand what happens in cities on different levels: the way the urban landscape is built18
, the dynamic between residents, and the link between these two. Spatial theory, which concentrates on theories that touch the field of both geography and urban studies, examines urban structures and the constitution of spaces. Both are thus involved with life in and around an urban structure. The following subchapter explores spatial theory and discusses relevant concepts including the difference between space and place, the sociology of space, and a brief explanation of public space.
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3.2 Spatial Theory
After introducing the concept of urban theory, I will now concentrate on a closely related concept: spatial theory. As stressed in the final paragraph of 3.1, spatial theory explores urban spaces and is concerned with the way space is produced. Furthermore, spatial theory is constructed on the concept of distance19
and how spaces influence each other. Spatial theory involves different disciplines, such as economics and urban studies20
. Two important scholars in the field of spatial theory are Henri Lefebvre and Edward Soja. Both have done extensive research in the field of urban studies and spatial theory. Before I examine the research of both scholars, I will begin with the discussion of space and place and how they differ in section 3.2.1. Secondly, I examine the sociology of space in section 3.2.2 and lastly include a brief
explanation of the idea of public space in section 3.2.3.
3.2.1 Space and Place: exploration of two spatial concepts
Before I concentrate more extensively on spatial theory, it is important to acknowledge ‘space’ and ‘place’ as two different concepts and examine their differences. Henri Lefebvre, which work I will discuss in subchapter 3.3 more extensively, recognizes ‘space’ and ‘place’ as two aspects existing next to each other. ‘Space’ and ‘place’ are two definitions that, at first, seem not so different at all. Both aspects refer to an area or to somewhere you can be. This implies that ‘space’ and ‘place’ can be used interchangeably. Spatial theory does not correspond with this and recognizes ‘space’ and ‘place’ as two individual concepts. Hence, the two concepts entail different denotations and can be used in separate contexts. In this subchapter, I will explain the differences between the two concepts as well as illustrate how they relate to each other. I will do this with the help of the work by Yi-Fu Tuan, Martina Löw, Henri Lefebvre, and other scholars that have done research in the field of spatial theory.
The Oxford Learner’s Dictionary for Academic English defines ‘space’ as “the whole area in which all things exist and move” and “an amount of an area or of a place that is empty or that is available for use” (“Space”). “Place” is described as “a particular position, point, or area” and “a building or an area of land used for a particular purpose” (“Place”). The explanations from the dictionary already imply a significant difference in the meaning they convey. Space seems to comprise a larger and more broad notion while place points to specific areas that are acknowledged for their function or history. Thus, the definition of place
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Https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/applied-and-social-sciences-magazines/spatial-theory, 22.07.2019
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is tied to specific events and entail a personal meaning. Yi-Fu Tuan addresses in the introduction of Space and Place:The Definition of Experience mentions that “[p]Place is security and space is freedom” (3). This short sentence suggests the main difference between the two and corresponds with the definitions from the dictionary: place is attached to close experiences and to emotions, whereas space refers to the unknown, what is yet to be
discovered. In addition, he argues that “space” is more abstract than “place”: “[o]Only when we get to know space and endow it with meaning, it transforms into a place” (Tuan 6). And although they are separate definitions, they are intrinsically linked to each other: “[t]The ideas ‘space’ and ‘place’ require each other for definition. From the security and stability of place we are aware of the openness, freedom, and threat of space, and vice versa” (Tuan 6). In short, this indicates that the relationship between space and place is flowing and continuously moving (Merrifield 527). Andrew Merrifield agrees with this flowing movement of space and place: he recognizes a distinction between the two concepts, yet he sees space and place as “different aspects of a unity...” (527). As a result, space can transform into place.
Martina Löw discusses the notion of space and place in The Sociology of Space as well. Similar to Merrifield and Tuan acknowledges Löw the link between space and place (Löw 167). However, there is still a distinction between the two aspects: “[a]A place means a location, a position that can be specifically named, generally geographically marked...” (Löw 167). As I mentioned earlier in this part, places are tied to memories, to areas that one does remember, ones that have indeed a name. This identification of an area reinforces the symbolic meaning of such places (Löw 167). Henri Lefebvre perceives space as a ‘moment in and out of space”.21
In addition, he argues that “space is understood as [a] physical and social landscape which is imbued with meaning in everyday place-bound social practices...”22 Thus, space becomes endowed with meaning through everyday life and social actions. This Lefebvrian perspective shows similarities with Tuan, Merrifield, and Löw’s view towards place. I will elaborate on Lefebvre’s theory in subchapter 3.3. After having set out the difference between space and place and how they are still linked to each other, I will continue with the examination of the sociology of space in the next section.
3.2.2 The Sociology of Space
Spatial theory provides a framework for analyzing an area, building, or other spaces. It concentrates for instance on the way spaces are used, in what ways buildings and people
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Https://frieze.com/article/space-place, 5.06.2019
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