The growing lithium demand: bane or boon for Bolivia?

22-12-2017

Lithium plant on Salar de Uyuni, Bolivia. Source: https://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/wilderness-resources/stories/battle-salar-de-uyuni

Word count: 7869

The growing lithium demand:

bane or boon for Bolivia?

Abstract

With the transition towards renewable energy the demand for lithium based batteries, to store electricity, has risen steadily over the the last decade and is expected to rise by another 50% over the next ten years. Bolivia holds the largest lithium reserves in world. This interdisciplinary report looks into the political, environmental and economic consequences of an increased lithium demand for Bolivia. The primary findings are that increased demand in combination with the highly profitable nature of the lithium industry has proven it likely that lithium mining will expand in the region. The eventual consequences of this fall into two scenarios. Scenario one: Bolivia uses the growth of a lithium industry to develop and enter state of semi-periphery but hereby accepts environmental damage and the deterioration of ecosystem services. Scenario two: foreign actors are the beneficiaries of the expanding lithium industry and Bolivia only experiences the negative externalities of lithium mining.

Table of Contents:

Abstract

2

1. Introduction

5

2. Theoretical Framework

7

3. Methodology and interdisciplinary approach

10

3.1 Methodologies 10

3.1.1 Political Science 10

3.1.2 Earth Sciences 10

3.1.3 Business Management 11

3.1.3.1 Lithium demand & commercial response 3.1.3.2 CSR & TBL Implementation

3.2 Interdisciplinary approach 11

4. Data

14

4.1 Global Lithium distribution 14

5. Analysis & Results

18

5.1 The global economic lithium perspective 18

5.1.1 The future of lithium demand 18

5.2 The political scope: shifting relations through lithium? 19

5.2.1 Historical political and economic development 19

5.2.2 Bolivia’s outlook with increased lithium demand 20

5.2.3 Implications 20

5.3 The earth scientific perspective 21

5.3.1 Sources of lithium in the natural environment 21

5.3.2 Ecosystem services in Salar de Uyuni 22

5.3.3 The problem with lithium 22

5.3.4 Lithium resources* 23

5.3.5 Toxicological impacts of environmental lithium* 24

5.4 The business approach: positioning lithium extraction within a 26 People Planet and Profit framework

5.4.1 People & Profit vs Planet 26

5.4.2 Profit vs People 26

5.4.3 Domestic Profit vs Multinational Profit 26

5.4.4 Implementation of sustainable mining practices 27

5.5 The interdisciplinary approach: bringing the results together 27

6. Conclusion

29

6.1 Disciplinary conclusions & overall assessment 29

6.2 Discussion 30

References

31

Appendix 1: Stakeholder positions regarding litihum

36

production in Bolivia

* Due to circumstances, these paragraphs at this moment might appear odd as the relevance to the research of this report is lacking and needs more elaboration and editing.

The transition towards an electric, carbon neutral and renewable power supply has been established as an essential part of negating the negative impacts of anthropogenic climate change (Solomon & Krishna, 2011; Deng, Blok & Van der Leun, 2012). An issue with renewable means of energy productions however is that they are prone to variability, due to their

dependence on meteorological conditions (Denholm & Hand, 2011). Solar panels only produce electricity during the day and wind turbines require windforce within a certain range to be effective (Denholm & Hand, 2011). A solution to this is storing the energy produced in batteries during favourable conditions and discharging during unsuitable weather conditions, so keeping the power on national grids adequately constant (Scrosati & Garche, 2010).

Lithium ion batteries are one of the likely candidates to take on this storage role in the power grid of the future, and thus a large increase in demand is expected to take place in the coming years (Scrosati & Garche, 2010). But what will the effect be of this increased lithium demand on sites were lithium is extracted and produced? Therefore, this reports aims to answer the following question: What are the political, environmental and economic consequences of an increased lithium demand for Bolivia?

Bolivia has been picked as a case study region as it has large lithium deposits and has been called the next “Saudi Arabia” of the lithium (Wanger, 2011). The question of what impact lithium mining will have on Bolivia is a pertinent one, as mining has been shown to be a major cause of biodiversity loss, groundwater and soil pollution, deforestation, displacement and exploitation of native populations and economic stagnation (Sutherland et al., 2011; Swenson et al., 2011; Dell, 2010). By determining what impacts Bolivia will experience due to a growing lithium demand, broader implications can possibly be made for the use of lithium on a global scale. If one is to explore this case study, several related subquestions arise: what is causing increased lithium demand and how will it develop in the future? What related political consequences can be observed? What effect will increased lithium demand have on lithium extraction in Bolivia? What effects does lithium extraction have on the area’s environmental and social systems?

The complex and interrelated nature of environmental, economic and political systems require an interdisciplinary approach. Furthermore this report is rooted in the ideas as set out by the Sustainable development (U.N General Assembly, 2015): goals which also emphasize the need for seeing the world as a interconnected system whereby the alleviation of poverty and disease cannot be separated from the functioning of natural ecosystems and climate. Therefore this report utilizes theories from earth sciences, political science and business management to come to an integrated framework from which one can examine the issue.

This report will take the shape of a mostly multidisciplinary piece, with each discipline answering its own individual questions. However it will also aim to integrate the results to

develop interdisciplinary conclusions with the use of the organizational integration technique. The political element of this report focuses on the potential economic development that could be attained through lithium extraction and how this will affect Bolivia's political position on the global playing field, drawing on dependency theory for its theoretical basis. The earth science perspective will focus on the impacts of lithium extraction on groundwater and soil quality and the implications of these conclusions. Business management theories will be used to examine the commercial developments around lithium using Porter’s (2008) industry analysis model and market predictions. Furthermore triple bottom line & corporate social responsibility models will be used to examine potential conflicts surrounding lithium. This is also where some integration will take place, as both models aim to take into account divergent stakeholders opinion and will take into account conclusions from the different disciplines in this report.

The report will commence with an explanation of the theoretical framework. Following this, the methodology for each discipline will be explained, followed by a discussion of the interdisciplinary approach. Furthermore, based on the methodologies, the gathered data will be represented. This will consist of data on the environmental impact of lithium minimum and the industry analysis. This will lead into a results section where the issue will be critically analysed and findings brought forward. The paper will conclude with the discussion of the results, linking them within an interdisciplinary perspective, and summarise the findings and recommendations for policy makers, researchers and business leaders relating to the future of lithium mining in Bolivia and the world.

2.1 Theoretical approaches to the consequences of a growing lithium

demand for Bolivia

As can be seen in the introduction, analysing the consequences of a growing lithium demand for Bolivia invokes the use of different theoretical approaches, as different scientific disciplines come into play. This section will discuss the theoretical approaches of political science, business management and earth science considered for this research.

2.1.1 Political Science

From a political science perspective, the subject of this research could best be approached with the theoretical framework of dependency theory (Kelly, 2008; Karns, Mingst & Stiles, 2015; Hobden & Jones, 2014; Weingast & Wittman, 2006). Dependency theory analyses power relationships between states, as it describes the ways in which developed countries, the ‘core’, are linked to developing countries, the ‘periphery’ (Hobden & Jones, 2014; Woods, 2014; Kelly, 2008). Periphery is characterised by an export of raw materials, import of manufactures, and below subsistence wages (Hobden & Jones, 2014). The relation between the periphery and the core is exploitative (Hobden & Jones, 2014; Kelly, 2008; Karns, Mingst & Stiles, 2015), resulting in the prospects for development of the periphery being conditioned by the core (Weingast & Wittman, 2006; Hobden & Jones, 2014; Karns, Mingst & Stiles, 2015; Kelly, 2008). However, despite subordination to the core, states in the periphery can still find a pathway to develop themselves and improve the value of their exports to the core (Kelly, 2008), changing them to ‘semi-periphery’, where they have their own industrial base and export both raw materials and ‘mature’ manufactures (Hobden & Jones, 2014). Continuing dominance of the core still remains present, as only the core provides a market for products of the semi-periphery (Kelly, 2008; Hobden & Jones, 2014).

The relevance of dependency theory for the subject of this research becomes evident from recently conducted research in Bolivia concerning global increases in lithium demand. Research from Hollender and Shultz (2010), Bagley and Nazario (2010), Mares (2010), Perotti and Coviello (2015) and Hopper (2009) discuss the possible pathways that an increased lithium demand creates for Bolivia to better its development and its economic and political relationship to other countries. Dependency theory thus offers an analytical approach which can determine whether this development can actually imply a shift from periphery to semi periphery or core and an alteration of power relations for Bolivia.

The business management theories are used to investigate two different elements of the issue in this report. Firstly, commodity development prediction based on models from resource

economics (Martin et a.l, 2017) and Porter’s (2008) industry analysis and are used explore what is driving the increased lithium demand and how this will affect commercial activity in the region.

Commodity development prediction is based around demand and supply theories that lie at the heart of economics (Martin et al, 2017). This has established that demand for a commodity is directly linked to demand for goods that the commodity is used in (Martin et al, 2017). In this case one can predict the demand for lithium by determining the future demand of goods that require lithium to be produced.

Porter’s (2008) industry analysis composed of five forces that determine the level of competition in a certain industry. High competition in market creates low profitability thus making it unappealing for new actors to enter the market. These five forces are; bargaining power of buyers, bargaining power of suppliers, threat of new entrants, competitive rivalry and threat of substitutes.

Secondly, Business models of corporate social responsibility (CSR) and triple bottom line (TBL) are used to show possible conflicts and solutions surrounding lithium extraction.

The TBL is a mode of doing business where not only profit is taken into account but also people and planet (Norman, & MacDonald, 2004). This model judge's commercial activity on the effects it has on sustainable development of a region as set out in the millennium and sustainable developments goals by the United Nations (Norman, & MacDonald, 2004).

CSR is related to TBL in a way that it also strives for a balance between people planet and profit. However a CSR approach is more stakeholder focused and attempts to approach commercial decision making schemes as an integrated system whereby all stakeholders have a say in decision making (Slack, 2012). This is a relative strength of CSR when compared to TBL as it is a more interactive and fluid form of judging commercial practices.

2.1.3 Earth Sciences

From an earth scientific perspective, the increased demand of lithium could best be approached with several different theoretical frameworks. Since the earth scientific scope does not clearly apply theories as in the business management and political scope, the main focus of the theoretical framework is distinguished on main concepts of the results of this research. There are several concepts within the earth scientific perspective research.

First, the toxicity of lithium to organisms and especially vegetation and agricultural crops will be determined (Kalinowska, Hawrylak-Nowak & Szymańska, 2013; Emery, Klopfer &

Skalski, 1981). The most favorable agricultural crop will be discussed as well as the ecosystem services in the region of the Salar de Uyuni. Afterwards the effects of lithium leaching and mining on agriculture and ecosystem services will be discussed in the region of Salar de Uyuni. Secondly, resources will be examined with data analysis based on econometric models and a cumulative availability curve (Yaksic & Tilton, 2009). This quantitative data is collected and analysed to perform a scenario analysis . The results are discussed in this paper.

Lastly, environmental impacts will be discussed with a Life Cycle Analysis in regard to lithium and the increasing EV market (Stamp et al., 2012). Also, possible lithium contamination for the environment and humans is discussed. This will be discussed mainly based on research data from other case studies. 1

2.2 Problem definition

From the theoretical descriptions provided above it follows that these theories are not sufficient to give general implications of the growing lithium demand for Bolivia on their own: each perspective only reveals a part of the consequences and implications and, due to the underlying assumptions and focus of each discipline, leaves other determinants outside their scope. The apparent theoretical limitations of the different approaches reveal the complexity of this research.

Complexity refers to the collective of largely varying interactions between different agents within a predefined system (Menken & Keenstra, 2016). In the context of this research, the consequences of a growing lithium demand for Bolivia spread over different spheres can be seen as the predefined system. Next, the complexity of the system stems from the fact that the agents or components involved do not interact with each other in exact similar patterns, which makes it difficult to develop a unified model or predictive behaviour of the system (Menken & Keenstra, 2016). This can be found in the distinctive ways in which the consequences on different scales manifest themselves. For instance, in the political sphere the consequences of a growing lithium market will concern opportunities for development and decreased dependency (Kelly, 2008; Hollender & Shultz, 2010; Bagley & Nazario, 2010; Mares, 2010; Perotti & Coviello, 2015; Hopper, 2009), while in the context of earth sciences, the consequences are present as local environmental impacts (Wanger, 2011).

Consequently, the complexity in this research demands input from different disciplines in order to make implications considering the impact of a growing lithium demand for Bolivia. Therefore, the main question of this research states ‘What are the political, environmental and economic consequences of a growing lithium demand for Bolivia?’. In the next section, the

1 Note: due to circumstances, this part of the theoretical approaches might lack clear relevance or connection to the research subject and needed more elaboration and editing.

different methodological approaches that can be used for this research will be discussed, followed by a interdisciplinary approach to bring the different methodologies together.

3. Methodology and interdisciplinary approach

3.1 Methdologies

Following the problem definition and research question, this section outlines the different methodologies that together are viable to make an overall assessment of the consequences of a growing lithium demand. After a description of each of the methodologies, the interdisciplinary approach will be discussed.

3.1.1 Political Science

Following from the relevant concepts of dependency theory, the political scope of this research will be covered by assessing if an increased lithium demand will affect Bolivia’s international political position. This will be done through a scientific literature review, analysing Bolivia’s historical development of its political and economic relation to other countries. This will in turn determine whether Bolivia can be related to the characteristics of periphery or semi-periphery as described by dependency theory, thus revealing possible power relations. Next, the same approach will be used to analyse the perspective for Bolivia’s development due to a growing lithium market. Both analyses will be done using existing research. When the perspective for Bolivia with regard to lithium offers a different characterisation within the framework of dependency theory than the characterisation stemming from the historical analysis (core, periphery or semi-periphery), it can be concluded that Bolivia’s international political position is or will be affected.

3.1.2 Earth Sciences

The earth scientific scope is divided into two main subjects. The two subjects will formulate a clear vision of the environmental consequences of an increased demand for Bolivia’s lithium. The first main subject is focussing on lithium toxicity on vegetation. A literature study is used to examine the different chemicals that are released in the environment due to lithium mining. Since there is a lack of literature and quantitative data of the lithium production in regard to Bolivia and the Salar the Uyuni, literature of other mining sides is used to compare and predict the Bolivian case. Afterwards, the toxicity and other polluting factors of lithium production are

determined as well as the consequences to the Bolivian agriculture, human health and ecosystem services.

The second earth sciences subjects is focussing on the resources of lithium in the world and the role of Bolivia's resources. As in the first part of the earth scientific scope, a literature study is examined. Also the operation of brines is shortly explained with a literature study.

3.1.3 Business Management

3.1.3.1 Explaining lithium demand & commercial response

The examination of the where the increased lithium demand is coming from is based on a literary review of academic articles and private sector reports. This report relies heavily on data gathered by Roskill (Mazarudas, 2017), a leading think tank on commodity pricing and

mineral extraction. The explanation of the commercial response to increased demand is based upon market analysis completed by both corporate and academic institutions and an industry analysis, following the method as set out by Porter(2008).

3.1.3.2 CSR & TBL Implementation

The implementation of CSR and TBL models on the issue will take the shape of grouping the differing opinions on lithium extraction under people, planet or profit. The conclusions from the other disciplines make up several of these opinions, others are taken from primary and

secondary sources. This will then bring forward any conflicts on the issue and allow for judging these conflicts against the SDG and so bring forward recommendations for policy makers and business professionals.

3.4 Interdisciplinary approach

The methodologies discussed above each analyse and reveal a part of the consequences of a growing lithium demand for Bolivia. In order to bring the consequences together and make an overall assessment of the consequences and tackle the earlier discussed problem of complexity, an interdisciplinary approach is needed. Considering the vastly different theoretical approaches and concepts related to this research, the integration method ‘organization’ is used in order to achieve the interdisciplinary aspect of this research to some degree. Organization incorporates different theoretical perspectives and concepts within one framework without any of the concepts or methodologies losing their applicability. This will alleviate the problem of

implications for each part of the consequences. For instance, the use of dependency theory reveals possible shifts in power relations, implying prospects for a better international position. This in turn could indirectly result in increased environmental impact, as lithium production would be presumably expanded.

Based on the integration method of organization, the different methodologies were brought together within one framework and represented through the most relevant concepts within these approaches. The resulting framework can be seen in figure 1. As can be seen in this framework, the main concept of this research, the growing lithium demand, is to connected to economic development, representing the possible economic development for Bolivia which can follow from the growing lithium demand. From this point within the framework, the relation between economic development, core/semi periphery/periphery and power relations is first notable. This relation represents the political focus of this research on analysing economic development following the increased lithium demand in order to classify Bolivis as core,

periphery or semi periphery and resulting alterations in power relations, as discussed earlier in the theoretical approaches. Outcomes for these concepts following the growing lithium demand might have implications for further economic development.

Furthermore, economic development has also been related to environmental impact, as it represents the plausible assumption that economic development following a growing lithium demand stimulates expansion of the lithium industry, thus leading to more environmental impact. The concepts of ‘hazardous events’ 2 _{and ‘ecosystem services’ connected to}

environmental impact represent the focus of the earth scientific scope of this research. These two concepts are related to the business management concept of ‘people, planet, profit’ as they, together with the concept of economic development, are input factors for this concept which in turn has implications for the CSR/TBL analysis. The link between ecosystem services and economic development is also notable: the availability or loss of ecosystem services could affect Bolivian agriculture, thus hampering a part of economic development other than the industry.

Finally, the CSR/TBL focus of business management is also linked to power relations from the political sphere, as it incorporates stakeholder positions and changes in power relations could imply a certain interest and standpoint of the Bolivian government concerning expansion of the lithium production and supply. Following from the different input factors related to CSR/TBL in the framework, this analysis in turn can assess whether expanded lithium production and manufacturing is overall profitable for Bolivia and which conflicts between stakeholders can arise, implicating stimuli or impediments for further economic development.

2 Note: due to circumstances, this element of the research has not been progressed in the correct way to give it relevance to the research of this project. Therefore it might not clearly appear later on in the research

Figure 1: integrated framework following the integration method of organization. The concepts of different disciplines are marked by different colors: Political science (yellow), Earth Science (green) and Business

4. Data

The following section gives a visual representation of lithium distribution and demand growth on a global scale. This is followed by a five forces industry analysis (Porter, 2008) of the lithium market in Bolivia. Both of these sections form the basis for the analysis into effects of lithium demand on Bolivia which are used in the business management discipline.

4.1 Global lithium distribution Global lithium distribution

The map shows clearly the Golden triangle of Bolivia, Chile and Argentina where 55.9% of lithium global lithium resources can be found. The largest deposit in Bolivia, Salar de Uyuni contain 10.2 millions tons of lithium (Martin et al., 2107).

Martin, G., Rentsch, L., Hoeck, M., & Bertau, M. (2017). Lithium market research–global supply, future demand and price development. Energy Storage

4.2 Lithium Demand

The following tables and data show the predicted rise in lithium demand over the next few years. What can be seen is that the demand for lithium rises steadily over the period 2007-2020 and will continue to rise by approximately 30% over the period 2017-2020 (Martin et al., 2107). Projected Lithium demand per sector

Martin, G., Rentsch, L., Hoeck, M., & Bertau, M. (2017). Lithium market research–global supply, future demand and price development. Energy Storage

Materials, 6, 171-179

.

The following section will present an industry analysis for the lithium sector in Bolivia. Each of the five forces will be classified in terms of strength; either low, medium or high. The overall level of competition and the impact of this on lithium extraction will then be determined in the results section.

Power Classification Justification

Supplier power Low

Supplier power in the mining sector in Bolivia can be classified as low. This is due to two factors; low labor costs and wide range of suppliers for equipment. Labor in the Bolivia in the mining sector is cheap and in high supply (Andreucci & Radhuber,

2015). meaning that mine workers do not have a capability to put pressure on profits. The range of equipment needed can be sourced from a multitude of suppliers creating enough competition for prices to be competitive (Fleury& Davies, 2012)

Threat of substitutes Medium

The threat of substitutes is medium. Currently lithium is seen as the main mineral for battery production in the next decade (Scrosati & Garche, 2010). However some have found that sodium-ion batteries are both more energy efficient and less environmentally harmful (Kim et al., 2012). The threat other minerals replacing lithium in the short term however remains minimal (Scrosati & Garche, 2010). Furthermore its position as a primary ingredient for glass and ceramics is not in question.

Threat of new entrants Low

The threat of new entrants in the lithium industry is low. This is due to the capital intensive nature of lithium mining and heavily regulated nature of the mining sector under the set in place by the Morales government (Hollender & Shultz, 2010; Perotti & Coviello, 2015; Mares, 2010; Bagley & Nazario, 2010).

Buyer power Medium

Buyer power is medium. This is due to the relatively large size of the potential buyers that can therefore reap the benefits of economies of scale . The fact that there a range of

different buyers however does mean that they do not have a sufficient economies of scale to suppress potential profits too drastically.

Competitive rivalry Medium

Competitive rivalry is medium. The lack of rivals locally means that even though there are large scale mining operations underway in Chile and Argentina competitive rivalry will not cause significant pressures on operations in Bolivia.

5. Analysis and Results

The following section presents the analysis and results and aims to integrate. The first sections aim to explain where lithium demand is coming from, how it will develop and what commercial responses are likely to be. This is followed by the role of political systems and actors in the issue. This leads into an analysis of the environmental consequences of lithium mining. Finally all these results are formulated into stakeholder opinions and contrasted to bring to light conflicts that will determine how increased lithium demand will affect Bolivia.

5.1 The global economic lithium perspective

5.1.1 The future of lithium demand

Both academic literature and private sector industry analysis predicts that lithium demand is set to rise steadily in the future. This is due to the rise in demand for use in batteries, to be used in electric vehicles (EV) and general energy storage, and for use in the production process of glass and ceramics (Martin et al, 2017). The predicted rise is 34 % by 2020 for use in batteries, and 32% for the use in glass and ceramics (Martin et al, 2017). According to Roskill, lithium demand is expected to rise by 50% over the next 10 years (Mazarudas, 2017) for same reasons.

5.1.2 Expected response to increased lithium demand

As can be seen from the Industry analysis, all of the five forces that make up Porters (2008) industry analysis are either low or medium. This indicates that the overall level of competition in the potential market for lithium mining in Bolivia is low. Correspondingly, this would create a market with high margins and potential for high profits for corporations that would enter the industry. This in combination with the expected increase in demand over the next ten years allows one to conclude that there is high likelihood that actors will engage lithium in Bolivia in the next few years. A barrier to this however is the lack of capital inside Bolivia to start

extraction (Andrade & Morales, 2007). Furthermore the president has stated that he is opposed to foreign ownership and exploitation of the Bolivian lithium (Hollender & Shultz, 2010). This will expanded upon in the following section where the political element of lithium will be investigated.

5.2 The political scope: shifting relations through lithium?

In regard to the expected lithium demand discussed in the previous section, this section will discuss its political implications, following the methodology stated earlier (see 3.1.1). 5.2.1 Bolivia’s historical political and economic development

In analysing Bolivia’s historical development of politics and economics, it is important to nate that extraction and export of natural resources has determined political, societal and economic events in Bolivia from the start of the Spanish colonisation (Andrade & Morales, 2007; Kohl & Farthing, 2012; Mares, 2010; Bagley & Nazario, 2010). According to Andrade and Morales (2007) and Mares (2010) this initial pattern of exploitation then resulted in an unstable economy, heavily dependent on its export of resources, but marginal local economic development. Resulting political instability would in time manifest itself into the Bolivian National Revolution in 1952 (Andrade & Morales, 2007). Both Andrade and Morales (2007) and Kohl and Farthing (2012) show that from this point onward until mid 2000s, Bolivia has

undergone several regimes and undertook different attempts at resource nationalism, but failed to diminish its dependency on resource-exports to developed states.

Andrade and Morales (2007) argue that Bolivia’s inability to reduce its dependency stems from its inevitable need to allow foreign states and corporations to invest in natural resource extraction in order to increase state capital and fund national mining companies. Andrade and Morales (2007) also point out that a lack of state capital was a cause for fragile institutions, leading to mismanagement in opportunities to reduce export dependency. Thus when international interest in Bolivian oil and gas in respectively 1970 and early 2000 increased, institutional mismanagement only further solidified dependency (Andrade & Morales, 2007). Studies from Zunes (2001; 2007) elaborate on Bolivia’s causes of continuing dependency by adding that the United States significantly influenced Bolivian economic policy between 1952 and early 2000 through financial support and introducing liberal policies, steering Bolivia in a position that served U.S. economic interests.

Despite the left-wing turn of government by president Evo Morales in 2006 (Andrade & Morales, 2007; Hollender & Shultz, 2010; Kohl & Farthing, 2012), the factors described above have allowed a continuing dependency on resource export and foreign investment, making Bolivia one of the poorest countries and worst performing economies in Latin America (Andrade & Morales, 2007; Hollender & Shultz, 2010). Bolivia is therefore frequently

characterised as suffering from the ‘resource curse’: developing countries with high abundance of natural resources, but poor economic performance and severe poverty and income equality (Andrade & Morales, 2007; Hollender & Shultz, 2010; Ross, 1999).

5.2.2 Bolivia’s outlook with increased lithium demand

As a reaction to past dependence on export of resources and the rise of lithium demand discussed in section 5.1, president Morales has, since his election in 2006, attempted to break patterns of exploitation by making lithium property of the state (Hollender & Shultz, 2010; Perotti & Coviello, 2015; Mares, 2010; Bagley & Nazario, 2010). In this way, Morales seeks to reduce foreign involvement in resource extraction. Japan and France, who both have large electric vehicle industries and are interested in Bolivian lithium (Hollender & Shultz, 2010; Bagley & Nazario, 2010; Hopper, 2009), have repeatedly tried to gain access, but formal

agreements with these countries have thus far been evaded (Hollender & Shultz, 2010; Bagley & Nazario, 2010). Morales has also explicitly avoided trade terms with the US, globally the largest importer of lithium (Bagley & Nazario, 2010). Besides nationalising lithium, Morales also aims to set up a national lithium industry, which should produce lithium batteries and ultimately electric cars in the near future (Hollender & Shultz, 2010; Mares, 2010; Bagley & Nazario, 2010).

Although these developments indicate a way out of dependency for Bolivia, several studies show that even with a global increasing demand for lithium, Bolivia still faces challenges to develop itself. According to Hollender and Shultz (2010), Perotti and Coviello (2015), Mares (2010), Bagley and Nazario (2010), and Hopper (2009), lithium production in Bolivia is

currently inefficient and in order to make a profitable industry, foreign investment by states and corporations is inevitable. Morales has therefore gradually allowed foreign committees to conduct research on efficient lithium extraction and production, but emphasizes that Bolivia will only allow partnerships with other states, not foreign ownership (Hollender & Shultz, 2010; Mares, 2010; Bagley & Nazario, 2010).

In this context of an inevitable need of foreign investment, Hollender and Shultz (2010), Bagley and Nazario (2010) and Hopper (2009) argue that Morales’ restrained and indecisive attitude towards states and corporations might prevent them from investing in Bolivian lithium, resulting in foreign investment going to neighbouring lithium-supplying states. Adding to this point, Mares (2010) states that the lithium market dictates how Bolivia should position itself and not the other way around, which is the current approach of the Bolivian government. Furthermore, when Bolivia fails to make the right partners and deals in time, it may fail to profit from the emerging market and history could repeat itself (Mares, 2010; Hollender & Shultz, 2010; Hopper, 2009).

5.2.3 Implications

development and its resulting characteristics match those of a country in the periphery: high reliance on export of raw materials, development conditioned by external economic interests, and high poverty indicating below subsistence wages. Bolivia’s inevitable allowance of both foreign investment and involvement also indicates a continuation and deepening of exploitation according to dependency theory.

Based on the perspectives for Bolivia following the growing lithium demand, it becomes apparent that Bolivia can potentially alter its power relations by providing lithium for a growing market of batteries and electric vehicles. This implicates that Bolivia could become a semi-peripheral state. Bolivia’s plans for lithium match the characteristics of the semi-periphery: there are plans for a nation-based industry and producing batteries and ultimately vehicles, which moves the country beyond exporting solely raw resources, but also mature manufactures and possibly complete products. The dominance of the core also remains present, as Bolivia aims to supply products for a market provided by mainly developed states. Continuing

dependency also becomes apparent from Bolivia’s inevitable allowance of foreign committees and investment. Moreover, previous research also shows that Bolivia might fail to profit from the lithium market, which in contrast to becoming semi-periphery further strengthens the existing dependency, leaving Bolivia in the same position as it was.

In summary, the results implicate a change in power relations for Bolivia following the rising lithium demand. However, this change is still slightly speculative, as a perspective in which past dependency continues cannot be excluded at this moment.

5.3 The earth scientific perspective

This section will determine the impact of an increased demand of lithium on the environment. The concepts discussed in the theoretical framework and methodology are used in this section. 5.3.1 Sources of lithium in the natural environment

Lithium is the lightest alkali metal and is present in minerals, clays, salt lakes, primary rocks, freshwater, oceans, soils and underground brine reservoirs. (Steinkoenig, 1915; Mohr, Mudd & Giurco, 2010). In Bolivia, mostly two types of lithium resources can be distinguished: the rock resources and the brine resources (Mohr, Mudd & Giurco, 2010). Moreover, Bolivia is part of the lithium triangle, were 70% of world's lithium is present on the border of Argentina, Chile and Bolivia (Legers, 2008). The Bolivian Salar de Uyuni contains 40% of the global lithium amount of brines.

6 global criteria. The criteria are an arid climate, closed basin with a salt crust (salar) or/and a salt lake, igneous or/and hydrothermal activity, tectonically driven subsidences, lithium sources and time for the lithium to concentrate in the brine. Climate is the most important characteristic since climate is related to the other five criteria. The lithium triangle as well as Salar de Uyuni are located in arid climates. Salar de Uyuni consist of an area of 10.000 km2 _{with different}

lithium concentrations (Legers, 2008). Only 280 km2 _{of the salt lake has lithium concentrations}

higher than 1000 ppm, with a maximum concentration of 4700 ppm. Average lithium concentrations in the salar are 500 ppm.

5.3.2 Ecosystem services in Salar de Uyuni

The most important ecosystem service provided in the Salar de Uyuni region is agriculture: maize, yucca, beans, potatoes and quinoa are common crops in the Bolivian agriculture (Cruz & Joffre, 2010). Local farmers are especially dependent quinoa agriculture since this is 65% to 85% of their income (Aguilar-Fernández, 2009). Quinoa cultivation represents more than 82% of the total crop cultivation in the area and 66% of the local population is employed in this sector. In Bolivia, 0.14% of the gross domestic product is due to the quinoa cultivation and Salar de Uyuni is the principal organic quinoa producer of Bolivia. The loss of the quinoa cultivation can result in a decline in world's total quinoa yield and results in economic and environmental consequences for the Salar de Uyuni.

Besides agriculture, there are other ecosystem services to distinguish in Salar de Uyuni . The most important of these services are water provision and biodiversity (Aguilar-Fernández, 2009). The disappearance of one of the ecosystem services have consequences for the other ecosystem services, thus the loss of this ecosystem services negatively influence the

environment and as a result the economy of Bolivia. Since Bolivia is a large producer of world's quinoa, all countries importing quinoa will suffer from the losses. An increased demand of lithium for the production of lithium batteries will affect all four ecosystem services (Costanza et al., 1997).

5.3.3 The problem with lithium

Due to lithium extraction, Carbonates, fluorides, oxides, hydroxides and sulphates enter the environment (Emery, Klopfer & Skalski., 1981). The study of Emery, Klopfer and Skalski (1981) shows that a concentration of 0.1 mg/L Li results in a declining freshwater population and will also affect plant and animal populations. Additionally, high concentrations of lithium in the soil are toxic to all plant species. At the same time, different studies argue that lithium could be an essential element for plant growth instead of only a toxic element (Shahzad et al., 2016).

In regard to the effects of lithium on plants, research by Kalinowska, Hawrylak-Nowak and Szymańska (2013) shows that there is a correlation between an increased lithium

concentration and a decline in lettuce plant growth . Lithium chloride as well as lithium hydroxide are administered in different amounts varying from 2.5-100 mg Li dm-3_{. The plants}

with a concentration of 2.5 mg Li dm-3 _{have bigger leaves than the control group. Concentrations}

higher than 2.5 mg Li dm-3 _{show a decline in leave sizes of the lettuce plants. In contrast to}

lettuce plants, lithium is toxic in all amounts to citrus plants (Shahzad et al., 2016). Considering the Bolivia’s most important crop, a study of Figueroa et al. (2013) shows an increased lithium concentration in all four parts of a quinoa plants near Salar de Uyuni: the grain, leaves, stem and grain husks. In It is thus likely that the quinoa cultivation will decline in the region of the Salar de Uyuni. However, exact lithium leaching concentrations are not available, but it is still necessary to determine this because the lettuce research has shown the toxicity of small concentrations of lithium. Since the local population in the Salar de Uyuni relies on the

cultivation of crops and especially quinoa, it becomes apparent that lithium toxicity is a threat for the agriculture in Bolivia and especially the quinoa cultivation (Hollender & Schultz, 2010).

Furthermore, in order to concentrate and extract lithium in Salar de Uyuni, evaporation is used as a mechanism (Munk, Hynek, Bradley & Jochens, 2016). This evaporation as well as the processing plants for lithium extracts a lot of water out of the area and the Rio Grande. This is problematic for farmers and the local community since they rely on local water sources (Hollender & Schultz, 2010). Besides the shortage in water due to extraction, contamination of water is also problematic for the agriculture in the region. Leaching of lithium and other chemicals into water and soil causes water- and soil pollution that affects the growth process of agricultural crops and other vegetation (Meshram, Pandey & Mankhand, 2014). In regard to this, Figueroa et al. (2012) notes that the surface water of lithium mining areas contains 100 to 10000 times more lithium than an average river. Since the water system is an interacting system, the surface water for quinoa and other crops therefore contains a high amount of lithium.

Summarizing, the analysis shows that water extraction and toxic and chemical elements of lithium entering water and soil deliver pressure on the ecosystem services, mostly water availability and agriculture. A growing lithium demand could therefore have severe

environmental consequences, as an expanded lithium industry leads to more extraction, thereby affecting both natural ecosystems and local communities dependent on the services provided by these ecosystems. Regarding the latter, a growing lithium demand could indirect damage or decrease agricultural production.

5.3.4 Lithium resources*

Recent studies have used different methods to estimate whether the production of lithium can meet the rapidly increasing demand (Viktröm et al., 2013). In the studied literature, there are contradicting conclusions on what the future of lithium will be. The research papers of Narins

(2017) and Viktröm et al. (2013) analyzed data sources from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) and data information on individual global lithium deposits has been gathered from several other studies (Grosjean, et al., 2012; Yaksic & Tilton, 2009; Mohr et al., 2012; Gruber et al., 2012). These studies suggesting that the rise of EV industry will not be constrained mainly by the availability of lithium. The article of Yaksic & Tilton (2009) shows, by using a cumulative availability curve, that lithium depletion is not likely to pose a serious problem in the next 100 years and well beyond. Gruber et al. (2012) provides more specific data.

The global lithium availability is estimated to be about 39 Mt, whereas in the maximum lithium demand scenario does not exceed 20 Mt in the first century. Despite this scenario, the quality of lithium and price will be mainly constricting factors in the growth and rate expansion of the global lithium industry and the EV market (Narins, 2017). Other recent studies have shown that difficulties in obtaining enough quantities of high quality lithium the price increased combined with a slow in lithium production. It is a combination of these factors that determine the future of lithium, not the lack of global lithium resources (Grosjean et al., 2012; Yaksic & Tilton, 2009; Mohr et al., 2012; Gruber et al., 2012).

Nevertheless, the Li-ion industry possibly need to adapt to the future changes. Rising lithium prices, due resource scarcity with reduction in quality could be the bottleneck for the industry and the future production of Li-ion batteries (Grosjean et al., 2012). This same study conducted several econometric modelling techniques to forecast the evolution of lithium prices. Grosjean et al. (2012) conclude that lithium price is expected to be multiplied by five within ten years and this with an annual ‘growth’ rate that decrease. This research concludes that with the raising prices, the annually increasing production of EV’s with 65 million vehicles each year and the decreasing amount of lithium resources, the currently annual lithium stands out clearly insufficient to provide future EV market with Li-ion batteries.

To make a contrast, a more critical research of Wanger (2011) reviewed the global lithium demand based on cumulative data of Li-ion production for electronic devices and EV production. This article is given a more skeptical view and what effect it may have on global lithium resources. Wanger (2011) mention that with an annual production of 60 million EV’s we are likely to exhaust lithium reserves before 2031. Therefore, due the parallelism of lithium scarcity, pricing and the increasing demand of Li-ion batteries, it is mandatory to examine resource mining strategies and/or find alternatives for the Li-ion batteries.

5.3.5 Toxicological impacts of environmental lithium*

The EV market is rapidly increasing and this is affecting the availability of Lithium. This rising demand could not only form risks for the availability of lithium, but also could enhance an increasingly risk for the environment. A study of Stamp et al. (2012) have examined the

associations of environmental impacts with the increasingly amount of EV’s. To make this association, this study has conducted a Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) to quantify the environmental impacts of this product including all material and energy flows of lithium. The results are indicating that the impact of the lithium supply chain will probably not compromise the environmental benefits of EV’s.

However, lithium production itself could still form environmental risks in case of spills or leakages. Environmental lithium concentrations may be higher than general environment in places where lithium-rich brines occur, and lithium production is. Leakage to groundwater layers and drinking reservoirs could pose severe reproductive and health concerns to the local Bolivian people (Stern, 2006). Since there is no record of hazardous events in lithium production areas, no literature and quantitative data available, it must be noted that this case study is doing assumptions based on qualitative data and literature analysis of lithium toxicology studies. Studies of Aral and Vecchio-Sadus (2008) and Kang et al. (2013) examined mainly the toxicity effects of lithium to humans. When the concentration of lithium is exceeding 20mg/L there is a high risk of death. Thus, in case of a hazardous event, when there is an unacceptable influent of lithium, there is a high chance of environmental impact. However, this depends on the mixing ratio of the leakage with the (aquatic)environment. Aral and Vecchio-Sadus (2008) and Kang et al. (2013) mention that environmental lithium is not expected to bioaccumulate and toxicity is low and this will influence the scale of contamination. Also, Municipal Solid Waste generally considered not to pose environmental or safety hazards (NEMA, 2001). Despite of these more ‘positive’ results, most these studies mention that there is still insufficient lithium toxicity data and since there are no jurisdictions, lithium industries need to set self-regulation guidelines from handling Lithium, and discharge effluent limits (Kang et al., 2013).

5.4 The business approach: positioning lithium extraction within a

People Planet and Profit framework

In Appendix 2, one can find a overview of stakeholder opinions formulated using literary sources found during the writing of this report. These opinions are separated into subjects affecting people, planet and profit. What can be seen from this is that there are several conflicts that arise surrounding the extraction of lithium which will determine the eventual effects increased lithium demand will have on the area.

5.4.1 People & Profit vs Planet

Firstly, the government and business interests see potential in using the Bolivian lithium deposits as a substantial source of profits for business, income for workers, economics development and an aid towards transitioning the global economy towards carbon neutrality. Furthermore, dependency theory analysis indicates that Bolivia could use its lithium deposits to shift from a state of periphery towards a position in the semi-periphery. However this would go at the expense of ecological systems and biodiversity in general. This is mainly due to the water stresses placed on the area and the toxic effects of the lithium and other chemicals leaching into the groundwater and soils as result of mining practices. This position is held by scientists and NGOs active in the region (Hollender & Shultz, 2010).

5.4.2 Profit vs People

This Conflict very much ties into the second conflict which is between the same business interests and the population of Bolivia and Salar de Uyuni in particular. They see that the environmental damages that lithium mining could cause in area would decrease the availability of the ecosystem services that the area provides for them. These come in the provision of services in the case of fertile soils and water for agriculture and personal use and in shape of cultural services that the natural beauty of the area provides. In this case one must mention the special position of indigenous populations heavy resistance towards mining (Webber, 2011). 5.4.3 Domestic Profit vs Multinational Profit

The final conflict that can be found in how business structures relating to lithium should take shape in the future. Morales and his government aim to ensure that processes and profits are kept domestic and that foreign interference should be kept at a minimum. However some researchers have found that Bolivia does not have the required knowledge or capital to produce lithium at a sufficiently efficient levels as to compete with Chile and Argentina. Therefore they spell out the need for foreign investment in the industry. As mentioned earlier in this report,

Japanese and French governments and businesses have already expressed a desire to enter the market at present.

5.4.4 Implementation of sustainable mining practices

The resolution of these conflicts will partially determine how increased lithium demand will affect Bolivia. Bringing back the report to SDG’s, what CSR practices are available for decision makers that could steer these conflicts towards sustainable solutions? The following section will expand upon tested CSR techniques that are relevant to the conflicts explained above.

Looking at the conflicts over water use, an accurate impact analysis on the proposed water extraction from the Rio Grande is highly advisable (Azapagic, 2004). This would require accurate indications of predicated water use by lithium mines in the area, current water requirements of local farmers and residents and hydrological conditions of the Rio Grande. Connected to this is a risk assessment (Sagebien & Lindsay, 2011) to look at the potential harm that the leaching of toxic chemicals into the area surrounding Salar de Uyuni could have on the surrounding population and ecosystems.

Finally a cornerstone of CSR practises (Sagebien & Lindsay, 2011) is the involvement of local populations in stakeholder dialogues and decision making strategies. This would one, allow their grievances to be heard, documented and resolved. Secondly it would allow for any potential mining operation to take an active role in the development of the area through charity or educational programs.

5.5 The interdisciplinary approach: bringing the results together

When using the above discussed results and the integrated framework, two possible scenarios of consequences of a growing lithium demand can be developed, depending on whether Bolivia succeeds in becoming semi-periphery or not as discussed earlier (See 5.2).

In the first scenario, when bolivia succeeds to alter power relations and become semi-periphery, political and economic gain for Bolivia stimulates an expansion of the lithium industry. This expansion implies intensification of lithium extraction, which in turn leads to higher concentrations of lithium in both soil and water and increases water extraction on site as discussed earlier (see 5.3). This in turn leads to decreased ecosystem services and affects agricultural production, decreasing economic activity of local communities. The environmental impacts finally will cause more economic conflicts between different stakeholders and

appears to indicate that the lithium demand leads to political and economic gain, but simultaneously to increased environmental impact that decreases economic activity in the agricultural sector, causing economic loss and conflicts.

In the second scenario, Bolivia fails to develop itself to semi-periphery, and the expansion of the lithium industry will likely be driven by foreign corporations and countries. The same consequences will then follow as discussed in the first scenario. This scenario thus indicates that Bolivia will only feel the negative externalities of the growing lithium demand.

6. Conclusion, discussion and recommendations

This research paper has sought to answer the question what the political, environmental and economic consequences are of a growing lithium demand for Bolivia. It has done so by using several different theoretical approaches and methodologies stemming from the different scientific disciplines. In order to overcome theoretical and methodological limitations of the different disciplines, an interdisciplinary approach was used to bring the results of the different disciplinary analyses together and offer an overall assessment of consequences of a growing lithium demand.

Considering the results of the disciplinary analyses, several conclusions can be made. The first part of the business management analysis shows the expected rise of lithium demand together with a potential lithium market in Bolivia with high margins of profit. Combined it can be concluded that it will be economically attractive for other countries and foreign corporations to get involved in Bolivian lithium production. Connected to this, from a political perspective it can be concluded that a growing lithium demand will likely affect Bolivia’s international political position: the lithium market offers Bolivia a perspective of economic development indicating a shift for Bolivia from periphery to semi-periphery, thus altering power relations of Bolivia with industrialised countries. However, this change in power relations is conditional, as the results also show the possibility of continuing or solidified dependency. Thirdly, the results of the earth scientific analyses lead to the conclusion that a growing lithium demand indirectly leads to severe environmental impact, as ecosystem services are affected by higher concentrations of lithium in soil and water and increased water extraction, which both can follow from lithium mining. This in turn also affects local farming communities, as the affected ecosystem services imply a decrease in agricultural production. 3 _{Next, when bringing these results together under}

the CSR/TBL framework, it can be concluded that the consequences of different scales also lead to additional consequences: economic conflicts arise between interest groups, and resolvement of these conflicts will further affect the previous discussed consequences.

Finally, when looking at the results within the integrated framework, it can be concluded that overall, a growing lithium demand mostly gives rise to new issues for Bolivia: in both scenarios it becomes evident that an expansion of the lithium industry affects ecosystems services and thereby causing problems for the agricultural sector, giving rise to new economic conflicts. Adding to this, in the first scenario political and economic gain are present, but this has to be seen in a context that both politically and economically, past dependence and influence still

3 Note: It was intended to elaborate more on the earth scientific conclusion, but due to inconclusive research, a part of the earth scientific perspective has mostly been left out here

persists to some degree. Based on these conclusions, it thus becomes questionable whether lithium should be used on a global scale for energy storage of sustainable energy forms, as it gives rise to new issues on sites where lithium is extracted and produced.

6.2 Discussion and recommendations

The conclusions stated above give clear implications about lithium for Bolivia and for global use. However, some elements of the research need to be put in context. Each of the four disciplines is based on theories and concepts to examine an increased demand of lithium in Bolivia. However, some theories and concepts are subject to limitations. For the business management scope it is important to state that demand predictions are purely speculative, as it is the case with all economic projections. Since it is hard to predict the development of the battery technology, this could influence the lithium demand in the future.

In the political science, the dependency theory only focuses on political consequences in an international sphere, political consequences on a domestic level are out of consideration in this theory. Since international political decisions could also affect the society, it is important to consider this domestic and national levels beyond the theory. Furthermore, theoretical

assumptions only allow for scenarios in which Bolivia’s dependency remains a constant factor. Other theoretical approach might offer a different scenario, but might also further add to confirmation of the results of the analysis in this research.

The research is focussed on mainly qualitative data instead of quantitative data. For the business management and political science, this is not necessarily a limitation. However, for the earth scientific scope is this a constraint. No explicit data about amounts of chemicals were available for this research. Moreover, fieldwork in order to provide data for exact amounts of lithium leaching into water and soil in Bolivia or Salar de Uyuni did not take place. A

recommendation for further research is therefore to establish data about amounts of lithium and other chemicals leaching into the environment of the Salar de Uyuni.

Except for the lack of quantitative data, the qualitative data is sometimes inconsistent with each other and shows contradicting results and uncertainties. As mentioned in section 5.3.3 there is high uncertainty among researchers about the need of lithium in the growth process of plants. Besides that, the results of the earth sciences seem to show a contradiction: lithium is toxic to vegetation, but humans can resist lithium in small amounts. Figueroa et al. (2012) show that people with manic depressions use lithium in small amounts. The amounts discussed in this research with regard to toxicity are thousands of times higher than the amounts of lithium for human treatments.

Finally, for further research it is recommended to add another discipline. Since this research is mainly focussing on the earth scientific scope and also the business management and

political science, there is a lack in social input. For conducting a more interdisciplinary and complete research, a discipline like social geography, planning or communication sciences is preferred as an additional discipline.

References

Aguilar-Fernández, R. (2009). Estimating the Opportunity Cost of Lithium Extraction in the Salar de Uyuni, Bolivia.

Andrade, S., & Morales, J. (2007). The role of the natural resource curse in preventing development

in politically unstable countries: Case studies of Angola and Bolivia (No. 11/2007). Institute for

Advanced Development Studies.

Andreucci, D., & Radhuber, I. M. (2015). Limits to “counter-neoliberal” reform: Mining expansion and the marginalisation of post-extractivist forces in Evo Morales’s Bolivia. Geoforum.

Aral, H., & Vecchio-Sadus, A. (2008). Toxicity of lithium to humans and the environment—a literature review. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 70(3), 349-356.

Azapagic, A. (2004). Developing a framework for sustainable development indicators for the mining and minerals industry. Journal of cleaner production, 12(6), 639-662.

Bagley, B., & Nazario, O. (2010). Lithium and Bolivia: The Promise and the Problems. Western

Hemisphere Security Analysis Center, 53.

Costanza, R., d'Arge, R., De Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., ... & Raskin, R. G. (1997). The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital. nature, 387(6630), 253-260. Dell, M. (2010). The persistent effects of Peru's mining mita. Econometrica, 78(6), 1863-1903. Denholm, P., & Hand, M. (2011). Grid flexibility and storage required to achieve very high penetration of variable renewable electricity. Energy Policy, 39(3), 1817-1830.

Deng, Y. Y., Blok, K., & van der Leun, K. (2012). Transition to a fully sustainable global energy system. Energy Strategy Reviews, 1(2), 109-121.

Emery, R., Klopfer, D. C., & Skalski, J. R. (1981). Incipient toxicity of lithium to freshwater

organisms representing a salmonid habitat (No. PNL-3640). Battelle Pacific Northwest Labs.,

Richland, WA (USA).

Figueroa, L. T., Razmillic, B., Zumeata, O., Aranda, G. N., Barton, S. A., Schull, W. J., ... & Ilgren, E. B. (2013). Environmental lithium exposure in the north of Chile—II. Natural food sources.

Biological trace element research, 151(1), 122-131.

Fleury, A. M., & Davies, B. (2012). Sustainable supply chains—minerals and sustainable development, going beyond the mine. Resources policy, 37(2), 175-178.

Grosjean, C., Miranda, P.H., Perrin, M. & Poggi, P. (2012). Assessment of world lithium resources and consequences of their geographic distribution on the expected development of theelectric vehicle industry. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2012. 16(3):1735–44.

Gruber, P., Medina, P., Keoleian, G., Kesler, S., Everson, M., Wallington, T. (2012). Global lithium availability, a constraint for electric vehicles? J Ind Ecol 2012;15(5):760–75.

Hobden, S., & Jones, R. W. (2014). Marxist Theories of International Relations. In J. Baylis, S. Smith, & P. Owens (Eds.), The Globalization of World Politics (6th ed., pp. 141-154). Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.

Hollender, R., & Shultz, J. (2010). Bolivia and its Lithium: Can the “Gold of the 21st Century” Help

Lift a Nation out of Poverty? (Democracy Center Special Report). Retrieved from

http://democracyctr.org/dc_old/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/DClithiumfullreportenglish.pdf

Hopper, A. (2009). Recharging Bolivia: Evo Morales' Lithium Dilemma. Harvard International

Review, 31(2), 9.

Hykawy, J., 2010. Looking at lithium: discussing market demand for lithium in electronics. Mater. World Ceram. Lithium 18 (5), 34–35.

Kalinowska, M., Hawrylak-Nowak, B., & Szymańska, M. (2013). The influence of two lithium forms on the growth, l-Ascorbic acid content and lithium accumulation in lettuce plants.

Biological trace element research, 152(2), 251-257.

Kang, D.C., Chen, M. & Ogunseitan, O.A. (2013). Potential Environmental and Human Health Impacts of Rechargeable Lithium Batteries in Electronic Waste. University of California, Social

Energy. California: Environmental: Science & amp; Technology.

Karns, M.P., Mingst, K.A., Stiles, K.W. (2015). “The Theoretical Foundations of Global

Governance”, In: Karns, M.P., Mingst, K.A., Stiles, K.W. (red.) International Organizations: The Politics and Processes of Global Governance, 43-73. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.

Kelly, R. E. (2008). No ‘return to the state’: dependency and developmentalism against neo-liberalism. Development in Practice, 18(3), 319-332.

Kim, S. W., Seo, D. H., Ma, X., Ceder, G., & Kang, K. (2012). Electrode materials for rechargeable sodium ion batteries: potential alternatives to current lithium ion batteries. ‐ ‐ Advanced Energy Materials, 2(7), 710-721.

Kohl, B., & Farthing, L. (2012). Material constraints to popular imaginaries: The extractive economy and resource nationalism in Bolivia. Political Geography, 31(4), 225-235.

Larcher, D., & Tarascon, J. M. (2015). Towards greener and more sustainable batteries for electrical energy storage. Nature chemistry, 7(1), 19-29.

Legers, L. (2008). The trouble with lithium 2. Under the Microscope. Meridian International

Research, Martainville, France Available at b http://www. evworld. com/library/WTahil_Lithium_Microscope. pdf N (accessed on July 5, 2014).

Mares, D. R. (2010). Lithium in Bolivia: Can Resource Nationalism Deliver for Bolivians and the

World?. Paper presented at Energy Forum, Houston, United States.

doi:http://pages.ucsd.edu/~dmares/Mares%20lithium.pdf

Martin, G., Rentsch, L., Hoeck, M., & Bertau, M. (2017). Lithium market research–global supply, future demand and price development. Energy Storage Materials, 6, 171-179.

Meshram, P., Pandey, B. D., & Mankhand, T. R. (2014). Extraction of lithium from primary and secondary sources by pre-treatment, leaching and separation: a comprehensive review.

Hydrometallurgy, 150, 192-208.

Mohr, S. H., Mudd, G. M., & Giurco, D. (2010). Lithium resources and production: a critical global assesment

Munk, L. A., Hynek, S. A., Bradley, D., & Jochens, H. (2016). Lithium brines: A global perspective.

NEMA. (2001). Spent consumer lithium batteries and the environment, National Electrical Manufacturers Association, March 2001.

Norman, W., & MacDonald, C. (2004). Getting to the bottom of “triple bottom line”. Business

Ethics Quarterly, 14(2), 243-262.

Perotti, R., & Coviello, M. F. (2015). Governance of Strategic Minerals in Latin America: The Case of

Lithium (LC/W. 669). Retrieved from http://200.9.3.98/handle/11362/38961

Porter, M. E. (2008). The five competitive forces that shape strategy. Harvard business review,

86(1), 25-40.

Ross, M. L. (1999). The political economy of the resource curse. World politics, 51(2), 297-322.

Scrosati, B., & Garche, J. (2010). Lithium batteries: Status, prospects and future. Journal of Power

Sources, 195(9), 2419-2430.

Siame, E., Pascoe, D., 2011. Extraction of lithium from micaceous waste from China clay production. Miner. Eng. 24 (14), 1595–1602.

Slack, K. (2012). Mission impossible?: Adopting a CSR-based business model for extractive industries in developing countries. Resources Policy, 37(2), 179-184.

Solomon, B. D., & Krishna, K. (2011). The coming sustainable energy transition: History, strategies, and outlook. Energy Policy, 39(11), 7422-7431.

Sutherland, W. J., Bardsley, S., Bennun, L., Clout, M., Côté, I. M., Depledge, M. H., ... & Gibbons, D. W. (2011). Horizon scan of global conservation issues for 2011. Trends in ecology & evolution, 26(1), 10-16.

Steinkoenig, L. A. (1915). Lithium in Soils. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry, 7(5), 425-426.

Stamp, A., Lang, D. J. & Waeger, P.A. (2012). Journal of Cleaner Production. 2012, 23, 104–112.

Swenson, J. J., Carter, C. E., Domec, J. C., & Delgado, C. I. (2011). Gold mining in the Peruvian Amazon: global prices, deforestation, and mercury imports. PloS one, 6(4), e18875.

U.N. General Assembly, 17th Session. (2015). Resolution 70/1 . Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development . (PDF). Available:

https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld

Wanger, T. C. (2011). The Lithium future—resources, recycling, and the environment.

Conservation Letters, 4(3), 202-206.

Webber, J. R. (2011). From rebellion to reform in Bolivia: Class struggle, indigenous liberation, and

the politics of Evo Morales. Haymarket Books.

Weingast, B.R., Wittman, D.A. (2006). The Oxford Handbook of Political Economy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Woods, N. (2014). International Political Economy in an age of globalization. In J. Baylis, S. Smith, & P. Owens (Eds.), The Globalization of World Politics (6th ed., pp. 243 - 257). Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.

Yaksic, A., Tilton, J.E. (2009). Using the cumulative availability curve to assess the threat of mineral depletion: The case of lithium. Resources Policy 2009;34(4):185–94.

Zunes, S. (2001). The United States and Bolivia: The taming of a revolution, 1952-1957. Latin

American Perspectives, 28(5), 33-49.

Zunes, S. (2007). The United States, Bolivia, and Dependency. America's Policy Program

Discussion Paper. Washington, DC: Center for International Policy, 5.

Appendix 1: Stakeholder positions regarding litihum

production in Bolivia