Conceptualising the ‘Social’
In Social Exclusion
Young Women’s Experiences of
Early School Leaving
Kampala, Uganda
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! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !Myles Ewen
January 2018
MSc in International Development Studies University of Amsterdam
Supervisor: Dr. Nicky Pouw
Second Reader: Dr. Esther Miedema Word Count: 27,824
Abstract(
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Within! Uganda,! early! school! leaving! frequently! occurs! due! to! a! number! of! processes! including! unaffordable! school! fees,! guardian! death! and! pregnancy.! Young!women!who!leave!school!early!as!a!result!of!poverty!are!often!exposed!to! economic,!sociocultural!and!political!exclusion.!These!processes!in!turn,!increase! vulnerability! to! exploitation! and! early! pregnancy,! creating! negative! psychological! effects! resulting! in! self?exclusion.! Little! research! has! been! conducted!on!the!actual!lived!experiences!of!these!early!school!leaving!women,! or! what! life! strategies! they! subsequently! employ.! Specifically,! research! has! largely! ignored! the! impacts! early! school! leaving! can! have! on! an! individual’s! social! network,! and! overlooked! framing! social! networks! as! an! individual! dimension!to!the!exclusion!model.!This!research!aimed!to!explore!the!experience! of!early!school!leaving!as!it!relates!to!the!dimensions!of!exclusion!with!a!specific! focus!on!social!networks.!Self?exclusion!as!a!result!of!the!negative!psychological! effects!of!exclusion!are!also!explored,!with!particular!reference!to!how!different! forms! of! social! network! connections! can! influence! vulnerability! towards! early! pregnancy,! and! facilitate! or! mitigate! strategies! towards! inclusion.! Semi? structured! interviews! including! mini?ethnographies! and! social! map! exercises! (24),! and! focus! group! discussions! (3)! were! conducted! with! young! early! school! leaving! women! from! the! Kawempe! slum! division! on! the! outskirts! of! Kampala,! Uganda.!
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Findings!demonstrate!that!early!school!leaving!has!a!negative!impact!on!young! women’s! social! networks,! and! negatively! affects! the! other! dimensions! of! exclusion.! This! results! in! sociocultural! and! economic! vulnerability,! leading! to! risky! life! strategies! that! increase! exposure! to! early! pregnancy,! which! in! turn! significantly!compounds!the!interlinking!dimensions!of!exclusion.!The!negative! psychological! effects! of! exclusion! are! often! experienced! in! such! a! way! that! the! individual!‘self?excludes’,!which!enhances!exclusionary!drivers.!Furthermore,!the! presence!of!a!strong!social!figure,!or!increasing!a!school!leavers!social!network! through! intervention,! increased! resilience! towards! exclusion,! and! facilitated! further!economic,!sociocultural!and!political!inclusion!via!increasing!self?esteem! and! confidence,! and! providing! psycho?social! advice! and! support.! After! leaving! school! early,! a! young! woman’s! social! network! can! protect! psychosocial! wellbeing,!drive!inclusion!and!importantly,!avoid!early!pregnancy.!However,!this! study!highlights!a!need!for!further!research!on!initiatives!aimed!at!mitigating!the! compounding! affects! of! early! pregnancy! on! exclusion.! The! analysis! here! highlights! the! difficulty! in! supporting! this! particular! group! of! young! excluded! women.!
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Keywords:! Kampala,! Social! Exclusion,! Exclusion,! Early! School! Leaving,! School!
Dropouts,!Social!Networks,!Early!Pregnancy.! !
Acknowledgements(
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First!and!foremost!I!would!like!to!thank!my!parents!for!their!ongoing!love!and! support!through!the!years,!without!which!none!of!this!would!have!been!possible.! While! it! has! never! been! a! straight! path,! their! ability! to! tailor! advice! towards! discovering!my!own!way!has!led!me!to!the!completion!of!this!thesis.!I!am!forever! grateful!to!the!both!of!them.!
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I!would!also!like!to!thank!Louisa!Boydston!for!being!the!perfect!field!and!study! buddy.! This! research! was! significantly! enriched! through! her! brilliant! advice,! poignant!insights,!and!unwavering!encouragement.!Her!support!is!what!bought! this!research!together.!
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This! research! would! also! not! have! been! possible! without! the! support! of! my! supervisor,!Dr.!Nicky!Pouw.!I!would!like!to!thank!her!for!providing!a!fascinating! lens!with!which!to!view!my!research!while!keeping!me!focused,!and!providing! solid!advice!through!every!stage!of!the!process.!
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Lastly! I! would! like! to! say! a! special! thank! you! to! the! young! women! of! the! Kawempe! division! of! Kampala! who! participated! in! this! study.! Their! kindness! made! me! feel! exceptionally! welcome,! as! too! did! their! generous! and! open! engagement!in!all!our!discussions.!
Table(of(Contents( ! Abstract/ i! Acknowledgements/ ii! Table/of/Contents/ iii! List/of/Acronyms/ vi! 1./Introduction/.../1! 2./Theoretical/Framework/.../4! 2.1./Introduction/ 4! 2.2./(Social)/Exclusion/as/a/concept/ 4! 2.2.1.!Introducing!Exclusion!...!4! 2.2.2.!Multidimensional!...!5! 2.2.3.!Relational!...!6! 2.2.4.!A!Process!...!6! 2.2.5.!Adverse!Incorporation!...!7! 2.2.6.!Self?Exclusion!...!7! 2.2.7.!Summary!...!7! 2.3./Early/School/Leaving/ 8! 2.4./Social/Networks/ 10! 2.5./Early/Pregnancy/ 12! 2.5.1.!Pregnancy!and!Exclusion!...!12! 2.5.2.!Pregnancy!and!Social!Networks!...!13! 2.6./Conceptual/Scheme/ 13! 2.7./Conclusion/ 14! 3./Empirical/Context/.../15! 3.1./Introduction/ 15! 3.2./Education/and/Early/School/Leaving/ 15! 3.3./Gender/Inequality/ 16! 3.4./Early/Pregnancy/ 17! 3.5./Poverty/Eradication/ 17! 3.6./Kawempe/Context/ 18! 3.7./Summary/ 19! 4./Methodology/and/Methods/.../20! 4.1./Introduction/ 20! 4.2./Research/Questions/ 20! 4.3./Research/Location/ 20! 4.4./Epistemology/and/Unit/of/Analysis/ 21! 4.5./Methodology/ 22! 4.6./Methods/ 22! 4.6.1.!Introduction!...!22! 4.6.2.!Sampling!...!23! 4.6.3.!Semi?structured!Interviews!...!23! 4.6.4.!Social!Mapping!...!24! 4.6.5.!Participatory!Focus!Group!Discussion!...!24! 4.6.6.!Observations!...!25! 4.7./Data/Analysis/ 25! 4.8./Ethical/Considerations/ 26!
4.9./Scope/and/Limitations/ 26! 4.10./Conclusion/ 27! 5./Drivers/of/Exclusion/.../28! 5.1./Introduction/ 28! 5.2./Drivers/of/Early/School/Leaving/and/Descriptive/Statistics/ 28! 5.3./Cultural/Exclusion/ 29! 5.3.1.!Community!Perceptions!...!29! 5.3.2.!Origins!...!30! 5.3.3.!Cultural!Norms!of!Poverty!...!31! 5.4./Social/Exclusion/ 32! 5.4.1.!Cultural!Drivers!of!Peer!Exclusion!...!32! 5.4.2.!Family!Drivers!and!Relocation!...!33! 5.4.3.!Early!Pregnancy!as!a!Cultural!Driver!of!Social!Exclusion!...!35! 5.4.4.!Social!Exclusion!Summary!...!36! 5.5./Economic/Exclusion/ 36! 5.5.1.!Stigma!as!a!Driver!of!Economic!Exclusion!...!36! 5.5.2.!The!Cultural!of!Certificates!...!36! 5.5.3.!Language!as!a!Driver!of!Economic!Exclusion!...!37! 5.5.4.!Pregnancy!as!Driver!of!Economic!Exclusion!...!38! 5.5.5.!Economic!Exclusion!Summary!...!39! 5.6./Political/Exclusion/ 39! 5.7./Conclusion/ 40! 6./Experience/of/Exclusion/.../41! 6.1./Introduction/ 41! 6.2./Psychological/Experiences/ 41! 6.2.1!Context!...!41! 6.2.2.!Experience!of!Social!Exclusion!...!42! 6.2.3.!Self?Esteem!and!Confidence!...!43! 6.2.4.!Early!Pregnancy!Experience!...!45! 6.2.5.!Psychological!Experience!Summary!...!45! 6.3./SelfYExclusion/ 45! 6.4./Vulnerability/ 47! 6.4.1!Family!Drivers!of!Vulnerability!...!47! 6.4.2!Vulnerability!at!Work!...!48! 6.4.3!Exploitation!...!49! 6.4.4.!Social!Network!Vulnerability!...!50! 6.4.5.!Vulnerabilities!of!Pregnancy!...!50! 6.5./Conclusion/ 52! 7./Strategies/and/Social/Interventions/.../54! 7.1./Introduction/ 54! 7.2./Key/Figure/ 54! 7.2.1.!Economic!Support!...!54! 7.2.2.!Psychosocial!Support!&!Advice!...!55! 7.3/Male/Figure/ 56! 7.3.1.!Male!Exploitation!...!56! 7.3.2.!Male!Strategy!...!57! 7.4./Exclusion/and/Early/Pregnancy/ 58! 7.4.1.!Abortion!Strategy!...!59! 7.5./Groups/as/Intervention/ 59!
7.5.1.!Self?Esteem!and!Confidence!...!59! 7.5.2.!Sharing!Platform!...!60! 7.5.3.!Respect!from!Others!...!60! 7.5.4.!Groups!as!Drivers!of!Cultural!Inclusion!...!61! 7.5.5.!Early!Pregnancy!?!Being!Busy!...!62! 7.6./Limitations/of/‘Social/Only’/Initiative/ 63! 7.6.1.!The!Limits!of!Social!Inclusion,!Self?Esteem!and!Confidence!...!63! 7.6.2.!Postnatal!Early!School!Leavers!...!64! 7.7./Conclusion/ 65! 8./Conclusion/.../66! 8.1.Main/Findings/ 66! 8.2./Reflections/on/Theory/ 67! 8.3./Reflections/on/Methodology/and/Methods,/Limitations,/and/Future/Research/69! 8.4./Policy/and/Practice/Recommendations/ 70! 9./References/.../72! 10./Appendix/.../78! 10.1./Appendix/A:/List/of/Key/Respondents/ 78! 10.2./Appendix/B:/Vignettes/ 80! ! !
List(of(Acronyms(( / AI/ / Academic!Informant! CAT1! ! Category!One!Participant! CAT2/ / Category!Two!Participant/ CAT3/ / Category!Three!Participant/ CSO/ / Civil!Society!Organisation! ESL/ / Early!School!Leaver! ESLg/ / Early!School!Leaving/ ESLs/ / Early!School!Leavers/ FGD! ! Focus!Group!Discussion! FGD1/ / Focus!Group!Discussion,!with!category!one!participants/ FGD2/ / Focus!Group!Discussion!with!category!two!participants/ FGD3/ / Focus!Group!Discussion!with!category!three!participants/ IMF/ / International!Monetary!Fund! KI// / Key!Informant! MGLSD/ Ministry!of!Gender!Labour!and!Social!Development! MoES! ! Ministry!of!Education!and!Sports/ MoFPED! Ministry!of!Finance!Planning!and!Economic!Development! NGO! ! Non?Government!Organisation! NGP/ / National!Gender!Policy! NSGEU! National!Strategy!for!Girls!Education!in!Uganda! OECD! ! Organisation!for!Economic!Co?operation!and!Development! PEAP/ / Poverty!Eradication!Action!Plan! UBOS/ / Uganda!Bureau!of!Statisitics/ UNDP// United!Nations!Development!Programme! UPE/ / Universal!Primary!Education! WHO/ / World!Health!Organisation! YEU/ / Youth!for!Exchange!and!Understanding
1.(Introduction(
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Uganda! has! one! of! the! youngest! demographics! in! Africa! with! a! population! of! around!36.6!million!people,!55%!of!which!are!aged!under!18!(Uganda!Bureau!of! Statistics! (UBOS),! 2016).! In! 1997,! the! government! of! Uganda! launched! the! Universal! Primary! Education! policy! in! drive! to! enrol! as! many! of! their! young! population! in! primary! education! as! possible! (Deininger,! 2001;! Ekaju,! 2011).! Remarkably,! 97%! of! the! 20.1! million! young! people! under! the! age! of! 18! were! enrolled! in! primary! education.! What! is! more! impressive! is! the! rapid! pace! at! which!this!was!achieved.!From!1996!to!2015!the!number!of!students!enrolled!in! primary!education!rose!by!5.6!million!(UBOS,!2016).!These!positive!figures!are! unfortunately!not!the!whole!story;!Uganda!has!one!of!the!highest!school!dropout! rates!in!East!Africa.!In!2006!for!example,!68%!of!the!enrolled!pupils!either!left! school!early,!or!had!to!repeat!a!year!(Tukundane!et!al.,!2014).!! ! Young!women!who!leave!education!do!so!primarily!for!push!reasons!as!opposed! to! choice! (Blaak! et! al.,! 2013;! Tukundane! et! al.,! 2015b).! These! reasons! are! normally!rooted!in!family!poverty,!often!exacerbated!by!the!death!of!a!guardian,! the!need!for!children!to!work,!or!particularly!for!girls,!the!educational!priority!of! a! male! sibling! (Mbonye! et! al.,! 2012;! Tukundane! et! al.,! 2014).! Additionally,! the! educational! environment! may! drive! young! women! to! leave! school,! such! as! teacher!conflicts!or!inadequate!facilities!for!a!young!woman!who!is!menstruating! (Mpyangu!et!al.,!2014).!However,!research!and!efforts!aimed!at!girl’s!educational! retention!have!focused!predominantly!on!reducing!early!pregnancy,!considering! this! the! primary! driver! of! early! school! leaving! (Ministry! of! Education! &! Sport! (MoES),!2012).!
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As!a!young!woman,!the!early!school!leaver!(ESL)!is!already!disadvantaged!in!the! labour!market!(Bandiera!et!al.,!2012).!Without!school!to!provide!the!skills!and! academic! certificates,! economic! inclusion! becomes! even! more! challenging! (Openjuru,! 2010).! ! Additionally,! Ugandan! society! often! perceives! early! school! leavers!(ESLs)!as!underserving!of!assistance,!believing!their!school!leaving!to!be! a!waste!of!educational!and!economic!resources!(Tukundane!et!al.,!2014),!as!such! ESLs!often!face!stigma!and!discrimination!from!friends!and!the!wider!community! (Blaak!et!al.,!2013).!!
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To! conceptualise! the! experience! and! effects! of! ESLg! in! young! women,! a! multidimensional! lens! should! be! applied.! ‘Social! exclusion’! has! gained! prominence!in!developmental!literature!in!recent!years!(Popay,!2010),!and!can! be! framed! as! an! individual’s! reduced! agency! to! participate! in! a! variety! of! key! societal! activities! (Alston! &! Kent,! 2009).! Although! different! interpretations! of! social! exclusion! have! been! conceptualise,! these! various! forms! all! largely! agree! that! the! concept! is! multidimensional,! a! process,! and! relational! (Khan! et! al.,! 2015).!For!the!purposes!of!this!study!there!is!an!adaptation!to!the!concept,!and! the!term.!‘Exclusion’,!in!this!paper!specifically!refers!to!‘social!exclusion’!in!the! wider!developmental!lexicon.!!
The! concept! of! exclusion! here! is! comprised! of! cultural,! social,! economic! and! political! dimensions,! and! should! be! considered! a! process! as! opposed! to! a! consistent!state!an!individual!is!in!(Bynner!&!Parsons,!2002;!Kabeer,!2000;!Pouw! &!Hodgkinson,!2016a;!YEU,!n.d.).!It!is!the!interplay!between!the!dimensions!that! drives! a! process! of! inclusion! or! exclusion.! Most! exclusion! concepts! have! a! combined! sociocultural! dimension,! or! reduce! ‘social’! to! its! cultural! attributes! such! as! age! and! gender,! with! the! cultural! dimension! consisting! of! contextual! beliefs! and! practices.! This! study! is! unique! however,! in! framing! the! social! dimension!as!shifts!in!the!depth!and!breadth!of!one’s!social!network.!
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Due! to! discrimination! against! ESLs,! young! early! school! leaving! (ESLg)! women! undergo! a! process! of! cultural! exclusion.! They! are! subjected! to! abuse! from! the! community,! are! blocked! from! adequate! employment,! engage! in! less! political! participation,!and!subsequently!suffer!from!psychosocial!issues!(Maclean!&!Hill,! 2015;! Openjuru,! 2010;! Tukundane! et! al.,! 2015a;! Tukundane! et! al.,! 2014).! Unequal! gendered! power! relations! compound! issues! of! cultural! exclusion! (Tukundane! et! al.,! 2014).! Within! this! study! gender! is! framed! as! a! mediator! or! exasperator!to!exclusion,!and!therefore!recognises!the!related,!but!independent! processes!at!work!between!the!concepts!(Kabeer,!2000).!
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The! inter?dimensional! nature! of! exclusion! can! form! negative! feedback! loops;! cultural! exclusion! in! the! form! of! discrimination! can! reduce! employment! opportunities,!which!validates!the!stigma!ESLs!are!faced!with,!and!undermines! their! efforts! of! inclusion.! The! negative! emotional! effects! of! exclusionary! processes! can! also! become! internalised,! subsequently! the! individual! suffers! reduced!self?esteem!and!wellbeing,!resulting!in!self?blame!and!withdrawal!from! the!social!space!(Alston!&!Kent,!2009).!This!is!known!as!self?exclusion,!which!in! turn!drives!further!exclusion!in!a!negative!spiral.!!
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Similar! processes! of! exclusion! are! observed! in! young! Ugandan! women! who! become!pregnant!or!have!children!when!still!young.!Exclusion!due!to!a!cultural! stigma!surrounding!young!mothers!results!in!isolation,!depression!and!economic! difficulties!(Atuyambe!et!al.,!2005).!In!such!situations,!young!expectant!mothers! make! poor! health! decisions,! and! in! cases! of! abortion,! poor! decisions! can! have! dire!consequences!(Atuyambe!et!al.,!2015;!Atuyambe!et!al.,!2009;!Cleeve!et!al.,! 2017).!!
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There! are! a! limited! number! of! qualitative! studies! on! the! lived! experiences! of! ESLs! in! Uganda! despite! such! understandings! being! crucial! for! second! chance! initiatives!(Tukundane!et!al.,!2014).!Isolating!young!women,!this!study!aims!to! understand! such! experiences! while! focusing! on! another! gap! highlighted! by! Tukundane,! their! social! world! and! movements! within! it.! This! study! uses! the! adapted!exclusion!model!to!do!so.!
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Applying! an! exclusion! model! that! treats! social! as! its! own! dimension! has! theoretical! implications! for! the! ongoing! evolution! of! (social)! exclusion! models.! Such! a! model! will! help! to! understand! how! social! networks! and! cultural! norms! interact! with,! and! influence! one! another,! and! begin! identifying! specific! mechanisms.!
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These!theoretical!implications!are!the!basis!for!understanding!how!ESLg!affects! social! networks,! and! how! social! inclusion! can! drive! the! other! dimensions.! Furthermore,! understanding! how! young! women! can! leverage! their! social! networks! to! mitigate! early! pregnancy! is! important! for! the! development! of! efficient!interventions!(World!Health!Organisation!(WHO),!2011).!
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Pregnancy,! as! a! driver! of! ESLg! has! had! much! focus! in! Uganda,! as! too! has! the! discrimination! faced! by! young! mothers.! However,! this! study! explores! another! gap! in! the! research! literature,! how! the! act! of! leaving! school,! and! the! resulting! processes!of!exclusion,!results!in!risky!livelihood!strategies!that!can!increase!the! chances!of!early!pregnancy.!
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Using! qualitative! interviews! and! focus! group! discussions! (FGDs)! this! study! aimed! to! understand! how! young! women! form! an! urban! slum! in! Kampala! experience!exclusion!as!a!result!of!leaving!school.!A!critical!examination!is!of!the! detrimental! effects! to! social! networks,! along! with! how! they! in! turn! can! be! leveraged!to!facilitate!inclusion.!The!affects!of!exclusion!on!early!pregnancy,!and! the!relationship!to!ESLg!is!also!examined.!
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Chapter!2!outlines!the!theoretical!framework,!presenting!this!study’s!articulation! of!exclusion!before!outlining!the!current!understandings!of!ESLg!exclusion.!The! framework! will! also! discuss! literature! on! how! social! interaction! fosters! resilience! to! inclusionary! barriers,! before! establishing! how! early! pregnancy! affects! social! networks,! and! its! effects! on! inclusion.! Chapter! 3! discusses! the! empirical! and! policy! context! in! Uganda,! in! the! area! of! education! and! gender! issues.!Chapter!4!outlines!the!research!questions,!location,!methods!and!means! of!data!analysis.!Chapter!5!briefly!establishes!the!drivers!behind!ESLg!in!young! women! before! looking! at! how! young! women! directly! experience! each! specific! dimension,! laying! the! foundation! for! a! more! nuanced! understanding! of! how! exclusion! is! experienced.! Chapter! 6! establishes! the! emerging! themes! in! the! psychosocial!effects!of!ESLg!exclusion,!identifies!subsequent!mechanisms!of!self? exclusion,!and!establishes!how!many!young!ESLg!women!ultimately!experience! heightened!vulnerability.!Chapter!7!first!identifies!key!social!strategies!used!by! the!participants!to!facilitate!their!inclusion,!and!examines!how!a!depleted!social! network!can!result!in!risky!livelihood!strategies!that!increase!the!chance!of!early! pregnancy.!In!the!latter!half!of!Chapter!7,!initiatives!that!artificially!inflate!social! networks,! via! group! participation,! are! explored! for! their! potential! to! increase! inclusion,! facilitate! positive! wellbeing,! and! preventing! early! pregnancies.! The! chapter!ends!with!the!limitations!of!such!initiatives,!highlighting!the!difficulties! such! initiatives! have! at! driving! inclusion! for! young! ESLg! mothers.! Chapter! 8! answers! the! main! research! question! and! provides! reflections! on! the! methods! used!and!theoretical!implications.!The!chapter!ends!with!a!discussion!on!how!the! findings!point!to!improvements!in!practice!and!policy!for!young!ESLg!women.!!
2.(Theoretical(Framework(
2.1.(Introduction(
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This! chapter! discusses! the! theories! and! concepts! used! in! this! thesis.! Firstly,! concepts!of!‘social!exclusion’!are!explored!as!to!their!component!dimensions!and! features,!before!formulating!the!concept!of!‘exclusion’!that!shall!be!used!in!this! paper.!Secondly,!this!concept!is!placed!into!the!research!context!of!young!early! school! leaving! women! in! Uganda.! Examining! the! research! to! date! on! the! exclusionary! processes! school! leavers! face,! and! the! psychological! effects.! The! third!section!places!the!‘social’!dimension!of!exclusion!under!the!microscope!and! explores!the!interaction!of!social!networks!on!exclusion!and!school!leaving.!The! fourth!section!highlights!issues!of!early!pregnancy,!specifically!how!exclusionary! processes! can! heighten! vulnerability! towards! early! pregnancy,! and! how! social! support!can!mitigate!such!effect.!The!last!section!presents!the!conceptual!model! in! which! all! theoretical! and! conceptual! choices! are! made,! and! is! followed! by! a! summary.!
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2.2.((Social)(Exclusion(as(a(concept(
2.2.1.(Introducing(Exclusion(
The! term! ‘exclusion’! here! is! synonymous! with! the! use! of! the! term! ‘social! exclusion’!in!much!of!the!developmental!literature!(Khan!et!al.,!2015),!the!terms! relate! to! the! concept! of! (social)! exclusion.! However,! this! research! will! use! the! term!‘exclusion’!when!referring!to!the!concept,!and!‘social!exclusion’!to!refer!to! the!social!dimension!of!exclusion.! ! In!the!past!few!decades,!social!exclusion!has!been!given!an!increasing!status!in! development!literature!as!a!critical!focus.!Specifically,!exclusion!has!been!framed! as!something!‘done’!to!others!(Bynner!&!Parsons,!2002),!or!to!groups!that!result! in! their! inability! to! fully! participate! in! economic,! sociocultural! or! political! life! (Sparkes,! 1999;! YEU,! n.d.).! Alston! &! Kent! (2009)! summarise! the! concept’s! foundations! well,! “An# apparent# sign# of# social# exclusion# is# the# inability# to# participate#in#key#societal#activities,#through#no#fault#of#the#individual”!(Alston!&! Kent!2009,!p.!93).!Highlighting!the!lack!of!agency!or!capacity!of!an!individual!to! facilitate!their!inclusion!is!the!critical!point.!
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When! discussing! exclusion! it! is! important! to! not! frame! groups! as! ‘haves’! and! ‘have! nots’! (Kabeer,! 2000).! Classification! of! marginalised! people! into! homogenised! groups! dilutes! examination! of! exclusion! to! issues! of! gender,! ethnicity,! class! and! marital! status.! At! best,! such! classifications! do! little! to! examine! the! underlying! drivers! of! exclusion! and! at! worst,! defining! people! as! ‘excluded’! can! suffer! the! same! consequences! of! labelling! someone! ‘poor’;! the! notion! can! work! against! inclusion! by! reinforcing! pre?existing! prejudices! in! the! surrounding!community!(Popay,!2010).!
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The!strength!of!social!exclusionary!concepts!lies!in!not!considering!it!a!state!an! individual! or! group! is! in,! a! homeostasis.! Exclusion! must! be! thought! of! as! a!
process,!a!process!that!is!multidimensional!and!relational!(Alston!&!Kent,!2009;! Beall!&!Piron,!2005;!Bynner!&!Parsons,!2002;!Kabeer,!2000;!Khan!et!al.,!2015;! Popay,! 2010;! Pouw! &! Hodgkinson,! 2016b;! Sparkes,! 1999;! Tukundane! et! al.,! 2014;! YEU,! n.d.).! Exclusion! is! multidimensional! in! that! it! is! comprised! of! the! elements!that!make!up!our!socio?cultural!and!economic!world.!Being!relational! recognises!underlying!power!structures!that!drive!the!process#along!a!spectrum! of! inclusion! and! exclusion.! Considering! exclusion! in! this! way! enables! examination!of!the!underlying!causes!that!lead!to!the!current!state,!the!drivers!to! inclusion! and! exclusion.! Exclusion! in! this! framework! adds! value! to! developmental!discourse,!and!for!this!study!helps!to!delineate!issues!of!gender! power!relations.!
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Kabeer! (2000)! argues! value! is! added! through! the! capture! of! experiences! of! certain! groups! who! are! excluded.! Additionally,! the! implications! are! more! concrete! for! policy! makers,! framed! as! a! process! enables! policy! to! consider! the! social! dynamics! of! exclusion,! and! adjust! interventions! towards! inclusionary! drivers,!not!just!exclusion!mitigation!(Kabeer,!2000).!
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Social! exclusion! is! manifested! in! poor! living! conditions,! reduced! socio?political! participation,! poor! health,! emotional! issues! associated! with! psychological! exclusion!and!reduced!wellbeing!(Khan!et!al.,!2015;!YEU,!n.d.).!
2.2.2.(Multidimensional(
Different! authors! have! conceptualised! social! exclusion! in! a! variety! of! frameworks! with! differing! definitions! (Beall! &! Piron,! 2005).! Most! definitions! however! agree! that! social! exclusion! is! multidimensional,! and! while! there! are! differing! interpretations! of! what! dimensions! constitute! social! exclusion,! the! majority!focus!around!three!themes;!political,!economic!and!sociocultural.!
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Political#exclusion!refers!to!inadequate!participation!in!political!decision?making!! (Alston! &! Kent,! 2009;! Bynner! &! Parsons,! 2002;! Morrow,! 2013;! Pouw! &! Hodgkinson,! 2016b;! Thompson,! 2011).! Furthermore,! political! exclusion! can! happen! even! when! there! is! a! participatory! process.! Inclusive! forms! of! political! participation!also!need!adequate!recognition,!in!that!a!path!to!action!and!change! is!viable!and!transparent.!
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Economic# exclusion# happens! at! the! individual! and! labour! market! levels,! and! factors!access!to!resources!and!skills!development!that!act!as!inputs!to!economic! activity.! For! the! individual,! inadequate! educational! access,! inadequate! skillsets! and!reduced!opportunity!for!personal!capacity!building!hinder!work!prospects,! and!drive!economic!exclusion.!In!the!other!instance,!inadequate!labour!markets! and!diminished!opportunities!to!utilise!marketable!skills!can!also!act!as!drivers! of! economic! instability.! Young! women! in! Africa! face! greater! structural! and! cultural!barriers!to!their!economic!inclusion!due!to!gender!bias!(Bandiera!et!al.,! 2012).! Within! urban! settings! like! Kampala,! women! are! concentrated! towards! (self)employment!in!the!informal!sector!(Okojie,!2003).!
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Cultural#Exclusion#in!the!vast!majority!of!literature!comes!under!a!‘sociocultural’! dimension.! This! framework! however,! recognises! cultural! norms! and! practices!
that! drive! exclusion! separately.! Age,! ethnicity,! gender! and! early! school! leaving! are!some!sociological!factors!that!push!exclusion.!The!cultural!dimension!will!be! the!epicentre!of!examining!exclusion!as!a!result!of!gender!bias,!a!particular!link! that! is! strongly! reported! in! DFID's! 'Social! Exclusion! Review'! (Beall! &! Piron,! 2005).!
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Social# Exclusion,# as! a! concept,# is! synonymous! with! ‘exclusion’! in! this! study.! Considering!social!exclusion#as!a!stand?alone!dimension!has!had!very!little!focus! to! date.! This! research! recognises! the! social! network! structure! around! the! individual! as! a! separate! dimension! of! exclusion.! While! influenced! by! social! standing,! gender,! poverty,! age! and! education,! the! dimension! is! independent! of! them.! As! shall! be! discussed,! recognition! of! the! social! network! element! of! exclusion!is!central!to!this!research.! ! While!some!concepts!of!exclusion!incorporate!a!dimension!of!wellbeing,!for!the! purposes!of!this!research,!wellbeing!is!driven!by!inclusion,!but!is!not!a!dimension! itself.! ! Collectively,!these!dimensions!allow!for!a!holistic!look!at!the!underlying!causes! of!exclusion,!and!recognises!the!influence!social!inclusion1!can!have!on!the!other! dimensions.! 2.2.3.(Relational( Whether!negotiating!individual,!community!or!global!concepts!of!exclusion,!the! underlying!drivers!are!that!of!unequal!power!relations.!Exclusion!is!not!a!solitary! process;! the! concept! necessitates! the! relational! existence! of! other! individuals,! communities!or!institutions.!When!considering!gender,!the!relational!approach! to! exclusion! leads! some! to! see! gender! and! exclusion! as! equivalent! concepts! (Beall!&!Piron,!2005).!However,!while!the!experience!of!exclusion!for!both!sexes! may!be!gendered,!gender!acts!to!influence!the!underlying!drivers.!Kabeer!makes! an! analogy,! ‘For# instance,# while# the# stigma# of# leprosy# operates# regardless# of# gender,# gender# mediates# and# exacerbates# it’! (2000,! p88).! It! is! important! to! see! gender!and!exclusion!as!related!but!not!interchangeable!(Kabeer,!2000),!to!view! gender!disparities!through!the!lens!of!exclusion.!
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The! relational! approach! adds! richness! to! the! dimensions! in! that! it! forces! thoughts! about! them! to! be! put! into! a! spectrum! of! agency;! with! political,! economic! and! sociocultural! inclusion,! comes! political,! economic! and! sociocultural!power!(Popay,!2010).!Furthermore,!the!relational!view!of!exclusion! gives!insight!into!its!dynamic!nature,!the!way!in!which!the!dimensions!influence! each!other.!The!implications!of!the!dimensional!influence!are!important!to!this! research,! and! add! value! to! developmental! discourse! by! examining! how! social! networks!impact!upon!exclusion.!!
2.2.4.(A(Process(
There! is! broad! agreement! in! framing! exclusion! as! a! process.! Exclusion! is! not! itself!something!that!is!defining!or!characteristic!to!an!individual!or!group.!It!is! the! conglomerate! of! factors! across! the! dimensions! that! drive! a! process! of! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
inclusion! or! exclusion.! While! it! may! be! tempting! to! label! an! individual! as! ‘included’! or! ‘excluded’,! this! does! little! for! understanding! (Kabeer,! 2000).! Instead,!there!is!a!relational!continuum!from!inclusion!to!exclusion;!the!drivers! to!movement!along!the!dimensional!continuums!are!themselves!the!focal!points! of! exclusion! (YEU,! n.d.).! Critically,! through! power! relations! across! the! dimensions,! exclusion! is! a! process! inflicted! upon! the! individual! or! group! by! agents,!and!not!a!timeless!state!they!are!afflicted!with!(Bynner!&!Parsons,!2002).!
2.2.5.(Adverse(Incorporation(
Considering! the! interplay! of! dimensions! across! time! and! space,! adverse! incorporation! views! the! outcomes! of! exclusionary! processes! as! a! product! of! unequal! economic! power! relations,! both! locally! and! globally! (Hickey! &! Toit,! 2013).! Socio?political! dynamics! influence! inclusion,! but! no! person! should! be! considered! excluded! in! a! total! sense! on! any! dimension! (Khan! et! al.,! 2015).! Instead,!marginalised!people!are!included!on!‘adverse!terms’,!from!a!position!of! reduced! agency.! Adverse! incorporation! is! useful! in! this! research! as! particular! livelihood! strategies! utilised! by! marginalised! groups! can! be! considered! a! dimensional!trade!off,!resulting!in!negative!social!capital.!When!the!longitudinal! lens! of! adverse! incorporation! is! applied,! such! livelihood! strategies! and! discrimination!can!result!in!negative!cycles,!trapping!people!within!exclusionary! processes!over!time!(Hickey!&!Toit,!2013).!
2.2.6.(SelfMExclusion(
Furthering!arguments!of!social!exclusion!being!a!process!is!the!concept!of!self? exclusion.!The!structural!and!interpersonal!drivers!of!exclusion!are!not!always! obvious! to! those! experiencing! them;! which! due! to! an! internalisation! of! exclusionary!processes,!can!lead!to!non?participation!through!‘choice’!(Alston!&! Kent,!2009).!!
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The!negative!emotional!effects!of!exclusion!become!internalised,!the!individual! suffers! reduced! self?esteem! and! wellbeing,! resulting! in! self?blame! and! withdrawal!from!the!social,!economic!and!political!space!(Alston!&!Kent,!2009;! Pouw!&!Hodgkinson,!2016b).!Social!networks!are!particularly!vulnerable!to!self? exclusion,!and!as!such!are!prone!to!negative!feedback!loops;!exclusion!results!in! individual! withdrawal! from! personal! networks,! diminishing! social! networks! in! turn! drive! additional! exclusion! and! negatively! affects! wellbeing,! which! then! leads!to!further!self?exclusion.!While!these!cycles!are!important!to!this!research,! they! should! be! approached! with! care.! Self?exclusion,! even! if! initially! driven! by! outside! factors,! is! an! individual! right! (Pouw! &! Hodgkinson,! 2016b),! and! may! itself! facilitate! wellbeing! via! the! freedom! to! live! by! one’s! own! priorities! and! values!(Kabeer,!2000).!
2.2.7.(Summary(
This! research! broadens! the! understanding! of! the! exclusionary! concept! by! treating!social!exclusion!as!its!own!dimension,!a!largely!under?researched!area! in! development! literature.! Through! this! framework,! the! influence! of! young! women’s! social! support! structures! and! networks! can! be! examined! as! to! their! relationship!to!the!other!(in)exclusionary!dimensions.!
2.3.(Early(School(Leaving(
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As! discussed! in! the! introduction,! Uganda’s! impressive! enrolment! rates! are! not! matched! in! educational! retention.! The! term! early#school#leaving! (ESLg),! in! this! paper! refers! to! those! girls! who! have! failed! to! complete! either! primary! or! secondary! education.! Care! should! be! taken! however! in! the! labelling! of! early# school# leavers! (ESLs),! for! example! ‘school! dropouts’! carries! negative! connotations,!and!ignores!differences!in!push!or!pull!factors!for!leaving!school.! This! research! will! use! ‘early! school! leavers’! as! the! term! to! describe! leaving! school! before! the! legal! age,! keeping! reasons! for! leaving! as! removed! from! the! term!as!possible!(Tukundane!et!al.,!2015a).!
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Literature! and! studies! examining! the! underlying! causes! of! ESLg! recognise! the! diverse! nature! of! the! phenomenon.! The! reasons! for! leaving! are! varied! across! context! and! time,! but! are! rarely! the! result! of! a! one?time! event,! as! such! ESLg! should!be!considered!a!process!of!interacting!factors!(Dale,!2010;!Tukundane!et! al,.!2015b;!Tukundane!et!al.,!2014).!The!causes!may!differ!from!person!to!person! but! when! speaking! with! ESLs,! Tukundane! et! al.,! (2014)! identified! two! consistencies;! students! from! poor! socio?economic! backgrounds! or! those! with! behavioural!issues,!were!far!more!likely!to!leave!school!early.!Considering!young! women,!other!studies!also!recognise!poverty!as!a!primary!driver!(MoES,!2013),! but!find!the!next!most!prominent!reason!for!leaving!amongst!girls!is!pregnancy! (Mpyangu!et!al.,!2014;!Openjuru,!2010).!
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Issues! of! gender! are! inextricably! linked! to! socio?economic! and! other! cultural! factors;!family!poverty!has!a!stronger!link!to!ESLg!for!girls!then!for!boys!(Bynner! &!Parsons,!2002).!Due!to!considerations!such!as!employment!later!in!life,!boys! are! often! perceived! as! a! wiser! economic! investment! when! family! funds! are! unavailable!to!keep!all!children!in!school!(Maclean!&!Hill,!2015;!Mbonye!et!al.,! 2012;!Tukundane!et!al.,!2014).!Gender!disparities!can!be!compounded!by!early! marriage,!pregnancy!and!inadequate!sanitary!provisions!in!schools!during!girl’s! menstruation! (Dale,! 2010),! resulting! in! the! leaving! rate! for! girls! being! higher! than!for!boys!(Mpyangu!et!al.,!2014).!!
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Within! Uganda,! ESLg! is! a! primary! driver! of! economic! exclusion! due! to! inadequate! skillsets! and! a! lack! of! certification! (Tukundane! et! al.,! 2015b).! Exclusion! from! economic! engagement,! even! controlling! for! age,! gender! and! education,!has!been!demonstrated!to!be!a!main!cause!of!reduced!self?esteem!in! young! people! (Prause! &! Dooley,! 1997).! Gender! inequalities! compound! these! issues,!reduced!opportunities!because!of!cultural!norms!force!many!ESLg!young! women! towards! informal! work! such! as! housemaids! and! waitresses,! sectors! where! much! sexual! harassment! is! reported! (Mbonye! et! al.,! 2012).! Due! to! the! nature! of! the! work! obtained! by! ESLg! women,! education! can! enhance! security! and!reduce!vulnerability.!Within!East!Africa,!the!longer!a!young!women!is!kept!in! school,!the!lower!her!chances!of!sexual!violence!(Behrman!et!al.,!2017).!
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According! to! accounts! of! ESLs,! entering! the! economic! world! without! the! skills! schools! can! provide! corners! them! into! menial! and! low! paid! jobs! or! unemployment,!which!compound!feelings!of!marginalisation!(Tukundane!et!al.,!
2014).!Furthermore,!inadequate!life!and!employment!skills!act!to!reinforce!the! stigma!many!ESLs!suffer!(Tukundane!et!al.,!2015a).!The!stigma!driving!exclusion! for!ESLs!is!rooted!in!the!perception!that!they!are!‘losers’!and!‘failures’!who!are! undeserving!of!assistance!(Blaak!et!al.,!2013;!Openjuru,!2010).!By!ignoring!the! process!though!which!ESLs!exit!education,!society!deems!them!to!have!wasted! their! parents! money! and! academic! resources! by! failing! to! finish! education! (Tukundane!et!al.,!2014).!This!lowered!social!position!is!no!doubt!compounded! by!Uganda’s!impressive!enrolment!rates,!and!for!young!women,!operates!on!the! backdrop!of!cultural!subservience!that!impedes!their!sociocultural!inclusion.! !
Enrolling! in! vocational! training! as! an! alternative! to! school! also! has! negative! stigma! attached,! with! some! in! Ugandan! society! calling! the! training! centres! ‘bushoberwa’,! translating! as! ‘institution! for! failures’,! with! some! students! even! having!insults!thrown!at!them!for!enrolling!(Tukundane!et!al.,!2015a).!Should!a! young! ESLg! woman! enrol! in! training! a! second! cultural! barrier! awaits,! within! these!schools!there!exists!gender!disparities!in!the!enrolment!rates!of!particular! courses,!females!are!steered!towards!courses!that!more!suit!their!gender!roles,! such!as!hairdressing!and!tailoring!(Tukundane!et!al.,!2015b).!
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The! exclusionary! processes! of! post?ESLg! have! profound! psychological! effects! (Maclean! &! Hill,! 2015).! Openjuru! (2010)! found! ESLg! was! perceived! as! a! traumatizing! experience,! undermining! self?worth! and! denting! confidence.! The! experience!of!ESLg!is!exemplified!by!a!case!study!conducted!by!Tukundane!et!al.,! (2014),! ESLs! suffered! high! levels! of! self?loathing! and! hate.! Their! family! relationships!were!strained!when!resources!were!allocated!to!alternative!family! endeavours!instead!of!education.!The!emotional!detriment!was!also!large,!many! talked! of! the! sadness! they! felt! for! not! being! able! to! remain! in! school! with! the! authors!noting!some!participants!could!not!talk!about!their!troubles!in!the!first! person,!referring!instead!to!a!third!person!“My#sadness#is#mine#as#a#person.#Like# you#see#a#child#leaving#school,#he#gets#so#many#problems.”#(Kelly,!Tukundane!et!al.,! 2014,! p484).! The! researchers! also! recorded! multiple! instances! of! stigma! from! the!surrounding!community!and!employers,!with!some!ESLs!claiming!they!were! ‘despised’!by!others!(Tukundane!et!al.,!2014).!
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Tukundane!et!al’s!study!demonstrates!the!negative!impacts!exclusion!can!have! as! a! result! of! leaving! school! early.! Such! effects! push! some! youth! to! engage! in! criminal! activity,! drug! abuse! and! reckless! behaviour! (Tukundane! et! al.,! 2014).! Given! the! background! of! ESLg,! focusing! on! educational! retention! alone! is! not! sufficient.!! ! There!is!a!lack!of!empirical!research!on!the!lived!experiences!of!ESLs;!what!little! evidence!there!is,!seldom!focuses!on!young!women.!Studies!that!do!not!explicitly! take!the!gendered!dimensions!into!account!cannot!hope!to!adequately!address! the!multi?faceted!contextually!specific!experiences!of!individuals.!Fewer!studies! still!have!explored!what!inclusionary!strategies!young!ESLg!utilise!in!their!social! relational! navigation! (Tukundane! et! al.,! 2015a).! Initiatives! for! young! women! who! have! already! departed! education! must! understand! these! experiences! and! realities!if!the!processes!of!exclusion!are!to!be!tackled!(African!Progress!Report,! 2012;!cited!in!Tukundane!et!al.,!2014).!
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The! issues! facing! ESLs! drive! exclusion! and! detriment! their! social! networks,! impacting!on!wellbeing!and!reducing!support!strategies.!This!research!aimed!to! fill! a! gap! in! research! by! gaining! a! deeper! understanding! of! young! women’s! experiences! of! leaving! school,! and! its! impacts! on! their! socio?relational! world.! Furthermore,! the! research! identifies! the! strategies! young! ESLg! women! utilise,! including!leveraging!their!social!networks,!to!facilitate!inclusion.!
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2.4.(Social(Networks(
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Models! of! exclusion! have! largely! ignored! socialising! and! social! networks! as! a! stand?alone! dimension.! This! section! outlines! the! place! social! networks! have! in! compounding! or! facilitating! inclusion! through! perceived! self?worth,! resilience,! advice,!and!emotional!support.!As!a!consequence!of!leaving!school!early,!young! women! spend! less! time! with! their! peers! inside! of! school.! Additionally,! the! cultural!drivers!of!exclusion,!in!the!form!of!stigma,!drive!further!social!exclusion.! !
Our!concept!of!self,!and!our!place!in!the!social!world!is!foundationally!built!upon! the!interactions!with!our!fellow!human!beings!and!as!such,!should!be!framed!in! relational!terms.!Social!networks!are!comprised!of!friends!and!family,!as!well!as! acquaintances! from! work,! the! surrounding! community! and! institutions.! Understandings! of! these! structures! relation! to! wellbeing! and! resilience! have! largely!gone!unnoticed!by!western!interventions!(Lopes!Cardozo!et!al.,!2015).! !
When!considering!marginalised!groups!such!as!ESLs!their!social!connections,!or! their! deprivation,! have! a! supportive! or! compounding! affect! on! psychological! wellbeing! (Comstock! et! al.,! 2008).! Exclusion,! driven! by! social! exclusion,! reinforces! marginalisation;! leading! to! feelings! of! isolation,! shame! and! humiliation,! further! driving! exclusion! (Birrell! &! Freyd,! 2006;! Comstock! et! al.,! 2008;! Hartling,! 2008).! When! resisting! the! barriers! to! inclusion,! social! network! deprivation!can!manifest!as!emotional!and!psychological!difficulties,!resulting!in! further! social! withdrawal.! An! individual! can! begin! to! associate! the! broader! impacts! of! exclusion! with! their! own! relational,! social! value.! Negative! self? imagery! is! reinforced! when! their! external! issues! are! perceived! as! their! own! personal!failure!(Comstock!et!al.,!2008).!To!an!already!marginalised!young!ESLg! woman,!this!negative!self?imagery!creates!vulnerability!and!lowers!self?esteem.! Paradoxically,! this! end! result! can! be! avoidant! social! strategies,! such! as! self? exclusion!(Comstock!et!al.,!2008).!The!process!becomes!a!depreciating!cycle,!less! dominant! group! members! have! less! advantages,! lowering! social! mobility! in! achieving!success!or!negating!failures!(McIntosh,!1989;!cited!in!Hartling,!2008).! !
The!benefits!of!positive!social!networks!should!not!be!understated.!Miller!(1986;! cited! in! Comstock! et! al.,! 2002)! notes! how! positive! social! networks! increase! an! individual’s! sense! of! self?worth! and! motivation,! and! attunes! a! better! relational! self?image!in!respect!to!peers.!Overcoming!exclusionary!processes!is!challenging! for! young! women! out! of! education,! and! should! be! approached! with! a! healthy! does! of! resilience.! Exploring! resilience,! Hartling! examined! individual! and! relational! differences,! summarising! the! findings! in! her! title! “Strengthening#
Resilience#in#a#Risky#World:#It’s#All#About#Relationships”!(Hartling,!2008,!p51).!She! highlights! how! social! networks! are! bilaterally! linked! to! self?esteem! and! self? worth,!both!vital!elements!in!resilience.!!
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Western! notions! of! resilience! tend! to! focus! on! individual! ‘hardiness’.! This! perspective! ignores! collective! resilience! found! in! vulnerable! or! marginalized! groups.! Sparks! (1999;! cited! in! Hartling,! 2008)! found! African! mothers! utilised! their!social!networks!to!negotiate!challenges!of!poverty!and!stigmatization!as!a! group.! ! Jordan! (1999;! cited! Hartling,! 2008)! suggests! an! important! skill! for! resilience! is! competence.! She! concludes! that! competence! is! not! developed! in! isolation,! arguing! it! evolves! through! a! process! of! interpersonal! relations,! facilitated!by!parents,!peers,!employers!and!others,!to!better!approach!hard!life! circumstances.! Such! social! networks! and! competencies! not! only! strengthen! resilience,! they! are! vital! elements! for! protecting! psychosocial! wellbeing! (Camfield,!2017).!
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Social!support!can!also!shape!behaviour,!a!study!of!90,000!American!youth!found! those! with! strong! social! networks! were! less! likely! to! engage! in! early! sexual! activity,! had! lower! rates! of! drug! and! alcohol! abuse,! were! involved! in! less! violence,! and! suffered! far! less! emotional! distress! (Blum! et! al! 2002;! cited! in! Hartling,! 2008).! Qualitative! research! on! small! family! and! friend! networks! has! also! demonstrated! their! pivotal! role! in! providing! emotional! support! and! protecting!self?esteem!(Morrow,!2013).!
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Social! networks! should! also! be! considered! for! their! utility! in! driving! other! dimensions!of!inclusion.!Within!informal!employment,!young!women!in!the!UK! leverage! their! immediate! social! network! for! advice! and! opportunities! (Thompson,! 2011).! Similarly,! in! seeking! pre! and! postnatal! care,! young! African! mothers! rely! on! the! social! support! structures! around! them! for! psychological! support! and! advice! (Atuyambe! et! al.,! 2009).! Research! and! recommendation! in! developing!countries!and!Uganda!has!highlighted!the!positive!effects!initiatives! aimed! at! improving! individual! social! support! structures! can! have! in! reducing! unwanted!pregnancies!(Rijsdijk!et!al.,!2011;!WHO,!2011).!
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The!ability!to!expand!ones!network!and!build!new!human!connections!is!argued! as!the!only!way!to!heal!the!negative!psychological!effects!of!exclusion!(Birrell!&! Freyd,! 2006).! Comstock! et! al.,! (2008)! claim! abilities! in! social! relational! movement!are!vital!strategies!in!overcoming!exclusion.!Ultimately!this!research! holds!two!positions!in!regards!to!social!inclusion.!Firstly,!it!is!a!vital!dimension!in! understanding! the! process! of! inclusion.! The! lived! experiences! of! young! ESLg! women!have!had!little!exploration,!and!even!less!considering!social!networks!as! key!driver!towards!inclusion.!
!
Secondly,! it! is! in! this! papers! understanding! that! human! wellbeing! is! the! most! critical! factor! in! any! developmental! discourse.! Considering! many! studies! have! conclusively! established! the! powerful! effect! social! networks! have! on! determining! wellbeing! (Camfield,! 2017;! Hartling,! 2008),! and! how! “happiness#is# best# predicted# by# the# breadth# and# depth# of# one’s# social# connections”! (Putnam,! 2000,!p.!332;!cited!in!Hartling,!2008);!analysis!of!social!networks!will!not!only!
deepen!understandings!of!exclusion,!it!will!also!enable!intervention!for!the!most! important!of!developmental!goals,!human!wellbeing.!
2.5.(Early(Pregnancy(
2.5.1.(Pregnancy(and(Exclusion(
Pregnant! young! women! in! sub?Saharan! Africa! face! a! decision! and! a! ‘double! stigma’;!in!the!first!instance,!becoming!pregnant!too!young!or!without!a!stable! partner!is!stigmatised!(Atuyambe!et!al.,!2005;!Chilisa,!2002;!Unterhalter,!2013).! In!the!second!instance,!abortion!itself!is!stigmatized.!The!need!for!secrecy,!and! inconsistent!legal!practices,!drives!many!young!African!women!towards!unsafe! abortion!practices!(Cleeve!et!al.,!2017;!Gerdts!et!al.,!2017;!Yegon!et!al.,!2016).!In! developing! countries,! unwanted! pregnancies! often! result! in! unsafe! abortions! that!lead!to!high!rates!of!associated!maternal!mortality!(Atuyambe!et!al.,!2015;! WHO,!2011).!
!
The! relationship! between! pregnancy! and! ESLg! however! has! had! mostly! a! unidirectional!approach,!viewing!early!pregnancy!as!a!driver!of!ESLg.!The!link!is! often!explored!in!this!direction!due!to!pregnancy!being!a!commonly!cited!reason! for! girls! in! Africa! to! leave! school! early! (Openjuru,! 2010;! Unterhalter,! 2013;! Zeelen!et!al,.!2010).!
!
The! focus! on! pregnancy! driving! ESLg! detracts! from! a! potential! cause! of! pregnancy,!exclusionary!processes!as!a!result!of!early!school!leaving.!Economic! exclusion,!as!faced!by!ESLg,!has!been!recognised!to!be!a!cause!of!early!pregnancy! (WHO,!2011).!One!reason!is!the!utilisation!of!sexuality!by!young!African!women! as!a!livelihood!strategy,!engaging!in!intimate!relationships!in!a!social!exchange! for!gifts!(Honwana,!2013;!Mirembe!&!Davies,!2001).!! !
Within! Uganda,! one! participant! in! Nobelius! et! al's! (2010)! study! explains! how! many!young!ESLg!women!return!to!families!unable!to!financially!support!them.! This! creates! a! situation! where! a! young! man! can! provide! these! needs,! such! as! small! products,! and! use! the! situation! to! coerce! a! sexual! relationship! (Boy! 2,! Nobelius! et! al.,! 2010,! p495).! Such! dependencies! underlie! existing! power! structures! whereby! the! young! women! become! dependant! on! a! young! man,! lowering! their! decision! making! agency! (Cleeve! et! al.,! 2017).! ! The! concept! of! giving! ‘gifts’! either! before! or! after! sexual! encounters! is! common! place! in! sub? Saharan! Africa,! with! young! women! claiming! economic! support! is! the! primary! reason!for!having!sex!(Honwana,!2013;!Nobelius!et!al.,!2010).!!
!
Nobelius! et! al.! (2010)! take! care! to! point! out! this! exchange! is! not! a! western! concept!of!an!exchange.!The!gifts!are!framed!more!as!a!social!exchange!and!are! embedded! in! cultural! history.! Therefore,! these! exchanges! can! act! as! a! social! lubricant!to!intimate!relationships,!and!not!necessarily!spawning!from!poverty.! Even!if!not!arising!from!necessity,!young!women!still!lack!contraceptive!agency! (Cleeve! et! al.,! 2017;! Guttmacher! Institute,! 2013).! Such! deficiencies! in! Uganda! mean! many! sexual! encounters! risk! pregnancy! and! related! health! issues! (Atuyambe!et!al.,!2005;!Rijsdijk!et!al.,!2011).!
Aside!from!economic!factors,!exclusion!as!a!concept!has!only!had!casual!mention! as!a!driver!to!pregnancy.!This!research!explored!if!the!negative!effects!of!leaving! school;! cultural! stigma,! social! exclusion! and! reduced! self?esteem,! heighten! vulnerability!towards!early!pregnancy.!
2.5.2.(Pregnancy(and(Social(Networks(
In! cases! of! young! pregnancy! in! low?income! countries,! should! the! father! avoid! responsibility,!young!woman!are!often!left!in!a!vulnerable!state,!and!dependent! on!others!for!care!(WHO,!2011).!Negative!cultural!norms!associated!with!early! pregnancy! leave! many! young! mothers! feeling! disempowered,! and! lacking! confidence!and!self?esteem!(Atuyambe!et!al.,!2009).!Within!Uganda,!Atuyambe!et! al.,! (2009)! were! interested! in! how! young! pregnant! woman! seek! care! and! empathy.! Due! to! peer! based! shame,! most! sought! support! from! elders! and! guardians.! However,! due! to! cultural! norms! associated! with! maternal! care! and! early! pregnancy,! many! of! these! guardians! lead! the! young! women! to! unsafe! traditional! healers,! and! encouraged! self?exclusion! from! the! community! (Atuyambe!et!al.,!2009).!
!
Maternal!health!is!closely!linked!to!the!support!that!is!sought.!Considering!the! importance! of! maternal! health! to! the! promotion! of! gender! equality! (MGD?3)! (Atuyambe!et!al.,!2009),!much!can!be!gained!from!understanding!what!support! structures! influence! decision?making! in! both! contraceptive! use,! and! maternal! care! seeking! behaviour.! In! their! guidelines! for! preventing! early! pregnancy! in! developing! countries,! the! WHO! has! strong! recommendations! for! enacting! initiatives! that! strengthen! communication! skills,! and! boost! self?esteem.! In! addition,!the!guidelines!recommend!‘improving#their#links#to#social#networks#and# their#ability#to#obtain#social#support’!(p72,!WHO,!2011).!However,!more!research! is!needed!on!how!young!women!utilise!their!current!social!networks!to!improve! their!reproductive!decision?making.! ! The!current!literature!largely!examines!early!pregnancy!as!a!driver!of!ESLg.!This! research! is! interested! in! how! the! processes! of! exclusion,! as! a! result! of! leaving! school,! can! themselves! drive! decisions! that! increase! the! chances! of! pregnancy.! Furthermore,!there!is!a!need!for!heightened!understanding!on!how!young!ESLg! women! utilise! their! social! networks! to! improve! their! reproductive! decision? making,!or!facilitate!inclusion!post?conception.!
!
2.6.(Conceptual(Scheme(
!
The! below! diagram! depicts! the! conceptual! scheme! used! in! this! study,! with! the! concept! of! exclusion! presented! as! to! its! dimensions,! with! the! sociocultural! dimension! separated.! The! social! dimension! is! highlighted! due! to! this! study’s! exploration!of!shifts!to!social!networks!structures!as!a!consequence!of!ESLg.!Self? exclusion! places! a! barrier! to! inclusion,! and! drives! exclusion.! Early! pregnancy! also! presents! a! barrier! to! inclusion,! but! can! simultaneously! be! driven! by! exclusionary!processes.!Adverse!incorporation!is!presented!as!a!mediator!to!the! (in)exclusion! concept,! recognising! the! continued! fluctuations! in! the! processes! over!time!and!space.!
! ! 2.7.(Conclusion( ! The!study!will!use!this!model!to!examine!the!process!of!exclusion!young!women! undergo!as!a!result!of!ESLg,!a!phenomenon!that!is!highly!stigmatised!in!Uganda.! By! focusing! on! the! lived! experiences! of! these! young! women,! the! study! aims! to! enrich! understandings! of! exclusionary! processes,! their! interactions! with! social! networks,! the! psychosocial! effects,! and! establish! the! social! strategies! young! women!use!to!facilitate!their!re?inclusion.!
!
The! experience! of! cultural! discrimination! and! exclusion! as! a! result! of! early! pregnancy!is!also!examined,!addressing!a!literature!gap!in!how!social!networks! are!leveraged!for!support.!Lastly,!while!early!pregnancy!is!regularly!examined!as! a! cause! of! educational! exclusion,! this! research! outlines! the! processes! whereby! exclusion!as!a!result!of!ESLg,!is!a!driver!of!early!pregnancy.! ! ! ! Early School Leaving Economic Social Political Cultural
Self-Exclusion PregnancyEarly
Drivers Barriers Social Relational Movement
Inclusion
Adverse Incorporation
Exclusion
Exclusionary Dimensions
!
3.(Empirical(Context(
3.1.(Introduction(
!
This! chapter! outlines! the! current! policies! of! the! Ugandan! government! towards! education,! gender! equality,! early! pregnancy! and! poverty.! It! also! examines! the! main! issues! affecting! the! Kawempe! slum! division! according! to! a! recent! government!survey.!
!
3.2.(Education(and(Early(School(Leaving(
!
Uganda’s!educational!policies!stem!from!their!colonial!history,!being!initiated!by! volunteer! missionaries! in! the! late! 20th! centaury! (Muhwezi,! 2003).! Government!
control! of! education! began! in! the! 1920’s! and! was! restricted! to! children! from! privileged! spheres! of! society.! After! independence! in! 1962,! government! controlled!education!had!an!emphasis!on!equality,!making!expansions!into!girls’! education! and! creating! provisions! for! adults! (Muhwezi,! 2003).! In! 1997,! the! government! adopted! the! Universal! Primary! Education! (UPE)! programme! to! enrol!as!much!of!its!young!populous!in!primary!education!as!possible!(Deininger,! 2001;!Ekaju,!2011).!An!important!requirement!of!the!UPE!is!that!each!family!take! at!least!four!of!their!children!to!school,!two!of!which!had!to!be!girls!(Muhwezi,! 2003).! ! Conversely,!Uganda!also!has!one!of!the!highest!dropout!rates!in!East!Africa,!only! 33%! of! students! in! 2011! completed! primary! education! through! all! grades! (Mpyangu!et!al.,!2014),!with!females!accounting!for!a!disproportionate!number! of!leavers!(Muhwezi,!2003;!Tukundane!et!al.,!2014).!One!of!the!key!policies!of!the! UPE!(1997)!was!the!abolishment!of!tuition!fees.!However,!parents!still!have!to! pay!for!educational!equipment,!uniform!and!transport,!placing!family!poverty!at! the!heart!of!driving!ESLg!in!Uganda!(Blaak!et!al.,!2013;!Tukundane!et!al.,!2015b).! In! such! circumstances,! it! is! girls! who! are! most! likely! to! be! affected! and! then! excluded!from!education!(Mpyangu!et!al.,!2014).!Furthermore!for!young!women,! early!pregnancy!is!a!major!driver!to!exiting!education!(MoES,!2012).!!
!
Stemming!the!flow!of!ESLs!has!taken!central!stand!in!recent!educational!policy.! In! a! joint! report! with! international! actors! the! government! recognises! the! importance! of! education! for! overcoming! marginalisation! and! (social)! exclusion! (Mpyangu! et! al.,! 2014),! ‘It# is# precisely# to# break# the# vicious# circle# of# poverty# and# social# exclusion# that# primary# education# was# made# a# public# responsibility’# (Mpyangu!et!al.,!2014,!p1).!The!report!goes!on!to!emphasise!the!need!for!further! research!analysing!the!inter?linkages!between!exclusion!and!high!dropout!rates.! The! National! Youth! Policy! (2001)! also! calls! for! attention! and! special! programmes! for! certain! groups! they! have! identified! as! having! particularly! vulnerable! cirumstances,! such! as! ESLs! and! female! urban! youth! (Ministry! of! Gender!Labour!and!Social!Development!(MGLSD),!2001).!
!
On!the!macro!side,!job!creation,!reinforcing!confidence!in!education,!expanding! opportunities! for! school! leavers,! and! reducing! family! poverty! are! part! of! the! wider! educational! retention! policies! (Mpyangu! et! al.,! 2014).! Additionally,! increasing! the! visibility! of! those! out! of! school! through! a! multistakeholder! approach! is! seen! as! an! imperative! for! educational! retention,! and! is! often! accompanied!by!a!tracking!system!(MoES,!2013).!Such!a!system!can!be!managed! through! identification! numbers! and! internal! systems! (MoES,! 2012),! or! alternatively,!tracking!can!be!achieved!via!community!mobilisation!and!support! structures!to!monitor!and!trace!ESLs!(Mpyangu!et!al.,!2014).!!
!
3.3.(Gender(Inequality(
!
Alongside! UPE! in! 1997,! was! the! release! of! the! National! Gender! Policy! (NGP).! Together!with!its!revision!in!2007,!aimed!to!establish!the!Ugandan!government’s! ‘commitment# to# take# actions# that# will# bring# about# more# equal# gender# relations’# (MGLSD,! 2007,! p! iv).! Running! until! 2017! the! NGP! (2007)! acts! to! mainstream! gender! in! Uganda,! while! also! outlining! policy! for! non?state! actors! to! address! gender! inequalities! through! their! mandates! (MoES,! 2013).! The! NGP! (2007)! prioritised!a!range!of!gender!policies!around!livelihoods,!rights,!governance!and! macro?economics#(MGLSD,!2007).!Importantly!for!this!study!are!policies!aimed! at!addressing!sociocultural!discrimination,!gender?based!violence,!high!maternal! mortality,! high! levels! of! fertility,! and! limited! participation! in! leadership! and! decision?making!(MGLSD,!2007).!
!
While! the! NGP! (2007)! framework! supports! gender! advocates! in! accessing! economic!and!social!opportunities,!there!remains!a!large!gap!between!the!legal! framework! and! implementation! of! gender! rights! (United! Nations! Development! Department! (UNDP),! 2013).! The! framework! also! has! limited! operational! capacities! and! as! such,! gender! gaps! are! still! prominent.! Discriminatory! family! norms!heighten!the!prevalence!early!marriage!with!37%!of!women!in!Kampala! being! married! before! 18! (Organisation! for! Economic! Co?operation! and! Development!(OECD),!2015).!Furthermore,!gendered!family!roles!result!in!girls! performing! more! housework! than! boys,! and! half! of! Uganda! women! reporting! domestic! violence! (OECD,! 2015).! Women! also! claim! only! one! third! of! the! total! land! ownership,! and! have! less! access! to! the! justice! system! (OECD,! 2015).! The! latter!of!which!compounds!issues!of!poor!social!protection!in!the!workplace,!as! informal! employment! exposes! women! to! vulnerability,! poverty! and! sexual! exploitation!(UNDP,!2013).!
!
In! 2000,! to! curb! existing! gender! disparities! within! education,! the! government! released! the! National! Strategy! for! Girls! Education! in! Uganda! (NSGEU)! (MoES,! 2015).! The! revised! strategy! (NSGEU,! 2014)! addresses! the! barriers! to! girls’! full! educational! participation! through! school! environment,! sociocultural,! political! and! economic! factors! (MoES,! 2013).! The! strategy! recognises! creative! partnerships! with! the! private! sector! to! identify! mechanisms! that! hinder! education!and!also!expose!girls!to!vulnerability!and!abuse.!However!to!date,!such! gendered! educational! disparities! still! exist.! In! 2010,! 14.3%! more! men! than!
women!have!some!form!of!education,!4.5%!more!have!completed!primary!school! and!7.2%!more!have!attended!secondary!school!(UBOS,!2013).! ! 3.4.(Early(Pregnancy( ! Due!to!inadequate!contraceptive!agency!and!early!marriage,!early!pregnancy!is! commonplace! in! Uganda! and! is! an! often?cited! reason! for! leaving! school.! More! than! half! of! the! pregnancies! within! Uganda! are! unintended,! equating! to! 1.2million! births! in! 2008! (Guttmacher! Institute,! 2013).! The! negative! cultural! stigma!of!young!pregnancy,!and!inadequate!resources!to!raise!a!child,!result!in! one! third! of! unintended! pregnancies! being! terminated! (Guttmacher! Institute,! 2013).!
!
Early! pregnancy! is! viewed! as! a! major! barrier! to! education! by! the! MoES.! The! NSGEU! (2014)! aimed! to! promote! sexual! reproductive! health! through! public! messages! such! as! ‘Sexual# Reproductive# Health# is# your# right,# Be# proud# of# your# Virginity,# it# is# a# virtue’# (MoES,! 2013).! ! However,! in! their! assessment! the! MoES! identifies!early!pregnancy!as!an!on!going!issue,!with!24%!of!teenagers!aged!15? 19!becoming!pregnant!in!2011!(MoES,!2013).!The!NSGEU!(2014)!also!recognised! the! importance! of! gendered! social! relational! movement! in! young! women’s! developmental! agency.! Self?esteem,! confidence! and! decision?making! are! recognised! as! to! their! importance! in! shaping! life! outcomes! in! girls! from! disadvantaged! positions! (MoES,! 2013).! Furthermore,! social! and! behavioural! competencies! such! as! communication! and! sharing! experiences! with! others! are! presented! for! their! capacity! to! empower! girls! and! change! behaviours! towards! avoiding! early! pregnancy! (MoES,! 2013).! The! WHO! (2011)! has! also! suggested! such!social!relations!with!others!to!improve!reproductive!decision?making.! !
While!recognised!as!important,!there!remain!no!direct!or!comprehensive!policies! towards!life!skills!development!in!girls’!education!(MoES,!2015).!The!deficiencies! are!attributed!to!cultural!stigma!surrounding!skills!education!(MoES,!2015),!such! is! the! discrimination! many! ESLs! face! when! engaging! in! extra! curricula! skills! trainings!(Tukundane!et!al.,!2014).!Cultural!norms!present!further!social!barriers! to! young! women’s! skills! development! due! to! the! attitude! that! education! is! primarily! for! males! (MoE,! 2015).! The! NSGEU! aims! to! tackle! wider! stigma! associated! with! unequal! contraceptive! agency! and! skills! training! through! cultural!sensitisation.!Such!policies!target!parents,!aiming!to!sensitise!as!to!the! importance! of! keeping! girls! in! school,! pregnancy,! and! early! marriage! (MoES,! 2012;!Mpyangu!et!al.,!2014)!
!
3.5.(Poverty(Eradication(
!
The! Ugandan! government! has! a! strategy! for! poverty! eradication! lasting! until! 2025,!the!Poverty!Eradication!Action!Plan!(PEAP)!(Ministry!of!Finance,!Planning! and! Economic! Development! (MoFPED),! 2000).! Principally,! the! plan! focuses! on! achievements! via! partnerships! with! donors,! NGOs,! private! actors! and! civil!
society.!The!public!sector!is!to!provide!the!shortfall!in!poor!market!functionality! with!policies!closely!related!to!the!government’s!own!(MoFPED,!2000).!!
!
Structurally!the!framework!has!four!central!pillars,!to!enhance!economic!growth,! ensure! good! governance! and! security,! and! directly! increase! poor! people’s! income,!and!their!quality!of!life.!The!PEAP!highlights!particularly!disadvantaged! groups!as!the!elderly,!disabled,!and!orphans!and!vulnerable!children!(MoFPED,! 2000),!due!to!14%!of!Ugandan!children!under!18!having!lost!at!least!one!parent! (International! Monetary! Fund! (IMF),! 2005).! The! plan! extends! vulnerable! children! to! street! children,! those! abandoned! or! suffering! from! abuse! at! home! (IMF),!the!plan!makes!no!reference!to!ESLs!as!a!vulnerable!group.!
!
The!PEAP!aims!to!increase!poor!people’s!income!with!a!heavy!focus!on!inflating! the! agricultural! sector.! Furthermore,! supporting! the! informal! sector! with! increased!vocational!training!and!self?employment!through!micro?finance!access! (MoFPED,! 2000).! In! terms! of! human! development,! multisector! collaborated! health!outcomes!are!targeted,!with!a!focus!on!family!planning!and!contraceptive! use!(MoFPED,!2000).!Additionally,!the!plan!targets!expenditure!on!adult!literacy! and!educational!quality,!given!the!enrolment!surge!following!the!UPE.!Resources! are! more! available! for! this! focus! in! the! medium! term! as! school! leaving! rates! lessen!the!financial!burden!on!primary!education!(IMF,!2005).!!
!
The!plan!recognises!women!as!subordinate!across!a!number!of!power!structures,! and! that! tackling! them! involves! awareness! raising! of! the! issues.! Of! particular! importance!are!households!headed!by!women,!who!are!particularly!vulnerable! to!impoverishment!(IMF,!2005).! ! In!terms!of!monitoring,!the!plan!has!been!unsuccessful!in!reducing!inequality.!In! 2000!the!Gini!coefficient!was!0.39!(IMF,!2005),!since!the!plans!inception!this!has! risen!to!0.44!(World!Bank,!2013).!Considering!self?esteem!and!confidence!to!be! components! of! empowerment! (MoFPED,! 2000),! governmental! policies! to! improve! these! have! proven! difficult! to! measure! (IMF,! 2005).! Furthermore,! gender! inequalities! are! still! prevalent,! the! urban! female! unemployment! rate! is! over! double! that! of! men! at! 12%! (UBOS,! 2013).! Additionally,! women! have! unequal! ownership! of! assets,! reduced! power! in! relationships,! less! control! of! contraceptive! use,! higher! prevalence! of! HIV/AIDS! and! participate! less! in! the! labour! market! while! still! being! overburdened! due! to! domestic! pressure! (IMF,! 2005).!
!
3.6.(Kawempe(Context(
!
Little!research!has!focused!primarily!in!the!Kawempe!division!of!Kampala.!In!a! government! report! of! the! slum! area,! issues! of! housing! and! water! access! are! prevalent,!with!most!of!the!water!being!unsafe!for!consumption!(Ask!Your!Gov! Uganda,!2014).!Health!is!also!a!concern!as!the!locality!has!insufficient!sanitary! provisions,! and! no! organised! garbage! collection.! Many! families! in! Kawempe! struggle!to!access!education!due!to!the!cost!of!schooling,!an!issue!compounded!
by!inadequate!access!to!economic!opportunity,!with!the!majority!of!the!division’s! labour!force!falling!in!the!informal!sector!(Ask!Your!Gov!Uganda,!2014).! ! 3.7.(Summary( ! Uganda!has!some!of!the!highest!rates!of!ESLg!in!East!Africa,!disproportionately! affecting! young! women! and! exposing! them! to! vulnerability! and! exploitation.! With! education! a! high! priority! for! equality! and! poverty! eradication,! policies! to! date!have!focused!on!educational!retention,!which!for!young!girls!translates!as!a! focus! on! reproductive! agency! to! prevent! early! pregnancy.! The! NSGEU! aims! to! achieve!this!via!improving!life!and!social!skills,!with!self?esteem!and!confidence! taking!a!central!role!in!girl’s!empowerment!(MoFPED,!2000).!
!
Despites!the!observed!link!between!ESLg!and!exclusion!in!government!reports,! there! is! a! deficiency! in! policies! aimed! towards! enhancing! ESLs! social,! cultural,! political,!and!economic!inclusion!should!returning!to!education!not!be!possible.! !
4.(Methodology(and(Methods(
4.1.(Introduction(
This! chapter! begins! by! outlining! the! research! questions! and! location! before! establishing!the!epistemological!lens!through!which!to!view!the!unit!of!analysis.! The!employed!methodology!and!methods!will!then!be!defined!before!discussing! the!research’s!potential!ethical!consideration,!limitations!and!scope.! 4.2.(Research(Questions( / Main!Question! !
What! role! do! young! women’s! social! networks! play! in! their! experience! of! (in)exclusion!as!a!result!of!early!school!leaving?! ! Sub!Questions! ! 1. What!are!the!main!drivers!behind!early!school!leaving!for!young!women?!! 2. How!do!women!who!left!school!early!experience!exclusion?! a. How!are!the!main!drivers!experienced?! b. How!do!the!exclusionary!drivers!influence!self?exclusion?! c. What!inclusionary!strategies!are!utilised!by!young!women?! 3. How!does!early!school!leaving!influence!early!pregnancy?!
a. How! do! pregnant! early! school! leaving! young! women! experience! exclusion?!!
i. How!are!the!drivers!experienced?!! ii. How!are!social!networks!affected?!!
b. How! does! early! school! leaving! and! exclusion! influence! early! pregnancy?!!
4. What! is! the! relationship! between! social! networks,! early! school! leaving! and!(in)exclusion?!
a. How!does!early!school!leaving!affect!social!networks?!
b. How! can! young! early! school! leaving! women! leverage! new! networks!to!overcome!exclusion?!
4.3.(Research(Location(
!
This!research!takes!place!in!the!northern!division!of!Uganda’s!capital,!Kampala.! Uganda! has! a! one! of! the! youngest! populations! in! Africa,! with! 20.1! of! its! 36.6! million!people!being!aged!under!18.!With!relevance!to!this!study,!29%!of!those! are!women!ages!15?30!(UBOS,!2016).!
! !
!
North!of!the!city!capital!city!Kampala!lays!one!its!five!divisions,!Kawempe,!with!a! population! of! around! 300,000.! Outlined! in! red! above! are! the! informal! ‘slum’! settlements!of!Kawempe,!the!research!focused!in!three!of!these,!Bwaise!I,!Bwaise! II!and!Kanyanya.!!
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‘As# a# result# of# their# location,# residents# of# the# slums# in# Kawempe# must# cope# with# natural#location#hazards#like;#floods,#garbage#dumps,#busy#roads,#power#lines,#open# drains,#water#bodies,#sinking#soil#and#industrial#hazards.#They#must#also#cope#with# evictions,#crime,#and#community#violence’!(Ask!Your!Gov!Uganda,!2014,!p5)! ! 4.4.(Epistemology(and(Unit(of(Analysis( ! This!research!recognises!that!the!social!world!is!an!agent?constructed!reality!in!a! continuous!state!of!reflexive!reconstruction!(Creswell,!2009),!and!as!such!takes!a! constructivist!approach!to!its!epistemology.! !
The! foundational! assumption! of! the! constructivist! approach! is! that! individuals! derive! meaning! about! the! objects! around! them.! Critically! for! this! study,! these! meanings! come! forth! through! the! interaction! with! other! humans.! This! worldview!facilitates!an!understanding!of!social!action!through!contextual!cause! and!effects!(Weber,!1947;!cited!in!Bryman,!2008).!
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Reframing! issues! from! a! constructivist! worldview! can! have! important! implications! for! understanding! social! realities! that! are! hidden! behind! positive! perspectives! (Bryman,! 2008).! Recognising! the! constructed! reality! of! social! networks! enables! connections! to! be! understood! as! to! their! meaning! and! subjective!value!(Bryman,!2008).!!
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An! important! strength! of! the! constructivist! worldview! is! to! recognise! the! influence!of!the!researcher!(Creswell,!2009).!In!obtaining!data!and!analysing!the!
