Programmes on the Dutch Public Broadcasting Television Channels
a content analysis on the portrayals of ethnic minorities in national and regional news programmesVincent Jagers (10458816)
Master’s Thesis - Entertainment Communication
Master’s programme of Communication Science - Graduate School of Communication Supervisor: dr. J.M.F. (Annemarie) van Oosten
Abstract
The present study investigates the representations of ethnic minorities in four Dutch public
television broadcasted news programmes. Three of these news programmes were broadcasted by regional public broadcasters (‘AT5’, ‘Omroep Brabant’, ‘RTV Oost’) and one by the national public
broadcaster (‘NPO’). This study focuses on public broadcasting television channels since they are
obliged by the ‘Media Act of 2008’ (‘Mediawet 2008’) and by the concession policies made by the
broadcasters themselves to uphold their societal responsibility and provide a fair, pluriform, well-balanced representation of the Dutch population and society as a whole. A content analysis was
conducted on a total of 48 news broadcasts and it was found that there is a skewed representation of
ethnic minorities compared to the ethnic majorities in the programmes of all four Dutch public
broadcasters. The amount of ethnic minorities found in this study is not relatively equivalent to the societal composition of certain provinces and the Netherlands as a whole. Secondly, a significant
moderate association was found between ethnic minorities in the news and minority-related topics
in one of the regional public broadcasters.
Keywords: public broadcaster, content analysis, ethnic minorities, representation, Netherlands
Introduction
During the 20th century, television has evolved into an indispensable mass medium, viewed by
billions of people globally. In the midst of emerging popular new media channels and technologies the television regains its popularity. The media has a powerful influence on how people perceive the
world around them. But with great power comes great responsibility. In the Netherlands, the Dutch
Public Broadcasting System is partially responsible for the content being displayed on the television
screens in people’s homes. With the current societal debates on immigration and the ongoing so-called ‘zwartepietendiscussie’ it is important to assess how the Dutch Public Broadcasting channels
manage their responsibility to represent today’s society accurately in terms of presenting all
different cultural and ethnical groups that live in this country.
This study aims to investigate the representations of ethnic minorities in the content of news television programmes that are being broadcasted on the Dutch public broadcasting system on both
a national and a regional level to see how the public broadcasters handle their responsibility to
mirror today’s society.
According to the ‘Media Act of 2008’ all public broadcasting companies are obliged to fulfil public values by meeting the democratic, social and cultural needs of the Dutch society by
providing well-balanced, pluriform, and varied content that mirrors the population and its diversity
of convictions, views, and interests in a societal, cultural, and philosophical way (art. 2.1 lid 2
Mediawet 2008). Every five years the Dutch Foundation for Public Broadcasting (‘NPO’) provides strategies on how the NPO will fulfil its responsibility formulated in the ‘Concessiebeleidsplan
2016-2020’ (CBP). According to the CBP, the NPO not only wants to make contradictions between
representations and societal compositions transparent, but also wishes to contribute to bridging these contradictions by presenting content that is diverse to break down prejudices and stimulate
new forms of solidarity amongst the people (Nederlandse Publieke Omroep, 2015). The Regional
also created a concession policy plan in which they claim to aim to provide a representative
reflection of the inhabitants of the regions, including their social and geographical background
(Regionale Publieke Omroep, 2017). In 2010 the NPO stated that “in 5 years the representations of
women and immigrants on defining television broadcasting channels will be
improved” (Prestatieovereenkomst 2010-2015 als bedoeld in artikel 2.22 van de Mediawet 2008). However, their main goals weren’t fully achieved. According to the Commissary for the Media the NPO did marginally increase representations of immigrants on national public television in the five year period (Commissariaat voor de Media). However, the Commissary for the Media pleaded for even more representations of women and ethnic minorities.
The majority of research on the representations of ethnicity has been conducted abroad, i.e. in the context of commercials (Bartsch, Burnett, Diller & Rankin-Williams, 2000; Eisend, 2009;
Mastro & Stern, 2003; Stern & Mastro, 2004), sports (Angelini & Billings, 2010; Turner, 2013), fiction (Emons, Wester, & Scheepers, 2010; Lauzen, Dozier & Horan, 2008), and non-fiction
programmes (Segijn, Bartholomé, Pennekamp & Timmer, 2014; Dixon & Williams, 2015).
Most of these studies found that ethnic minorities and women are underrepresented, whilst
ethnic majorities and men are overrepresented on television, when compared to their respective
societal demographics composition (De Vuyst, Vertoont & Van Bauwel, 2016; Segijn et al., 2014;
Tukachinksy, Mastro & Yarchi, 2015). Moreover, studies have shown that ethnic minorities are
commonly associated with negative themes when represented in a television programme. Research from Great Britain and the United States both found that ethnic minorities were more likely to be
associated with crime in both fiction and non-fiction television programmes (Alia & Bull, 2005;
Downing & Husband, 2005; Entman, 1994; Harwood & Anderson, 2002).
It is important to note that both the systematic underrepresentation as well as the abundance of stereotypical representations of ethnic groups in the media have detrimental effects on the
Block, & Lickel, 2015).
This study delimits itself to televised news programmes broadcasted by the Dutch Public
Broadcasting channels and is conducted in the tradition of the cultivation theory. Media and communication theory posits that television is a primary contributor to people’s conceptions of
social reality which presents a cohesive and cumulative story over time, and that it should be
studied as a collective symbolic environment with an underlying formulaic structure (Gerbner,
1998). This study analyses the NPO’s most watched news-bulletin of 2018, being the ‘Acht Uur Journaal’ (Stichting Kijkonderzoek, 2018) and three news-bulletins of regional broadcasters being
‘AT5 Nieuws’ broadcasted by AT5, ‘Brabant Nieuws’ broadcasted by Omroep Brabant, and
’Overijssel Vandaag’ broadcasted by RTV Oost.
Previous content analyses have already analysed specific portrayals of gender, race, and
ethnicity in television news programmes. However, none of these studies have simultaneously
looked at regional public broadcasters. Consequently, this study addresses a clear knowledge gap
within literature.
More specifically, this study focuses on public television news instead of commercial news
because research has consistently shown that public television news is less sensationalist and
embody less tabloid characteristics than commercial news (Jacobs, Meeusen, & d’Haenens, 2016).
However, research shows that public local news programmes are more likely to be more sensational than public national news programmes (Heider, 2014; Kim & Lowrey, 2018; Lipschultz & Hilt,
2014).
Considering all of this information, this study aims to answer the following question:
RQ: To what extent is there a fair representation of ethnic minorities in news television programmes that are broadcasted on the Dutch Public Broadcasting television channels on a national and regional level?
Theoretical Framework
This section outlines the theoretical concepts, based on existing literature, providing a framework
on which the hypotheses for the empirical research are based.
Firstly, the definition and context of ethnic minorities in the Netherlands will be given,
followed by the concept of minority stereotypes. This study aims to not only focus on the
quantitative presentation of ethnic minorities, but also on the qualitative representation, for which
literature will be reviewed. Finally, the concept of minority and non-minority topics will be explained.
Ethnic minorities in the Netherlands
An ethnic minority is defined as “a group within a community which has different national or
cultural traditions from the main population” (Cambridge University Press, 2018). The problem with scientifically studying ethnic minorities is that every country has its own groups of minorities
and the numbers are continually changing. Therefore, it is harder to generalise certain findings
because they are less transmissible. However, that does not nullify the relevance of conducting
minority studies.
Statistics Netherlands (‘Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek’) collects statistical information
on the population and geographical backgrounds of the Dutch citizens. According to their statistics
the four most common non-Western ethnic minority groups are: Turkish, Moroccans, Antillean, and
Surinamese. Since the 1960s these minority groups immigrated to the Netherlands because of growing job opportunities and welfare opportunities provided by the Dutch government. These
post-colonial migrants and guest-workers were classified as members of an ‘ethnic minority’ based
on their country of birth and the country of birth of their parents (Guiraudon, Phalet & Wal, 2005). The Netherlands is the only country that takes the country of birth of their parents variable into the
used to describe people with at least one parent born abroad, and the term ‘autochtoon’ was used for
people whose parents were born in the Netherlands. However, these labels are outdated, mostly
because current migrants are different as regards country of origin and the reason for migration, so they can not longer be covered by these umbrella terms (Bovens, Bokhorst & Jennissen, 2017).
These outdated terms have been transformed into the categorisation ‘a person with a Dutch
background’ and ‘a person with a migration background’ (CBS, 2018).
In the future these new labels will also be outdated to classify an ethnic minority group, but this problem is not only apparent in the written literature. Studies on the representations of ethnic
minorities have had similar difficulties when coding ethnic minorities based on spoken word,
foreknowledge, and physical attributes. A general consensus on how to code ethnic minorities is
missing. Because of the scope of this specific research the choice was made to code all different non-Western ethnic minorities under the umbrella term ‘ethnic minority’. No distinction was made
between different backgrounds and origins, simply because these details remain unheard and
unwritten in news programmes. In order to conduct this study objectively an ethnic minority was
coded based upon physical characteristics and explicit mentioned verbal and written information (See: Appendix A).
Minority stereotypes
The degree of correct representations in the media are of great importance, because a lack of correct
representations can lead to (incorrect) stereotypes. Stereotypes are certain traits that are assigned to a social group, without taking individual differences within the social group into consideration.
Especially groups to which people don’t belong, are perceived as homogeneous (Mullen & Hu,
1989). Stereotypes can be formed through what people see and hear in the media (Babad, Birnbaum & Benne, 1983; Smith & Granados, 2009). Results shows that regular exposure to stereotypical
Northup, 2015). Apart from teaching the ethnic majority about ethnic minorities through correct
representations in the media, it is also important for ethnic minorities to recognise themselves on
certain broadcasting channels. There is a strong correlation between the amount of ethnic minorities recognising themselves on a channel and the amount of times they watch the channel (Pennekamp,
2011). Moreover, research on the receiving end of the ethnic minority public shows that portrayals
of ethnic minorities indicate that many images of ethnic minorities are negative, inaccurate, and
offensive. Further, their responses to this illustrates their concern about the impact of these images on how majority groups may perceive ethnic minorities overall (Adams-Bass, Bentley-Edwards, &
Stevenson, 2014)
This study also takes into consideration the qualitative perspective of the representations of
ethnic minorities in television news programmes. In other words, it was researched if ethnic
minorities were portrayed according to specific stereotypes. This is important because programmes
from the public broadcasting channels - especially news programmes - release a lot of content into
the public sphere. Every contributor within the content plays a part in telling a news story to the
public, as such they function as a representative of the public sphere (Gans, 2011). Therefore, it is important that ethnic minorities are correctly represented.
Quantitative representation
This study focuses solely on the medium television and is conducted in the tradition of the
cultivation theory. Long-term exposure to this medium would result in viewers perceiving that the “real” world is similar to the world that is depicted, even though the two may be widely divergent
(Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, Signorielli, & Shanahan, 2002). Since the emergence of digital media,
people are exposed to multiple influences of different media outlets, however, television keeps playing an important role in the construction of reality, since it has become a cultural artefact. This
as “realistic” is thought to have the strongest effect on viewers’ beliefs and cognitions (Potter, 1986,
1988). Stereotyping and misrepresentation, in realistic content, then, becomes a cause for concern.
Research on the representation of men, women and ethnicity in television programmes shows that the depictions of groups on television can contribute to the extent of recognisability of
groups, but it can also contribute to generalising, stereotypical ideas on certain groups in a society
(Pennekamp, 2011).
Yet a Dutch study has recently shown that ethnic minorities are underrepresented in local news programmes in the Hague (Schepens, 2018). Therefore, this study aims to test the following
hypotheses:
H1a: The amount of ethnic minorities portrayed in ‘Acht Uur Journaal’ of the NPO is relatively lower than the amount of ethnic minorities living in the Netherlands.
H1b: The amount of ethnic minorities portrayed in ‘AT5 Nieuws’ broadcasted by AT5 is relatively lower than the amount of ethnic minorities living in the Noord-Holland province.
H1c: The amount of ethnic minorities portrayed in ‘Overijssel Vandaag’ broadcasted by RTV Oost is relatively lower than the amount of ethnic minorities living in the Overijssel province.
H1d: The amount of ethnic minorities portrayed in ‘Brabant Nieuws’ broadcasted by Omroep Brabant is relatively lower than the amount of ethnic minorities living in the Noord-Brabant province.
Qualitative representation
Equally important is the way in which ethnic minorities are represented in these news programmes.
In the United States Mastro and Greenberg (2000) found that African Americans were portrayed in
found that Latinos have taken over this role (Monk-Turner, Heiserman, Johnson, Cotton, & Jackson,
2010). A study conducted on the occupational roles on primetime television in Belgium found that
ethnic minorities scored a lower average score for occupational status (Jacobs, Claes, & Hooghe, 2015). However, in the Netherlands there have been less studies on the portrayals of ethnic
minorities in news programmes. One study on gender roles in non-fiction public and commercial
television programmes concluded that there was no correct representation from the Dutch society.
Men were more likely to appear as an expert or in other positions of high regard in comparison to women (Koeman, Peeters, & D’Haenens, 2007). It is highly relevant to assess how exactly
television depicts ethnic minorities in terms of their socioeconomic position, as this is linked to
broader patterns of inequality and prejudice in society. Therefore, I argue that the roles of ethnic
minorities in television news programmes are in regard than the ethnic majority:
H2a: The professions of ethnic minorities portrayed in ‘Acht Uur Journaal’ of the NPO are lower in status than the professions of ethnic majorities.
H2b: The professions of ethnic minorities portrayed in ‘AT5 Nieuws’ of the AT5 are lower in status than the professions of ethnic majorities.
H2c: The professions of ethnic minorities portrayed in ‘Overijssel Vandaag’ of the RTV Oost are lower in status than the professions of ethnic majorities.
H2d: The professions of ethnic minorities portrayed in ‘Omroep Brabant’ of the Omroep Brabant are lower in status than the professions of ethnic majorities..
Based on accessible general information on television editors and producers of news, current
affairs, and talk show programmes, predominantly ethnic majorities and men make up most of the
work floor compositions in the Netherlands (Papaikonomou & Dijkman, 2018). This knowledge leads to a third exploratory hypothesis in which a comparison will be made between the NPO and
one regional public broadcaster; since it is more likely that there are more ethnic minorities working
for the NPO than for a smaller regional broadcaster. However, due to lack of general knowledge and
prior research, the third hypothesis was formulated:
H3: The professions of ethnic minorities portrayed in ‘AT5 Nieuws’ are lower in status than the professions of ethnic minorities portrayed in ‘Acht Uur Journaal’ of the NPO.
Minority topics
Apart from looking at the quantity of appearances and professions of the portrayed ethnic
minorities, it was also taken into account what topics were covered in the news segments. Previous research on gender roles and topics of discussion has found that female reporters in news broadcasts were more likely to talk about human interest and health-related sources, while men were more likely to present political stories (Desmond & Danilewicz, 2009). Other research found that black experts were mostly quoted in stories about black issues but rarely in stories about non-black issues (Entman, 1994; Entman & Rojeckie, 2010; Poindexter, Smith, & Heider, 2003) and minorities were less likely to speak on political topics (Segijn et al., 2014). This thesis argues that ethnic minorities are more prone to talk about minority-related topics and issues. A minority-related topic consists of a story revolving around people of colour or issues on ethnic minorities in the Netherlands. The opposite of a minority-related topic is a non-minority related topic. A non-minority related topic discusses any national story with no overt racial or ethnic context (Pritchard & Stonbely, 2007).
Based on frames of references, it’s difficult for predominantly white people to create
versatile perspectives on specific issues experienced by minorities. Research findings suggest that
diverse television news directors encourage more coverage of minority communities (White, 2018). This is why there will probably be little minority-related topics in the news. This knowledge
H4a: Ethnic minorities are more likely to be portrayed in news items that discuss minority-related topics.
Research shows that local news programmes are more likely to portray ethnic minorities in stories of crime than ethnic majorities (Lipschultz & Hilt, 2014). Therefore, the next hypothesis has been
formulated:
H4b: Ethnic minorities in regional news programmes are more likely to be portrayed in news items covering minority-related topics than ethnic minorities in national news programmes.
Method Research design
A content analysis was conducted on four television news programmes, all broadcasted on public
broadcasting channels. These programmes were (1) the national Dutch Public Broadcaster’s (NPO) ‘NOS Acht Uur Journaal’, (2) Amsterdam’s regional public broadcaster’s (AT5) ‘AT5 Nieuws’, (3)
Overijssel’s regional public broadcaster’s (RTV Oost) ‘Overijssel Vandaag’, (4) and North
Brabant’s regional public broadcaster’s (Omroep Brabant) ‘Brabant Nieuws’. A content analysis is a
research technique that is used to describe and systematically analyse the content of written, spoken, or pictorial communication (Berelson, 1952; Krippendorff, 1980; and Weber, 1990). It is often
broadly defined as "any technique for making inferences by objectively and systematically
identifying specified characteristics of messages" (Holsti, 1969). This technique was used to
discover potential existing patterns of minority representations within and in between these broadcasters. The overarching goal is to understand the role that these mass media outlets play in
Dutch society, and how societal attitudes could be shaped by the visibility of ethnic minorities in
Sample
For the content analysis, the archives that were used to gather the data were ‘NPO.nl’, ‘AT5.nl’,
’omroepbrabant.nl’, and ‘RTVoost.nl’. All analysed programmes generate daily news broadcasts. All programmes were aired in the year 2018, since this was the most recent full year to analyse
when this study was conducted. A stratified sampling technique was used to extract the eventual
sample. For each month an episode was randomly sampled. For every broadcaster the same dates
were used. The reason behind this being is that the topics in both programs on the same day are more or less the same which makes potential comparisons between the four programs more valid.
The eventual sample consisted of 48 news broadcasts, which consisted of half an hour each. For
each episode every individual in the form of a presenter, journalist, spokesperson, commentators,
and experts were coded. This resulted in a total of 681 units of analysis. Every individual was only coded once in each episode. See Appendix B for a complete list of all the episodes.
Variables in the codebook
A codebook capturing all the research variables was conducted. Up to eleven variables and
characteristics were coded per unit of analysis. Firstly, a unit was analysed to see whether or not it
was a member of an ethnic minority, based on cultural bound characteristics like clothing,
headscarfs, certain religious acts and external physical characteristics, like skin colour or facial
features, or the use of a non-western name, or whether someone’s heritage was explicitly announced by using words as: migrants, refugees, ethnic minorities, illegals, etc.. Or the ethnicity was
explicitly mentioned. Then the sex, profession, origin, nationality, and religion were analysed and
coded. During coding only explicit mentioned variables were included in the coding. Otherwise, certain variables were coded as ‘unknown’.
The next section of the codebook relates to the the topic of the news items. A distinction was
was determined if the focus of the story was on people of colour, or issues connecting to Dutch
ethnic minorities such as topics on Moroccans in the Netherlands. Non-minority topics are items
that covered issues of broad relevance with no overt racial or ethnic context (Pritchard & Stonbely, 2007). Only news items concerned and focused on national news were included into the sample.
Therefore, all news segments incorporating international relations were excluded.
Lastly, two variables concerning the content of the news item were analysed. A difference
was made between victims and perpetrators, since ethnic minorities have been found to be linked to news items concerning crime. Two variables were constructed to see whether or not an individual
was presented as a victim or a perpetrator of a certain crime. The exact operationalisation of all the
variables can be found in the Codebook (Appendix A).
Reliability
Before the data collection commenced, seven episodes of the in total 48 episodes were coded twice
by two different coders in order to calculate the inter-coder reliability. In these seven episodes there
were 127 units of analysis, which makes up 18,7% of the total units of analysis. The results of the inter-coder reliability tests are mentioned in Table 1. The inter-coder reliability tested for Cohen’s
Kappa and Krippendorff’s Alpha (α). The variables ‘ethnic minority, ‘profession’, ‘origin’, and
‘minority topic’ were all found almost perfectly reliable with values over .90 in the Krippendorff’s
Alpha test. And according to Cohen’s Kappa test all tested variables qualify as ‘almost perfect’ since they score a value of .8 and higher (Landis & Koch, 1977).
Table 1.
Inter-coder reliability
_____________________________________________________________________________
Strategy of analysis
Every single unit of analysis in this study contributes to the analysed news broadcasts. A unit was
coded when it commented spoken word in a news segment. Each unit was only coded once each
episode. This means that the newsreader was also coded once each episode. While each person was
coded individually, the coders managed to also code the topic of discussion. Every news segment was assigned to be a minority-related topic or to be a non-minority related topic. The initial focus of
the current study is to expose the visibility of ethnic minorities in the news programmes of the
public broadcasters by conducting a quantitative content analysis. Likewise, this study focuses also
on the occupational roles ethnic minorities play and professions they exercise in news broadcasts. In the following section a sequence of statistical testing provides results for the
predetermined hypotheses. These quantitative and qualitative results are followed by a more
thorough interpretation and conclusion.
Results Quantitative representation of ethnic minorities
The first findings from the data collection were compared to the official statistics of the Dutch
population, based on information retrieved from the Statistics Netherlands (CBS) as presented in Kappa Krippendorff’s Alpha
Ethnic minority 0,955 0,956
Profession 0,990 0,990
Origin 0,841 0,841
2017 (CBS, 2018). It was found that the representation of the ethnic majorities (‘Dutch Only’) was
relatively higher in the total sample than the population’s representation. According to these
findings, the ethnic majority makes up 88,8% of the total units of analysis from this study, while the ethnic majority of the Dutch population makes up 77,4%. Therefore, by comparing these
percentages, I conclude that ethnic majorities on the Dutch public broadcasting channels are well
over-represented by more than 10 percent. The ethnic minorities in the sample consists of 11,1%,
while they make up 22,6% in the Dutch population. I also conclude that ethnic minorities are underrepresented in the Dutch public media landscape.
The underrepresentation of ethnic minorities were found in every comparison of province
and regional public broadcaster. Therefore, the first hypotheses (H1a/H1b/H1c/H1d) can be
confirmed, and one can say that there is a discrepancy in the Netherlands between the prevalence of ethnic minorities in society and in the ‘Acht Uur Journaal’, ‘AT5 Nieuws’, ‘Brabant Nieuws’, and
‘Overijssel Vandaag’, when looking at the units of analysis (see: Appendix C).
Table 2.
Representation of ethnic minorities in the Netherlands Dutch population Units of Analysis ‘Acht Uur Journaal’
N Percentage N Percentage N Percentage
Dutch Only 13.218.754 77,4% 605 88,8% 165 90,7% Background other than Dutch - Western 1.689.030 9,9% - Non-Western 2.173.723 12,7% 76 11,1% 17 9,3% Total population 17.081,507 100% 681 100% 182 100%
________________________________________________________________________________ This study also tried to research whether the professions of ethnic minorities were portrayed
in the news programmes. And if so, do the professions ethnic minorities carry out have any
resemblance with the professions that ethnic majorities carry out? In order to research these next hypotheses the variable ‘profession’ had to be split up. The first group consisted of the ‘high status’
professions, which included the professions: ‘journalist’, ‘politician’, ‘jurist/lawyer’, ‘emergency
services’, ‘scientists’, and ‘expert/head of organization’. The ‘low status’ professions consisted of
‘caregivers’, ‘teaching staff’, ‘scholar/student’, ‘artist’, ‘retired’, ‘jobless’, and ‘other’. A significant association was found between ethnic minorities and the statuses of
professions in the ‘Acht Uur Journaal’ (N=182). A Chi-square test of independence for cross tabs
was conducted. The assumption of the Chi-square test was not violated. The association between
these variables was found to be statistically significant, Chi^2(1)=3.87, p<0.05. Based on the results, there is a weak association between being part of an ethnic minority and being part of a
low-status profession φc=.168, p<.05. These statistical results conclude that there is an association
between ethnic minorities and ethnic majorities and the status of their professions, however slightly,
as seen in Table 3. Therefore, theoretically the alternative hypothesis can be retained. However, taken the strength of the association into consideration, the hypothesis is not fully retained or
rejected, but supported with the findings.
Another significant difference was found in ‘AT5 Nieuws’ . The association between these
variables was found to be statistically significant, Chi^2(1)=3.96, p<0.05. Based on the results, there is a weak association between being part of an ethnic minority and being part of a low-status
profession φc=.187, p<.05. While performing the same tests for ‘Brabant Nieuws’ and ‘Overijssel
Vandaag’ the results came back insignificant and the assumptions of the Chi-square tests were
violated (see: Appendix C). In short, we can retain hypotheses H2a and H2b and reject H2c and H2d.
The third hypothesis wanted to find significant comparative findings between the
nationwide broadcasted ‘Acht Uur Journaal’ and the regional broadcaster ‘AT5 Nieuws’. However,
no statistically significant findings were found, Chi^2(1)=1.21, p>0.05. Although no assumptions were violated, the results came back insignificant. This is most probably due to the relatively small
sample size. The third hypothesis (H3) cannot be confirmed and has to be rejected.
Table 3. χ2
-test results comparing ethnic minorities and ethnic majorities on high and low profession status
________________________________________________________________________________ Notes. *p < ,05; **p < ,01; ***p < ,001.
The fourth hypothesis focuses on potential associations between ethnic minorities in the news and items covering a minority-related topic. The association between these variables was
found to be statistically significant, Chi^2(1)=32,03, p<0.001. As shown in Table 4, there is a
moderate association between being part of an ethnic minority and news items that cover
minority-related topics, φc=.412, p<0.001. Other Chi-square tests on the other two regional public broadcasters all came back insignificant. Also the test focusing on the national public news
High status profession (journalist, politician, emergency service
jurist, scientist, expert)
%
Low status profession (caregiver, teaching staff, scholar, artist,
retired, jobless, other) % Total Cramer’s V
‘Acht Uur Journaal’
Ethnic minority 4 2,9% 9 6,5% 13 .168*
Ethnic majority 74 53,6% 51 37% 125
programme came back insignificant. It has been partially proven that ethnic minorities are more
likely to be portrayed in minority-related topics in the news (H4a). Even though a moderate
association was found in ‘AT5 Nieuws’, there were no significant associations found by the other public broadcasters, so the hypothesis is partially rejected.
The final hypothesis on comparing ethnic minorities in regional news programmes to ethnic
minorities in national news programmes when controlling for minority-related topics has to be
rejected since there are no significant results for the nationwide broadcaster on minority topics.
Table 4.
χ2
-test results comparing ethnic minorities and ethnic majorities on minority-topics
________________________________________________________________________________ Notes. *p < ,05; **p < ,01; ***p < ,001.
Conclusion & Discussion
This study investigated the extent to which there is a fair representation of ethnic minorities in news television programmes broadcasted by the Dutch Public Broadcasting television channels on a
national and regional level. Based on the results of the content analysis, which focused on four
television news programmes, this study concluded that ethnic minorities are not fairly represented
in the televised news programmes of the public broadcasting channels. Three regional public broadcasters and one national public broadcaster were chosen to be part of this research.
The results of the quantitative content analysis have shown that the composition of ethnic Minority topic % Non-minority topic % Total Cramer’s V AT5 Nieuws
Ethnic minority 21 11,1% 22 11,6% 43 0,412***
Ethnic majority 15 7,9% 131 69,3% 146
minorities portrayed in the programmes ‘Acht Uur Journaal’, ‘AT5 Nieuws’, ‘Overijssel Vandaag’,
and ‘Brabant Nieuws’ do not coincide with the societal composition of the Netherlands. Differences
in percentages have shown that there is a discrepancy in the Netherlands between the appearances of ethnic minorities in society and ethnic minorities presented on the television screen. The same
results were found on a regional level. Comparisons were made between the amount of appearances
of ethnic minorities in regional news programmes and the official statistics provided by the
Statistics Netherlands. Therefore, the first set of hypotheses were retained. These findings concur with previous studies on the representations of ethnic minorities in non-fiction programmes in the
Netherlands (Segijn et al., 2014). This partial conclusion is quite alarming, yet it has been
recognised by the NPO, the RPO, and the Commissary for the Media and potential solutions have
already been included into the concession policy plans of the national and regional public broadcasting companies.
This study attempted to discover associations between the portrayals of ethnic minorities
and their professions. Two significant associations were found between ethnic minorities and the
status of a profession. In both the ‘Acht Uur Journaal’ and ‘AT5 Nieuws’ a weak association between these two variables coincided. However, due to the relative small sample size, this study
was unable to uncover stronger associations. Also, the distinction between a ‘high status profession’
and a ‘low status profession’ was not as concise as it could have been, due to a lack of prior
conducted research. Although the hypothesis was partially rejected, further research will be needed to discover more generalisable conclusions.
This thesis wished to bridge a knowledge gap within the literature on representations of
ethnic minorities on news broadcasts by establishing potential similarities and differences between national public broadcasters and regional public broadcasters. However, no significant statistical
findings were found, which resulted into rejecting the third hypothesis (H3). Once again, a small
Statistically testing the fourth hypothesis found a moderate association between ethnic
minorities and news items that covered minority-related topics. This finding partially indicates that
ethnic minorities are more likely to appear on the television screen if the news item covers minority-related topics. However, this was only found in ‘AT5 Nieuws’, and not in the other two
public broadcasters or in the national public broadcaster. But nevertheless the moderate association
between the two variables should spark some debate and inspiration for further research. There
were no significant results when comparing these findings from ‘AT5 Nieuws’ to the nationwide ‘Acht Uur Journaal’.
This study positioned itself in the scientific field of entertainment communication science
and minority studies. Key findings are that ethnic minorities are still underrepresented in daily
Dutch televised news programmes. There should also be further research on the way certain stereotypes and identities are constructed through the media and by the media.
The external validity of this research is quite low. Firstly, this has to do with the small
sample size of only 681 units of analysis from which 76 were classified as an ethnic minority.
Furthermore, this study only researched four public television news programmes broadcasted on Dutch television. There are nine other regional public broadcasters in the Netherlands that broadcast
their own regional news items, and there are also two other national public broadcasting channels
that broadcast news and current affairs programmes. Also, this study excluded commercial
broadcasters since they are not obliged to broadcast by the rules of the ‘Mediawet 2008’. Further research might be focused on comparing public broadcasters with commercial broadcasting
companies. In short, the results can not be generalised for the NPO, AT5, Omroep Brabant, and
RTV Oost due to the small sample size and low transferability.
Moreover, due to the low amount of ethnic minorities in this sample it was quite impossible
to establish similarities and disparities. Further research should be conducted to examine if some
Whilst stereotypes and portrayals still exist in modern day society, media literacy has arisen
in the world of education and public awareness. Media literacy has been defined as “the ability to
access, analyze, evaluate and communicate messages in a variety of forms” (Aufderheide, 1993), and the goal of encouraging critical thinking regarding media content and practices has been closely
associated with media literacy education (Martens, 2010; Scharrer, 2007; Silverblatt, 2008). Media
literacy education holds great promise for its ability to shape media-related knowledge, attitudes,
and behaviours and encourage an active and critical stance toward media (Scharrer & Ramasubramanian, 2015). However, media literacy should not demotivate the producers of
television content to create fair and equal representations for all ethnicities. It is of great importance
that studies similar to this research expose underlying mechanisms of how the media generates
portrayals of ethnic minorities.
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Appendices
Appendix A: Code book
Codebook Ethnic Minorities and Television News version 4, date: 8-11-2018
© Vincent Jagers
This codebook will be used to analyse national and regional news content broadcasted on the Dutch public broadcasting television channels, as a part of a master’s thesis entitled ‘The Representations of Ethnic Minorities in national and regional news on the Dutch Public Broadcasting Television Channels’. The codebook should be regarded as the instruction manual before coding as well as reference guide during the coding.
Programme
1. What is the name of the broadcaster/program? 1. NPO1 - Acht Uur Journaal
2. AT5 - AT5 Nieuws
3. Omroep Brabant - Brabant Nieuws 4. RTV Oost - Overijssel Vandaag
2. Date of airing DD.MM.YYYY
Actor
3. Is the person part of an ethnic minority? An ethnic minority can be identified based on: cultural bound characteristics like clothing, headscarf, certain religious acts/external physical characteristics like skin colour or facial features/the use of a non-western name/explicit
announcement on someone’s heritage by using words as: migrants, refugees, ethnic minorities, illegals, etc./the ethnicity is being mentioned/or when the coder has foreknowledge about this person.
1. Yes 2. No
4. What is the sex of the person? 1. Male
2. Female 3. Unknown
5. What is the profession mentioned of the person? 1. Journalist 2. Politician/Policymaker 3. Jurist/Lawyer 4. Police/Firefighter 5. Scientist 6. Caregiver 7. Teaching staff 8. Expert/Head of Organization 9. Scholar/Student 10. Artist 11. Retired 12. Jobless 13. Other
15. Profession not mentioned/You don’t know
6. Is a reference made to the origine of the person? Origin = original or current nationality, ethnicity, or race by mentioning the country of birth, nationality, region, cultural background, race or ethnicity. Which?
1. Dutch
2. Western background (European, American, Canadian; and Indonesian & Japanese) 3. Moroccan
4. Turk 5. Antillean 6. Surinamese
7. Non-Western background (Chinese, Indian, Nigerian, Brazilian, etc.) 8. Other
9. Unclear, belongs in various categories, e.g. North Africans. 10. Origin is not mentioned
7. Dutch nationality mentioned? If the Dutch nationality has been appointed to this person. E.g. when someone has a Moroccan origin but is mentioned as a Dutch citizen. Dutch citizens with non-Dutch origins might be mentioned only by their origin and not their non-Dutch nationality.
1. Yes 2. No
8. Religion mentioned? E.g. muslims, hindus, catholics. 1. Yes
2. No
Victim
9. Does the news item mention the person as a victim? A whether or not still living person who suffers or has suffered (directly or indirectly) psychologically, physically or mentally under violence, disaster, war or violation of universal human rights and is mentioned as such. 1. Yes
NOTE1: If the person is not mentioned as a victim move on to variable 11.
10. What was the person victim of? Code the most serious crime. 1. Victim of an accident or a natural disaster.
2. Victim of sexual assault or abuse.
3. Victim of physical violence (other than sexual violence; kidnapping included). 4. Victim of psychological abuse (e.g. stalking).
5. Victim of material/property violence (e.g. property getting destroyed, damaged, or stolen. 6. Victim of war.
7. Victim of racism. 8. Other.
11. Does the news item describe the person as a perpetrator? A whether or not still living person who exercises, has exercised, or has been accused of exercising (direct or indirect) psychologically, physically, or materially violence and is mentioned as such.
1. Yes 2. No
NOTE2: If the person is not mentioned as a perpetrator move on to variable 13.
12. What was the perpetrator accused of? 1. Perpetrator of sexual assault or abuse.
2. Perpetrator of physical violence (other than sexual violence; kidnapping included). 3. Perpetrator psychological abuse (e.g. stalking).
4. Perpetrator of material/property violence (e.g. destroying, damaging, or stealing). 5. War criminal.
6. Perpetrator of racism. 7. Other.
Topic of interest
13. Did the topic of interest revolve around a minority topic? A minority topic is a topic that’s concerned with everything related to ethnic minorities. A non-minority topic is basically any topic that doesn’t cover racial characteristics.
1. Yes 2. No
Appendix B: News programmes
NOS 1. 06.01.2018 https://www.npostart.nl/nos-journaal/06-01-2018/POW_03689829 2. 17.02.2018 https://www.npostart.nl/nos-journaal/17-02-2018/POW_03689499 3. 10.03.2018 https://www.npostart.nl/nos-journaal/10-03-2018/POW_03689502 4. 07.04.2018 https://www.npostart.nl/nos-journaal/07-04-2018/POW_03689506 5. 19.05.2018 https://www.npostart.nl/nos-journaal/19-05-2018/POW_03689512 6. 09.06.2018 https://www.npostart.nl/nos-journaal/09-06-2018/POW_03689515 7. 28.07.2018 https://www.npostart.nl/nos-journaal/28-07-2018/POW_03689522 8. 11.08.2018 https://www.npostart.nl/nos-journaal/11-08-2018/POW_03689524 9. 15.09.2018 https://www.npostart.nl/nos-journaal/15-09-2018/POW_03689529 10. 06.10.2018 https://www.npostart.nl/nos-journaal/06-10-2018/POW_03689532 11. 24.11.2018 https://www.npostart.nl/nos-journaal/24-11-2018/POW_03689539 12. 10.12.2018 https://www.npostart.nl/nos-journaal/10-12-2018/POW_03689793 AT5 13. 06.01.2018 https://www.at5.nl/gemist/tv/123/26355/-/30 14. 17.02.2018 https://www.at5.nl/gemist/tv/123/26471/-/32 15. 10.03.2018 https://www.at5.nl/gemist/tv/123/26535/-/30 16. 07.04.2018 https://www.at5.nl/gemist/tv/123/26608/-/25 17. 19.05.2018 https://www.at5.nl/gemist/tv/123/26722/-/23 18. 09.06.2018 https://www.at5.nl/gemist/tv/123/26773/-/23 19. 28.07.2018 https://www.at5.nl/gemist/tv/123/26905/-/17 20. 11.08.2018 https://www.at5.nl/gemist/tv/123/26933/-/16 21. 15.09.2018 https://www.at5.nl/gemist/tv/123/26999/-/10 22. 06.10.2018 https://www.at5.nl/gemist/tv/123/27050/-/5 23. 24.11.2018 https://www.at5.nl/gemist/tv/123/27183/-/2 24. 10.12.2018 https://www.at5.nl/gemist/tv/123/27220/-/3
RTV Oost 25. 06.01.2018 https://www.rtvoost.nl/tv/programma/63/Overijssel-Vandaag/aflevering/ 451499 26. 17.02.2018 https://www.rtvoost.nl/tv/programma/63/Overijssel-Vandaag/aflevering/ 458321 27. 10.03.2018 https://www.rtvoost.nl/tv/programma/63/Overijssel-Vandaag/aflevering/ 460639 28. 07.04.2018 https://www.rtvoost.nl/tv/programma/63/Overijssel-Vandaag/aflevering/ 465173 29. 18.05.2018 https://www.rtvoost.nl/tv/programma/63/Overijssel-Vandaag/aflevering/ 469471 30. 09.06.2018 https://www.rtvoost.nl/tv/programma/63/Overijssel-Vandaag/aflevering/ 471374 31. 28.07.2018 https://www.rtvoost.nl/tv/programma/63/Overijssel-Vandaag/aflevering/ 475150 32. 11.08.2018 https://www.rtvoost.nl/tv/programma/63/Overijssel-Vandaag/aflevering/ 476281 33. 14.09.2018 https://www.rtvoost.nl/tv/programma/63/Overijssel-Vandaag/aflevering/ 481836 34. 06.10.2018 https://www.rtvoost.nl/tv/programma/63/Overijssel-Vandaag/aflevering/ 483875 35. 24.11.2018 https://www.rtvoost.nl/tv/programma/63/Overijssel-Vandaag/aflevering/ 488981 36. 10.12.2018 https://www.rtvoost.nl/tv/programma/63/Overijssel-Vandaag/aflevering/ 490678 Omroep Brabant 37. 06.01.2018 https://www.omroepbrabant.nl/tv/programma/252/Brabant-Nieuws/ aflevering/2601842 38. 17.02.2018 https://www.omroepbrabant.nl/tv/programma/252/Brabant-Nieuws/ aflevering/2601848 39. 10.03.2018 https://www.omroepbrabant.nl/tv/programma/252/Brabant-Nieuws/ aflevering/2601851
40. 07.04.2018 https://www.omroepbrabant.nl/tv/programma/252/Brabant-Nieuws/ aflevering/2642821 41. 19.05.2018 https://www.omroepbrabant.nl/tv/programma/252/Brabant-Nieuws/ aflevering/2667012 42. 09.06.2018 https://www.omroepbrabant.nl/tv/programma/252/Brabant-Nieuws/ aflevering/2667015 43. 28.07.2018 https://www.omroepbrabant.nl/tv/programma/252/Brabant-Nieuws/ aflevering/2751774 44. 11.08.2018 https://www.omroepbrabant.nl/tv/programma/252/Brabant-Nieuws/ aflevering/2751776 45. 15.09.2018 https://www.omroepbrabant.nl/tv/programma/252/Brabant-Nieuws/ aflevering/2827001 46. 06.10.2018 https://www.omroepbrabant.nl/tv/programma/252/Brabant-Nieuws/ aflevering/2827004 47. 24.11.2018 https://www.omroepbrabant.nl/tv/programma/252/Brabant-Nieuws/ aflevering/2862135 48. 10.12.2018 https://www.omroepbrabant.nl/tv/programma/252/Brabant-Nieuws/ aflevering/2871877
Appendix C: Tables and Figures Table 2.2
Representation of ethnic minorities in North Holland North Holland
population
‘AT5 Nieuws’
N Percentage N Percentage
Dutch Only 1.931.825 68,2% 146 77,2%
Background other than Dutch
- Western 360.695
________________________________________________________________________________
Table 2.3
Representation of ethnic minorities in Overijssel
________________________________________________________________________________
Table 2.3
Representation of ethnic minorities in North Brabant
Total population 2.831.142 100% 189 100% Overijssel population ‘Overijssel Vandaag’ N Percentage N Percentage Dutch Only 975.745 84,7% 151 93,2%
Background other than Dutch - Western 80.421 - Non-Western 95.335 15,3% 9 6,8% Total population 1.151.501 100% 162 100% North Brabant population ‘Brabant Nieuws’ N Percentage N Percentage Dutch Only 2.054.369 84,7% 143 95,3%
________________________________________________________________________________
Table 3.2.
χ2
-test results comparing ethnic minorities and ethnic majorities on high and low profession status for ‘Brabant Nieuws’
________________________________________________________________________________ Notes. *p < ,05; **p < ,01; ***p < ,001.
Table 3.4.
χ2
-test results comparing ethnic minorities and ethnic majorities on high and low profession status for ‘Overijssel Vandaag’
Background other than Dutch
- Western 238.818
- Non-Western 235.099 15,3% 7 4,7%
Total population 2.528.286 100% 150 100%
High status profession (journalist, politician,
emergency service jurist, scientist,
expert)
%
Low status profession (caregiver, teaching staff, scholar, artist,
retired, jobless, other) % Total Cramer’s V
Brabant Nieuws
Ethnic minority 0 0% 2 2,5% 2 0,135
Ethnic majority 34 42% 45 55,6% 79
Total 34 47 81
High status profession % Low status profession % Total Cramer’s V Overijssel Vandaag
________________________________________________________________________________ Notes. *p < ,05; **p < ,01; ***p < ,001.
Table 3.5.
χ2
-test results comparing ethnic minorities and ethnic majorities on high and low profession status for ‘AT5 Nieuws’
________________________________________________________________________________ Notes. *p < ,05; **p < ,01; ***p < ,001.
Table 4.2.
χ2
-test results comparing ethnic minorities and ethnic majorities on minority-topics
________________________________________________________________________________ Notes. *p < ,05; **p < ,01; ***p < ,001.
Table 4.3.
Ethnic majority 47 38,5% 68 55,7% 115
Total 49 73 122
High status profession % Low status profession % Total Cramer’s V AT5 Nieuws
Ethnic minority 8 7,1% 17 15% 25 0,187*
Ethnic majority 48 42,5% 40 35,4% 88
Total 49 73 113
Minority topic % Non-minority topic % Total Cramer’s V Acht Uur Journaal
Ethnic minority 6 3,3% 11 6,0% 17 0,525
Ethnic majority 1 0,5% 164 90,1% 165
χ2
-test results comparing ethnic minorities and ethnic majorities on minority-topics
________________________________________________________________________________ Notes. *p < ,05; **p < ,01; ***p < ,001.
Table 5.
χ2
-test results comparing ethnic minorities and ethnic majorities on minority-topics
________________________________________________________________________________ Notes. *p < ,05; **p < ,01; ***p < ,001.
Minority topic % Non-minority topic % Total Cramer’s V Omroep Brabant
Ethnic minority 0 0% 7 4,7% 7 /
Ethnic majority 0 0% 143 95,3% 143
Total 0 150 150
Minority topic % Non-minority topic % Total Cramer’s V Overijssel Vandaag
Ethnic minority 1 0,6% 8 5,0% 9 325
Ethnic majority 0 0% 151 94,4% 151
