The journey of the dead
The re-analysis, interpretation and contextualization
of the burial rituals performed at Bronze Age Selenkahiye
Milou Roos (6036554)
Research master Archaeology
Supervised by Dr. E Smits
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Content
1. Introduction ……… 3 1.1 Defining the problem
1.2 Research questions 1.3 Methods
2. The burials of Selenkahiye ………. 8 2.1 The chronological sequence of the burials
2.2 The locations of the burials
2.2.1 The south-east slope of Selenkahiye 2.2.2 The northern part of Selenkahiye 2.2.3 The ‘isolated area’
2.2.4 The gate area
2.2.5 The central town area 2.2.6 The Old Canal Cut
2.2.7 The southern part of Selenkahiye
2.3 The burial types, forms of disposal and the number of individuals 2.4 Kind of burial: primary-, secondary- and subsequent burial 2.5 The orientation and position of the individuals
2.6 The grave goods, their amount and location within the burials 2.6.1 Pottery
2.6.2 Bronze, copper and lead objects 2.6.3 Objects made of silver
2.6.4 Stone objects
2.6.5 Shells and objects made of shell
3. Defining the different burial rituals ………21 3.1 Different location, different burial ritual?
3.2 Different burial type, different burial ritual?
3.3 Different burial rituals for men and women in different age categories? 3.3.1 Men and women in different age categories
3.3.2 Differences between men and women
3.4 Different burial rituals for adults and children (in different age categories)? 3.5 Conclusion
3.5.1 Burial ritual 1 3.5.2 Burial ritual 2
4. Interpreting the burial rituals ……….. 32 4.1 Rites of Passage
4.2 Interpreting the burial rituals
4.2.1 The afterlife in Mesopotamian thought 4.2.2 The burial rituals performed at Selenkahiye
4.2.2.1 Rites of separation 4.2.2.2 Rites of transition 4.2.2.3 Rites of incorporation
2 4.3 Limestone figurines and rites of passage
5. Selenkahiye within a broader context ……… 40
5.1 Tel Ahmar 5.2 Tel Dan 5.3 Tel Lachish 5.4 Gre Vīrīke 5.5 A comparison with the burial practice of Selenkahiye 5.5.1 Burial types 5.5.2 The locations of the burials 5.5.3 Form of deposition, kind of burial, position and orientation 5.5.4 Grave goods 5.5.5 Conclusion 6. Conclusion ………. 52 7. Bibliography ……….. 55 8. Figure references ……….. 57 9. Appendix ……….. 58 9.1 Appendix 1 – The Bronze Age burials from Selenkahiye
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1.
Introduction
In the 1960’ universities from all over the world were invited by the Syrian government to help excavate the rich archaeological lands on both side of the Euphrates at Tabqa (eth-Thawra). The Syrian government wanted to create a water reservoir in this part of the Euphrates, but knew that the land that would be flooded was of a high archaeological value. Syria did not have the manpower to rescue all the archaeological remains on its own, so they asked UNESCO to help recruit archaeological teams from all over the world to help with the rescue excavations.1
As a consequence the Bronze Age settlement of Tel Selenkahiye (2400 – 1900 BC) was excavated in 1967, 1972, 1974 and 1975.2 The first year of excavations was led by the University of
Chicago. The excavations of the subsequent years were carried out by the University of Amsterdam under supervision of Maurits van Loon. A final report on all excavations at Selenkahiye was published by Van Loon in 2001.
Tel Selenkahiye was an urban site surrounded by a town wall originated in the Bronze Age. The site was located on the edge of the steppe at the most westerly bend of the Euphrates River (see figure 1) in Mesopotamia. Selenkahiye is a ‘tel’, which is an artificial mound created by human occupation and the rebuilding of houses. The process of rebuilding mudbrick houses on the
1 Van Loon 2001, 1
2 Further in this thesis Selenkahiye will be used instead of Tel Selenkahiye
Figure 1: A map of the Levant with the location of Gre Vīrīke, Tel Ahmar,
4 remains of old houses together with the continuous disposal of trash within the settlement over many generations resulted in the gradual elevation of the site and the formation of a ‘tel’.3 In the
main occupation phase of the site (2400 – 1900 BC) the mainstays of the economy were
agriculture and herding. The presence of exotic objects (objects from silver, bronze and copper, ivory and shell objects, lapis lazuli and ostrich eggshell) suggest that there must have been some form of trade. Pottery was produced locally on a large scale. There was a standardized body of ceramics, the pots were wheel thrown and minimally decorated. The architecture found at Selenkahiye is for the largest part of a vernacular domestic nature. The houses were modest and built of mudbrick. One building has been found which deviates from the standard architecture of Selenkahiye. The ‘Mansion’ is built in an angle of the town wall, consists of two storeys and contains the largest concentration of ‘tradable’ objects in the settlement. No temples or buildings connected to religion have been found at Selenkahiye.4
1.1 Defining the problem
In the final report the skeletons found at Selenkahiye were not published due to the lack of available research funds and the bad condition of the bones.5 In addition only some general and
impressionistic remarks have been made about the burial ritual at Selenkahiye. According to Van Loon and Meijer a comprehensive approach to the burial practice at Selenkahiye is not possible, due to differences in recovery procedures and variability in the data set. Not everything has been excavated, areas were chosen subjectively and some areas were excavated much deeper than others. Because of this the excavated burials are not representative for the society, nor were they excavated for this purpose.6 In addition the number of burials that has been identified is not
representative for the thousand to two thousand people that lived in Selenkahiye at any time. Even when the number of burials found during the excavations are doubled or tripled, the number is still not representative for the entire society that once lived in the settlement.7
Consequently there must have been a burial ritual or rituals of which no traces are visible at this point.
Despite of the statement of Van Loon and Meijer and the remarks made above, this thesis will re-evaluate the burial rituals performed at Selenkahiye and study them within a broader context. Notwithstanding the fact that the excavated burials are not representative, they
3 Akkermans and Schwartz 2003, 7 4 Based on Van Loon 2001
5 Van Loon 2001, 567 6 Idem 2001, 218 7 Ibidem, 219
5 nevertheless represent burial rituals performed by the people from Selenkahiye. In addition more information is now available. An osteological investigation of some of the skeletons from
Selenkahiye has been carried out by the author as preliminary research for this thesis. The osteological information of nineteen individuals could be linked to burials analyzed in this thesis. Together with some of the osteological information mentioned in the final report the burial rituals at Selenkahiye can be re-analyzed from a more osteological supported point of view. However there are limitations. The pathologies found on the nineteen individuals have been studied in the osteological investigation but will not be further discussed here. It is not possible to carry out an epidemiological investigation at population level because of the small sample of individuals studied in the osteological investigation.
1.2 Research questions
The challenge for this thesis will be to surpass the general and impressionistic remarks made about the burial rituals at Selenkahiye in the final report by Van Loon and Meijer. To achieve this the burials in Selenkahiye will be re-analyzed, the identified burial rituals will be interpreted and the burial practice in general will be placed within a broader context by comparing it with burial practices from other Bronze Age settlements in the Levant. By interpreting the burial rituals and comparing the burial practice of Selenkahiye within a broader context a clearer image is formed, which surpasses the general remarks made in the final report. The following research questions have been drawn up to summarize the ideas that will be carried out in this thesis:
1. Which burial rituals can be identified from the re-analysis of the burials from Selenkahiye?
2. Using the theory of ‘Rites of Passage’ which meanings can be appointed to the burial rituals?
3. How does the general burial practice at Selenkahiye relate to the burial practices of Tel Dan, Tel Lachish, Tel Ahmar and Gre Vīrīke? And what does this say about the broader context of Selenkahiye?
Because ‘burial ritual’ and ‘burial practice’ are the key concepts of this study it is important to know what is meant by these two concepts and the difference between them. The concept of burial ritual used in this thesis has the following meaning: a burial ritual is the set of all physical properties of a burial. These properties are the result of acts performed by the living to dispose of the dead. More acts of the living may have played a role in the disposal of the dead. However,
6 these acts cannot be reconstructed because they do not leave physical traces. On the other hand the burial practice of a settlement is the sum of all burial rituals performed at one site.
Consequently the burial practice is a general overview of all the different burial elements found at a settlement.8
1.3 Methods
The re-analysis of the burials at Selenkahiye to identify various burial rituals will be approached in the following way. First the burials at Selenkahiye will be introduced and the various elements of the burials will be discussed to get a general overview of the burial practice. The elements that will be considered are the chronological sequence of the burials, the different locations of the burials within and outside of the settlement, the burial types, the forms of disposal, the number of individuals interred in the burials, the kind of burial (primary-, secondary and subsequent burial), the orientation of the individuals within the burials, the position of the individuals, the various kinds of grave goods, the amount of grave goods, and the location of the types of grave goods within the burials.
After this the burials will be re-analyzed to identify the different burial rituals performed at Selenkahiye. As a reference each burial used in the re-analysis is summarized in appendix 1.9 Some
of the elements described above (burial type, orientation, position, amount of grave goods and type of grave goods) will be analyzed according to the different archaeological contexts of the burials (meaning the location of the burial within Selenkahiye and the different burial types), men and women in different age categories, children in different age categories and the difference between adults and children. Considering the differences in burial elements between the above mentioned groups different patterns emerge which might indicate different burial rituals.
Subsequently the different elements of the identified burial rituals will be interpreted using the theory of ‘Rites of passage’. There are a lot of theories that explain why people bury their dead in a certain way. From the 1960’ onwards theories based on ethnographic accounts of mortuary practices were developed, which were also used to explain archaeological remains.10
One of the pioneers is Van Gennep who has developed a theory on liminality, transition and the importance of burial rituals in the organization of the society of the living.11 The theory of ‘Rites of
Passage’ by Van Gennep will be used here because of its universal character and its ability to reveal different stages within a burial ritual. In addition a proposal will be presented for the
8 The concepts of ‘burial ritual’ and ‘burial practice’ defined here are specially constructed for this study. 9 The Roman and later graves will not be incorporated in the re-analyses of the burial ritual at Selenkahiye. 10 Parker Pearson 1999, 21 – 22
7 possible meaning of the limestone figurines found within the burials of Selenkahiye, in connection to the theory of Van Gennep.
The final step is to compare the burial practice of Selenkahiye within the broader context of the Levant. The comparison will be carried out on the general scale of the burial practice because the comparison of all the individual burial rituals will take too much space and time. The burials from Selenkahiye date from the transition between the Early Bronze Age and the Middle Bronze Age (2400 – 2000 BC).12 Four case studies have been selected to compare with the burial
practice of Selenkahiye. No sites could be found which dated from the transition between the Early Bronze Age and the Middle Bronze age. It was therefore decided to use two case studies with burials from the Early Bronze Age and two case studies with burials from the Middle Bronze Age. The sites chosen are Tel Dan, Tel Lachish, Tel Ahmar and Gre Vīrīke (see figure 1). Many sites could have been chosen to compare with Selenkahiye. These case studies have been selected because of their availability and the fact that they all address the same elements as described in this thesis.
Tel Dan is situated in the outermost part of Israel, at the major source of the Jordan River. Several different burial types from the Middle Bronze Age have been found at Tel Dan.13 Tel
Lachish lies in the middle of Israel near to the Palestinian territory. At Tel Lachish burials from the Middle Bronze Age have been found at several locations, including a cemetery to the east of the city.14 Tel Ahmar is just like Selenkahiye situated on the banks of the river Euphrates in northern
Syria. At Ahmar burials and tombs from the Early Bronze Age have been found.15 The last case
study is Gre Vīrīke, this site is situated along the Euphrates River in southern Turkey. At this site a ritual complex, tombs and burials from the Early Bronze Age have been found.16 The burial
practice at each site will first be described after which they will be compared with the burial practice of Selenkahiye. 12 Van Loon 2001, 192 13 Ilan 1995, 171 14 Singer-Avitz 2005, 971 15 Sang 2010, 52 16 Ökse 2006, 1
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2.
The burials of Selenkahiye
About sixty-eight burials from the transition between the Early Bronze Age and the Middle Bronze Age (2400 – 2000) have been excavated and recorded at Selenkahiye (see appendix 1 and figure 2). More burials have been found but they were either unexcavated or too fragmentary for recording.17 No comprehensive data could be retrieved from these burials and they will therefore
not be discussed in this thesis.
In the next part the following elements of the burials will be discussed to get a general overview of the burial practice at Selenkahiye. The chronological sequence of the burials, the different locations, the two common burial types, the form of disposal, the number of individuals interred in the burials, the kind of burial (primary-, secondary and subsequent burial), the orientation of the individuals within the burials, the position of the individuals within the burials, the various
17 Van Loon 2001, 192
Figure 2: The location and number of excavated burials per excavated square or
area. The location of area A on the map is based on a description (van Loon 2001, 127) and may differ from the real location.
9 kinds of grave goods, the amount of grave goods, and the location of the grave goods in the burials will be addressed.
2.1 The chronological sequence of the burials
The chronological sequence of the excavated burials is not always clear. Not all burials could be properly dated based on the pottery in the burial or the stratigraphy of the layers in which the burial was situated. Only a few burials can be appointed to specific time periods. Below a chronological overview.18
Date Burials
2600 – 2300 BC (Early dynasty III) WRD Tb III WRD Tb II WRD Tb D WRD Tb E WRD Tb F WRD Tb G WRD Tb H WRD Tb M 2400 – 2250 BC (Early Selenkahiye) OCC Tb III
The burials in square Q26 2300 – 2150 BC (Akkadian Period) R26 Tb I V24 Tb I V24 Tb II V25 Tb I WRD Tb C WRD Tb I WRD Tb J 2250 – 2000 BC (Late Selenkahiye) W13 Tb I W13 Tb II
Table 1: The chronological sequence of the dated burials.
A general assumption has been raised by the excavators. The shaft-tomb burial type seems to belong to the early period of Selenkahiye whereas the inhumations in simple burial pits may have been used during the later period.19 It is stated by the excavators that this is an assumption
because there are not enough burials of both types to compare and to prove the statement. When looking at the burials that have been dated it is clear that there are some
exceptions, like shaft tombs W13 Tb I and II (see table 1). These tombs are not dated in the early period but belong to the later period of the settlement. Because of the uncertainty of the
18 The periods in the table overlap because of different dating periods that have been used for the burials
excavated in 1967 and burials excavated in 1972, 1974 and 1975.
10 chronological sequence of the burials, the chronology of the burials will play no further part in this thesis.
2.2 The locations of the burials
The different locations that will be discussed here are subject to the way Selenkahiye was excavated. The excavators chose for the extensive horizontal digging method based on two bulldozer irrigation trenches. These trenches provided a good starting point for an excavation extending sideways. Excavations were carried out using the digging procedure developed by Sir Mortimer Wheeler.20 This procedure uses squares of 10 meter which are excavated and recorded.
Three main regions of the settlement were chosen to excavate (figure 2 areas B, D and F). Further excavations were carried out at the south-east slope of Selenkahiye (figure 2 area A) and at the ‘isolated area’ (figure 2 area C).21 A consequence of this excavation method is an incomplete
sample of burials. The whole settlement has not been excavated but particular areas of the settlement have been chosen to excavate. Consequently not all burial locations have been found and not all burials constructed at Selenkahiye have been discovered.
The burials have been numbered in the following way. First the area or square in which the burial is situated is indicated, for example square Q26 (figure 2) or area OCC (Old Canal Cut: figure 2, E). The subsequent numbering has been assigned according to the sequence of excavation (Roman numerals and digits are used most, but letter have also been used for some burials). The following terms have been used in the subsequent numbering: Tb (roman numerals or letters) and β (digits, a digit is sometimes followed by a letter) when multiple individuals were found in one shaft tomb, and Tb when only one individual is interred in a shaft tomb. β has been used when an individual is buried in a simple burial pit. Sometimes Tb has been used in the numbering of a simple burial pit. This is due to previous made assumptions about the burial type which were later corrected. A few examples of burial numbers are: Q26 Tb I β1, U25 β1, OCC Tb VI and WRD Tb C.
2.2.1 The south-east slope of Selenkahiye (figure 2, A)
A number of extramural burials were discovered in an irrigation canal which ran from the
southeast slope of the mound of Selenkahiye to the east foot of the village of Wreyde. The village of Wreyde is located south of Selenkahiye at the west bank of the Euphrates.22 More burials were
20 Wheeler 1954 21 Van Loon 2001, 25
11 discovered when the eroded southeast slope was investigated.23 Sixteen burials in total were
found within the irrigation canal and at the southeast slope outside of the settlement. Except for Tb A and Tb B, the burial numbers of all burials discovered begin with the area name WRD.24
2.2.2 The northern part of Selenkahiye (figure 2, B)
The northern part was mainly chosen as excavation area because of a part of the town wall that was discovered here.25 In the northern part of the settlement only one burial was found. The
burial number of the burial discovered here begins with the square in which the burial was found. The northern part contains thirteen squares.
2.2.3 The ‘isolated area’ (figure 2, C)
A small area between the northern part and the central part of Selenkahiye was investigated. Here five burials were excavated and recorded. The burial numbers of the burials discovered here begin with the square in which the burials were found. The isolated area contains twelve squares.
2.2.4 The gate area (figure 2, D square Q26)
Within square Q26, near the gate in the west-central town, a collection of eleven burials were excavated and recorded. The burials were dug through the debris of the first town wall and seems to be constructed in a short time after each other.26 The burial numbers of all the burials
discovered here begin with the square number Q26.
2.2.5 The central town area (figure 2, D)
In the central part of the settlement thirty-one burials in total have been discovered. The gate area is also counted as part of the central town, but has been discussed separately because the burials seem to be connected because they are constructed in a short time after each other. Some of the burials found in the central part of the town are situated under the floors of houses. However, it does not become clear from the information which burials have been constructed under the floors of a house. The burial numbers of the burials discovered here begin with the square in which the burials were found. The central town are contains sixty-nine squares.
23 Van Loon 2001, 127 24 Idem 2001, 127 25 Ibidem, 217 26 Ibidem, 198
12
2.2.6 The Old Canal Cut (figure 2, E)
The New Canal Cut and the Old Canal Cut were the first guides to the stratigraphy of the site. In the Old Canal Cut six burial have been discovered which were excavated and recorded in 1972.27
The burial numbers of all burials discovered begin with the area name OCC.28
2.2.7 The southern part of Selenkahiye (figure 2, F)
The area excavated in the southern part of the settlement is crossed by the New Canal Cut. The excavated area has yielded nine burials. The burials numbers of all burials discovered here begin with the square in which the burials were found. The southern part contains nineteen squares.
2.3 The burial types, forms of disposal and the number of individuals
Two types of burials are common at Selenkahiye. The shaft tomb and the simple burial pit. One exception has been found in the form of a jar burial. This jar burial was found in the northern part of the settlement. Someone was put head first in a jar which was buried in a simple burial pit nearby the town wall. No grave goods accompanied the jar burial. Cremation was probably not practiced at Selenkahiye because no cremation remains were found during the excavations. Both burial types only contain inhumations.
Figure 3: A vertical section of shaft tombs W13 Tb I and W13 Tb II.
Shaft tombs are tombs of which the burial chamber is reached by a vertical shaft. After the person was buried, the chamber was roofed and the shaft was filled up.29 At Selenkahiye
forty-one shaft tombs have been discovered. There seems to be no standard shape for the burial chamber, all chambers that were found had a somewhat different shape (for an example see figure 3). Both shaft tombs with one and shaft tombs with two chambers have been discovered,
27 Van Loon 2001, 192 28 Idem 2001, 127 29 Kipfer 2000, 508
13 however shafts connected to one chamber are the most common. The number of individuals within a chamber varies from one to three individuals, however one individual in one chamber is the most common (26 of the 41 shaft tombs contain 1 individual, of 6 shaft tombs is not clear how many individuals are interred). There are some tombs which seems to have been opened after the burial, not for looting but probably for some ritual performed a while after the main burial ritual. There is especially evidence for this kind of ritual in tombs W13 Tb I and Tb II. A while after the burial has been closed, the burial is opened again for an extra deposition of grave goods. There are two shaft tombs which may have contained grave markers. A rectangular pile of stones was found on top of tomb WRD Tb D, and a large stone was found on top of tomb WRD Tb F.
According to Van Loon there is a possibility that these stones marked the graves.30 He cannot say
this with certainty because nowhere else inside or outside the settlement traces of grave markers have been found.
Figure 4: An example of a simple burial pit excavated at Selenkahiye, burial U25 B2.
Simple burial pits were also dug to bury the dead (for an example see figure 4). Twenty-six simple burial pits in total have been discovered at Selenkahiye. One burial pit always contains one individual, there were no multiple burials in one burial pit. However some burial pits seem to be dug around the same time, because they are stratigraphically connected, are similar in orientation and position, and contain approximately the same grave goods. These elements suggests a connection between the individuals interred in the burials. This connection may be a family tie or another kind of social connection that may occur between individuals.
14
2.4 The kind of burial: primary-, secondary- and subsequent burial
Primary-, secondary- and subsequent burial are all practiced at Selenkahiye.
Primary burial is the most common way of burial and is both practiced in the shaft tomb and in the simple burial pits. In the case of primary burial all individuals are interred at the same time. Secondary burial is rare and is only detected in three simple burial pits. In the case of secondary burial the bones are no longer situated in anatomical relation. The bones lay scattered on the bottom of the pit and no distortion has occurred after the remains have been buried. In the case of a secondary burial only some parts of the individual have been buried. Subsequent burial only occurs in four shaft tombs. In these cases the first burial seems to be pushed to the side to make room for a second burial. In a subsequent burial no more than two individuals are interred after each other.
2.5 The orientation and position of the individuals
In the final report it has been mentioned that there does not seems to be an unified idea about the orientation of the burials.31 However, when you look at the orientations it appears that the
orientations in which the head points west and the feet east, and in which the head points north and the feet south are the most common (see table 2). In addition the west-east orientation is the most common in shaft tombs (eleven individuals in total), while the north-south orientation is the most common in simple burial pits (ten individuals in total).
Table 2: The common orientations with the number of individuals. Orientation from head to feet.
31 Van Loon 2001, 219
Orientation Individuals in shaft tomb (50) %
Individuals in simple burial pits (26) % Total (76) % Unknown 15 30% 7 27% 22 30% N-W 1 2% 0 0% 1 1% N-S 5 10% 10 38% 15 20% N-NE 1 2% 0 0% 1 1% NE-SE 1 2% 0 0% 1 1% NW-SE 1 2% 1 4% 2 3% E-W 6 12% 0 0% 6 8% ENE-WSW 1 2% 0 0% 1 1% S-N 2 4% 1 4% 3 4% SE-NW 1 2% 1 4% 2 3% SW-NE 2 4% 0 0% 2 3% SSE-NNW 0 0% 1 4% 1 1% W-E 11 22% 5 19% 16 21% WNW-ESE 2 4% 0 0% 2 3% WSW-ENE 1 2% 0 0% 1 1%
15 Whether there is a further pattern in the orientation of the individuals will be further assessed in the re-analysis of the burials.
In general the most common burial position is the flexed position either on the left or right side (example see figure 5, left). About half of the people discovered at Selenkahiye are buried in a flexed position (thirty-eight of the total seventy-eight individuals). The hands are often positioned towards the face or the chest. There are also some cases in which both arms are positioned in different ways. Less common is the flexed burial on the back with the legs flexed to the right or left side (see figure 5, right). There are also extended burials either on the back or on the right side. There are two burial positions which only occur one and two times, these are the squat- and the crouched position.
2.5 The grave goods, their amount and location within the burials
The following general object categories were found in the burials of Selenkahiye: several shapes of pottery, several bronze, copper and lead objects, objects made of silver, stone objects, shells and objects made of shell. In the part to come each category will be discussed separately. The different objects within the categories will be discussed and the location of the objects within the burials will be addressed. Below a table is presented with a summary of all the data that will also be presented in the text below (see table 3).
Object category The number of burials that contain the object
Percentage of total number of burials
(Total is 68 burials)
The average number of objects per burial
Pottery in general 60 88% 15,6 ± 21,04
Faience vessels 3 4% 1
Bronze/copper pins 24 35% 2,7 ± 1,86
Weapons 11 16% 2,5 ± 0,66
Bronze/copper jewelry 7 10% 2,6 ± 1,76
Figure 5: left - an example of a flexed position on the right side with hands to the face
16
Silver objects in general 41 13% 4,6 ± 7,99
Silver frontlets 4 6% 1,3 ± 0,43
Stone human figurines 6 9% 2,0 ± 0,58
Beads 12 18% -
Shells or objects of shell 12 18% 1,6 ± 1,11
Table 3: The different object categories and their distribution. The average number of beads is not included, because
beads are often part of a necklace.
2.5.1 Pottery
A wide range of pottery is found in the burials of Selenkahiye. Various types of bowls, goblets, cups, bottles, pots, jars, teapots (a type of jar), jarlets and lids accompany the dead (see figure 6). Sixty of the sixty-eight burials contain pottery (88 % of the total number of burials) with an
average of 15,6 ± 21,04 vessels per burial. The majority of the pots found in the burials are
standard pots ranging in color from light yellow, pink, orange and brown, to dark grey and black. Some decorations were added in the form of painted stripes. There are some burials which contain broken and repaired pottery. Warped shapes, holes due to bad drying and firing, over fired and brittle are a few of the characteristics of these ‘potter’s rejects’.32 A less common
category of pottery found in the burials are faience vessels. Faience is produced by a combination of sand and clay which is fired to a high temperature at which the surface begins to fuse and forms glass. Faience is colored with copper salts to produce a blue-green finish.33 Only three of
the sixty-eight burials described in the appendix contain faience vessels (two bowls and one goblet, see table 3). In the burial context faience is more common in the form of beads. Two other uncommon types of ‘pottery’ in the burials are miniature pottery and human figurines of clay. Only one of the sixty-eight burials uncovered at Selenkahiye contains miniature pottery and this is also true for the human figurines. Two handmade miniature bowls accompany a child of about 5 years old in Tomb H at the ‘south-east slope of Selenkahiye’ (see appendix 1, WRD Tb H). One clay baked human figurine is found near the head of the individual in burial Q26 Tb V (see appendix 1).
There does not seem to be an unified idea about the location and arrangement of pottery within the burials. In some cases smaller vessel types are used to close off larger types of vessels and multiple vessels are often stacked on top of each other to save space. In the case of larger amounts of pottery, clusters of pottery (often one or two) are formed within the burial near the individual. Sometimes pottery is also put on top of the individual or very near to the head, pelvis or feet.
32 Van Loon 2001, 220 33 Kipfer 2000, 184
17 Figure 6: A few examples of pottery types found in the burials
All types of pottery found at Selenkahiye are used for the storage, preparation, serving and consumption of food and drink.34 This function is also reflected in the burial context, some of the
vessels contain the remains of animals. An example is a bowl with ovid bones found in tomb W13 Tb I B6 (see appendix 1), which suggests that food had been included as burial gift.
2.5.2 Bronze, copper and lead objects
During the excavations the difference between bronze and copper objects was not documented, so the difference between bronze and copper objects cannot be distinguished here. The most common bronze/copper objects are the various types of pins. Twenty-four of the sixty-eight burials contain bronze or copper pins (35 % of the total number of burials). The number of pins interred in one burial varies between 1 and 8 pins with an average of 2,7 ± 1,86 pins per burial. These pins are located on or under the buried individual and are often situated around the head, chest or feet. Almost all individuals had at least one pair of pins which were sometimes placed in an X shape. The pins presumably fastened the cloth in which the dead were buried.
Other common bronze and copper objects are weapons. Weapons are found in eleven of the sixty-eight burials. The number of weapons interred in one burial varies between 1 and 3 weapons with an average of 2,5 ± 0,66 weapons per burial. Daggers were buried most frequently, but axes, knives, spearheads, a pike and an adze were also found among the grave goods (see table 4). The weapons were located under or around the head, back and legs of the deceased.
18 However there are also cases in which the weapons are situated in a pottery or object cluster nearby the individual.
Amount found In number of burials
% of total number of burials ( = 68) Weapons in general 25 11 (16%) Dagger 11 8 (12%) Axe 7 5 (7%) Spear head 4 4 (6%) Knife 2 1 (1%) Pike 1 1 (1%) Adze 1 1 (1%)
Table 4: The number of different types of weapons found in the burials at Selenkahiye.
Bronze or copper jewelry were also found. Bracelets, anklets, hair rings and one earring were found among the grave goods. Seven of the sixty-eight burials contained bronze or copper jewelry (10 % of the total number of burials). The amount of copper jewelry per burial varies between 1 and 6 with an average of 2,6 ± 1,76 jewels per burial. These items were in most cases found in connection to their function. Bracelets were found around the wrists, anklets around the ankles and hair rings were found near the head. The location of the only bronze earring within the burial is not clear.
Another bronze or copper object found was a razor blade within tomb R26 Tb I B1. No other razor blades were found within the burials of Selenkahiye.
The last category of bronze and copper objects belong a bronze bowl and two bronze collars. The bronze bowl was found among a cluster of pottery. One of the bronze collars was found together with a bronze adze in a cluster of pottery and the other bronze collar was also found in a cluster of pottery. It is suggested by the excavators that the bronze collars decorated wooden vessels.
A rare object category are the lead objects. Only two lead objects were found. One pendant and one ring were both found in two different burials .
2.5.3 Objects made of silver
Forty-one silver objects have been found within nine of the sixty-eight burials (13 % of the total number of burials). The amount of silver objects per burial varies between one and twenty-seven with an average of 4,6 ± 7,99 silver objects per burial. Twenty-seven of the forty-one silver objects have been found in tomb W13 Tb II B8. This tomb contains one silver buckle, two silver pendants, one lion pendant, fifteen silver ringlets and two silver rings. The individual to which the silver
19 objects belonged was dislocated and disarticulated. The objects around the deceased were also disturbed and lay scattered around the bones.
Silver frontlets are the most common among the silver objects. They have been found in four burials (6% of the total number of burials) with an average of 1,3 ± 0,43 frontlets per burial. These silver frontlets are located on the skull or near the skull. Five silver hair rings and one hair spirals have also been found within three burials (4 % of the total number of burials) and are situated around the head. One silver torque (a necklace made of metal) was found around the shoulders of the individual buried in tomb WRD Tb N (see appendix 1).
2.5.4 Stone objects
Twelve limestone human figurines have been found within six burials (9% of the total number of burials) with an average of 2,0 ± 0,58 figurines per burial. In four of the six burials the number of human figurines corresponded with the number of individuals buried in the shaft tomb or simple burial pit. Tomb K (see appendix 1, WRD Tb K) at the south-east slope of Selenkahiye contained the disarticulated remains of three individuals and only one
limestone human figurine was found. The location of the human figurine is not clear. Burial U22 Tb IX contained one individual and two limestone human figurines which were situated side by side in front of the individual’s head. However this burial has been created simultaneously with another burial, in addition their similarity suggest that they belong together. So the two limestone figurines may have been buried for the two individuals within the two separate burial pits. The figurines in the other four burials were either situated near the individuals (WRD Tb N, R26 Tb I B1 and Q26 Tb I B2) or in another part of the burial (W13 Tb I).
Beads made of different kind of materials are found within the burial context. Beads are found in twelve of the sixty-eight burials (18% of the total number of burials). Stone beads made of limestone, alabaster, lapis lazuli, carnelian, quartz and white stone have been found. In addition beads of silver, faience, frit and shell are also buried with the dead. The beads can take different forms and shapes. There are beads in the form of human heads, animals, seals and shells, and there are also beads with circular, crescent, cylinder and diamond shapes. In some cases a large amount of various types of beads are found together which suggests that they must have formed a necklace. In some burials only one or two beads are discovered. The location of
Figure 7: The limestone human figurines from
20 the beads within the burial is not the same everywhere. In most cases the beads are situated under, near or on the buried individual. In other cases beads are put in jars or are lying around the pottery clusters.
More exclusive stone objects are a limestone cosmetic tray found within tomb
R26 Tb I B1 and a bowl of alabaster in the later deposition of tomb W13 Tb II. Spindle whorls are also rare. Two spindle whorls have been found within two burials, one of limestone and one of alabaster.
2.5.5 Shells and objects made of shell
Beads made of shell have already been mentioned. Four regular shells and one red shell have been found in three separate burials (4% of the total number of burials). The red shell was found together with pottery and beads in tomb WRD Tb H. The regular shells were found between the legs of the individual from burial Q26 Tb XII and to the north of the individual from tomb Q24 Tb I. Together with the shell from burial Q26 Tb XII a necklace of dentalium shell was found. Two shell cosmetic containers have been found, one in tomb WRD Tb C and on in tomb WRD Tb E. These cosmetic containers are regular shells with some subsistence inside. The container from tomb C contained a white chalky mass with black on top of it and the container from tomb E contained green-bluish pigment. Two shell ornaments have been found in two separate burials. One shell ornamented was situated, together with shell and frit beads, shell inlay pieces, a spindle whorl and a bronze pin, on the chest of an individual in tomb Q26 Tb I. The other shell ornament was found on the lower ribcage of the individual from tomb WRD Tb H. One cylinder seal from shell has been found which belongs to burial W43 B101 or burial W43 B102. The precise location of this seal within the burial is not known.
21
3. Defining the different burial rituals
After describing the various elements of the burials excavated at Selenkahiye in the previous chapter, the aim of this chapter is to re-analyze the burial practice to identify the different burial rituals performed at Selenkahiye. Some of the burial elements previously described (burial types, orientation, position, amount of grave goods, and types of grave goods) will be analyzed
according to the locations of the burials, the two main types of burials that were constructed at Selenkahiye, men and women in different age categories, children in different age categories, and adults and children. The different locations of the grave goods within the burials will not be an element that will be analyzed because from the previous chapter there does not seems to be a pattern. The placement of the various types of grave goods are either random (for example pottery) or connected to their function (for example jewelry).
3.1 Different locations
,
different burial rituals?
The following locations have been identified in the previous chapter: the south-east slope of Selenkahiye, the northern part of Selenkahiye, the ‘isolated area’, the gate area, the central town area, the Old Canal Cut, and the southern part of Selenkahiye. It has been previously stated that these locations are the reflection of an incomplete sample. When the entire settlement would have been excavated, the image of the distribution of graves over several locations would be different. The locations are nevertheless situated in different parts of the settlement (see figure 2) and because of this there might be a difference in burial ritual.
Before analyzing the different location on different burial rituals some general data on the locations is presented below (see table 5).
Location Burial type (number) Total number of individuals (per burial) common orientation (amount) Most common positon Number of grave goods per burial SE slope Shaft (16) ? (1 – 3) / / 31 ± 24,55 N part Jar (1) 1 (1) / / 0
Isolated area Shaft (2) pits (3) 6 (1 – 2) W-E (3) Flexed left 34,3 ± 49,28
Gate area Shaft (10) pit (1) 12 (1 – 2) W-E (5) Flexed right 10,1 ± 5,82
Central town Shaft (7) pits (14) 22 (1 – 2) N-S (6) Flexed left 13 ± 21,07
OCC Shaft (6) pit (1) 8 (1 – 2) W-E (3) Flexed left 14 ± 25,84
S part Shaft (2) pits (7) 9 (1) / Flexed right 3,75 ± 3,23
Table 5: General data of all burial locations. The total number of individuals buried at the south-east slope of
22 On the south-east slope of Selenkahiye only shaft tombs have been found. The preservation of most of the human remains was bad, so little can be said about the orientation and position of the individuals within the tombs. The isolated area contains the richest burial of the settlement, but the south-east slope contains in general the most grave goods per burial (with an average of 31 ± 24,55 grave goods). All described grave good types in the previous chapter occur in the grave good assemblages of the burials situated at this location.
The northern part of the settlement cannot be called a real burial location. Only one burial has been discovered which deviates from the standard elements described in the previous
chapter. A jar burial was found against the inner face of the town wall and lay among fallen bricks. The burial did not contain any grave goods.35 Because no other jar burials have been found it was
not a commonly used burial ritual at Selenkahiye. However there is a chance that more jar burials were constructed but were not found because they are situated in a part of town which has not been excavated.
In the ‘isolated area’ the richest burials in Selenkahiye were found. Two tombs sharing a shaft (W13 Tb I and W13 Tb II) with one and two individuals were discovered in this area. The grave goods include a lot of pottery, bronze or copper objects, three limestone figurines and the most silver objects found within one burial. In addition three other ‘burials’ have been discovered. These burials could have been shaft tombs, but the excavators think it is too suggestive to say that they really were tombs.36 Here they will therefore be treated as simple burial pits. It is
striking that these burials correspond in
orientation (north-south) and position (flexed on left side). W13 B2 and B3 are even linked by the location side by side and the similar pot within both burials.
The gate area is part of the central town but must be discussed separately, because some of the tombs found here are constructed shortly after each other. In this area shaft tombs are common, only one inhumation in a simple burial pit was discovered. Some of the shaft tombs (the concerning tombs are not mentioned in the final report) may have been interred shortly after each
35 Van Loon 2001, 217 36 Idem 2001, 214
Figure 8: In the red circle a tomb cluster with
23 other and were dug into the debris associated with the destruction of the first town wall in the middle of the early Selenkahiye phase (2400 – 2250 BC).37 At first sight there not seems to be a
general burial ritual used in this area. However after looking at the tomb clusters there are striking elements that have to be described. One of the tomb clusters within square Q26 consist entirely of child burials (see figure 8). One of the tombs (Tb XIII) shares the shaft entrance with another tomb (Tb XVI) and contains parts of an adult bovine. The bovine may have been an offering for the children buried in tomb XVI but can also be important in the context of the cluster. This situation, in which an animal has been buried in a chamber of a shaft tomb, has never been discovered before.38 Another curious find in square Q26 are twelve human fetus skeletons in
area 46 level 25. These fetuses have been found among animal bones in one particular area of square Q26. This find points to a place where aborted or death born fetuses were ‘dumped’. No burial ritual was performed for these ‘babies’.
In the central town area (excluded here is the gate area because it has been discussed separately) inhumations in simple burial pits are the most common, fourteen burial pits have been discovered. In addition seven shaft tombs have been found and are concentrated in squares R26, V24 and V25. These shaft tombs seem to have little in common with regard to the position and orientation of the individuals within the tombs. In the case of the simple burial pits there seems to be somewhat more coherence in the orientation and position of the individuals. The burial pits found in squares U22 and U25 are all oriented to the north-south and in case of the burials in U25 all the individuals are buried in a flexed position on the left side. The burials in U25 even contain some of the same pottery. In addition it has been noticed that there is some kind of general appearance of some types of grave goods in the shaft tombs that are not buried in the simple burial pits. Silver objects and beads do not occur in the simple burial pits.
In the Old Canal Cut only one inhumation was discovered, the other five burials are shaft tombs. There seems to be no unified idea concerning the orientation and position of the
individuals within the burials. However some of the types of grave goods are not present in the burials in the Old Canal cut. Silver objects, beads, stone objects and shells have not been found in the shaft tombs and the burials pit. All burials contain several kinds of pottery and some of the burials (restricted to shaft tombs) contain some bronze/copper objects.
In the southern part of Selenkahiye the simple burial pits are the most common, seven burial pits have been found. Two of the nine burial discovered, excavated and recorded are shaft tombs. There not seems to be an agreement in the way people were orientated or positioned
37 Van Loon 2001, 198 and 91 38 Idem 2001, 205
24 within the burial. All the burials contain pottery but there is only one simple burial pit that
contains a bead, a shell and one stone object.
To conclude, with regard to the different locations no major difference in burial ritual was inspected. However some striking elements have been observed: there is no burial location in the excavated northern part of the settlement (only one jar burial was discovered), the isolated area contains the richest burial of the settlement, and some burials in the different locations seem to be connected through their burial ritual (burial type, orientation, position and burial rituals). In addition some striking deviating elements in the burial practice were discovered like the cluster of child burials in the gate area and the discovery of unceremoniously ‘dumped’ fetuses in square Q26.
3.2 Different burial type, different burial ritual?
The general difference in burial ritual between shaft tombs and inhumations in simple burial pits was already noticed in the previous analysis of the different locations. Here the difference will be more generally explored through the analysis of the orientation, position, the amount of grave goods and the various types of grave goods.
The orientation of the individuals within the shaft tombs and burial pits seem to have some kind of pattern. It has already been mentioned in the previous chapter that the east-west orientation is the most common in shaft graves (eleven of the fifty individuals) and the north-south orientation the most common in simple burial pits (ten of the twenty-six individuals). However, after further consideration there not seems to be a real pattern because the variation of different orientations is too great. The largest percentage of individuals are orientated in a different way (see table 2).
It has already been noticed in the previous chapter that the flexed position is in general the most used position in Selenkahiye. After further consideration in this re-analysis it also seems to be the most used position for both shaft tombs and simple burial pits (see table 6). Further patterns are not observed. Flexed positions both on the right and left side are observed for the shaft tombs and simple burial pits. There is some difference in the number of flexed positions on the right and left side but these are not substantial (see table 6).
Total number of individuals Individuals in flexed position Individuals in other positions Individuals in unknown positions Shaft tombs 50 (100%) 23 (R=15, L=8) (46%) 16 (32%) 11 (22%)
Simple burial pits 26 (100%) 15 (R=5, L=10) (58%) 5 (19%) 6 (23%)
25 Clear patterns have been observed in the case of the types and amounts of grave goods that appear in shaft tombs and simple burial pits (see table 7 and 8).
Average number of grave goods In general (% of total burials) Burials containing 1 individual (% of total burials) Burials containing 2 or 3 individuals (% of total burials) Shaft tombs 26,9 ± 28,9 (100%) 19,3 ± 22,62 (78%) 53,4 ± 33,05 (22%)
Simple burial pits 3,4 ± 35 (100%)
All burials 17,9 ± 25,48 (100%) 11,4 ± 27,99 (87%) 53,4 ± 33,05 (13%)
Table 7: Average number of grave goods per burial for the shaft tombs and simple burial pits.
The first thing that stands out is the amount of grave goods in the simple burial pits. This amount is in general considerably less than the amount of grave goods discovered in the shaft tombs. The amount of grave goods found within the simple burial pits ranges from 0 to 13 and, the amount of grave goods found within the shaft tombs ranges from 2 to 128 (see table 6 for the averages). Shaft tombs and simple burial pits with one individual are the most common (87% of the total number of burials). Only nine shaft tombs contain more than one individual (13 % of the total number of burials). These shaft tombs seem to contain a larger amount of grave goods (see table 6). Shaft tombs with one individuals contain an average of 19,3 ± 22,62 grave goods per burial, and shaft tombs with two or more individuals contain an average of 48,5 ± 34,82 grave goods per burial. No difference has been observed in the amount of grave goods buried with two or three individuals.
In both shaft tombs and simple burial pits pottery is the most common grave good (see table 8). Striking is the difference in the range of pottery types. Shaft tombs contain in general a more wide range of pottery types than simple burial pits. The following has been observed for the other grave goods of which the frequency of occurrence in both burial types can be seen in the table below (table 8). Faience vessels are rare and only occur in the shaft tombs, the occurrence of bronze and copper objects is less frequent in simple burial pits, weapons are mostly found in the shaft tombs (there is one exception), silver objects do not occur in simple burial pits, limestone figurines are almost exclusively found in shaft tombs (there is one exception, two limestone figurines in burial U22 Tb IX), beads are found more frequently in shaft tombs, and shells and objects made of shell are also more frequently found in shaft tombs.
Shaft tombs (41)
Amount + percentage of grave containing …
Simple burial pits (26)
Amount + percentage of grave containing …
Pottery 41 (100%) 18 (69%)
26 Bronze/copper objects in general 25 (61%) 6 (23%)
Pins 21 (51%) 4 (15%)
Weapons 10 (24%) 1 (4%)
Silver objects 9 (22%) 0 (0%)
Stone objects in general (no beads) 6 (15%) 2 (8%)
Limestone figurines 5 (12%) 1 (4%)
Beads 10 (24%) 2 (8%)
Shell and shell objects 9 (22%) 3 (12%)
Table 8: the distribution of grave goods over Shaft tombs and Simple burial pits
3.3 Different burial rituals for men and women
in different age categories?
Of the seventy-eight individuals within the excavated and recorded burials seventeen individuals could be identified as being either male or female (22 % of the total excavated and recorded individuals). Of the identified males, eight are buried within a shaft tomb and two are buried in a simple burial pit. Of the females, four are buried in a shaft tomb and three are buried in a simple burial pit (see table 9). The age could be determined for sixteen individuals of which the sex was already known. Four age groups have been established for the ‘adults’: young adults (20 – 34), middle adults (35 – 49) and old adults (50+). There is also an ‘adult’ age group because the age of some individuals could only be identified as adult. The established age range of an individual did not always correspond to the created age ranges. In these cases the average age of the age range was used to classify the individual (for all information see table 9).Before continuing it is important to remember that the limited number of the identified individuals will obviously have consequences for the analyses. When the sex and age of all individuals would be known the result would generate a more complete image.
Amount (% of total 17) Burial types + average number of grave goods Most common orientation (amount) Most common position (amount) Age categories
Male 10 (59%) Shaft tombs (8) Burial pits (2) No common orientation, there is too much variation Flexed on right side (5) 10 males Adult 3 Average of 18,1 ± 15,05 grave goods per individual Young adult 4 Middle adult 3 Old adult 0
Female 7 (41 %) Shaft tombs (4) Burial pits (3)
W-E (3) No common position,
6 females
27 Average of 19,9 ± 12,98 grave goods per individual there is too much variation Young adult 3 Middle adult 2 Old adult 0
Table 9: The distribution of identified individuals, sex and age. When more individuals are present in one burial the
number of grave goods is divided by the number of individuals within the burial to determine the number of grave goods per individual.
3.3.1 Men and women in different age categories
No significant difference in burial ritual has been observed between the men in different age categories and between the women in different age categories. No patterns in the orientation or position of the individuals in different age categories has been discovered for both men and women. Sometimes there is a common orientation or position but there is too much variation to speak of certain patterns (see table 9). There is also no pattern in the various types of grave goods that accompany the dead in their burials. Men in different age groups and women in different age groups all receive the same kind of grave goods.
3.3.2 Differences between men and women
No patterns in the orientation and position of men and women has been observed. There is too much variation in orientation and position to speak of patterns. Both sexes have been buried in shaft tombs and burial pits and there is no difference in the average amount of grave goods per individual for men and women (see table 9). The analysis of the difference in types of grave goods between men and women has however revealed some striking differences. Weapons seem to be exclusively buried with men. Four of the ten identified males are buried with weapons and none of the female burials contain weapons. There are also six burials with adult individuals that contain weapons, but the sex of these individuals is not known. It has also been observed that objects that are easily connected to females like beads and jewelry were also found within the burials of men. Four of the ten burials connected to men contain beads and jewelry (40%). The last observation is the more frequent occurrence of silver objects in the burials of women. Four of the seven female burials contain silver objects (57%) and one of the ten male burials contain silver objects (10%).
28
3.4
Different burial rituals for adults and children (in different age categories)?
A specific age or age range could be established for twenty-nine of the total thirty-eight identified children (76 %). Included here are the twelve human fetuses that have been found in square Q26 (these cannot be seen as burials because they were dumped but are nevertheless addressed here). Four age groups have been established for the aged ‘children’: fetal, 0 – 6 years old, 7 – 13 years old, and 14 – 19 years old (see table 10). The established age range of the children did not always correspond to the used age ranges. In these cases the average age of the age range was used to classify the individual.
Amount (% of 29 )
Burial type (amount) Common
orientation (amount) Common position (amount) Average amount of grave goods per individual
Fetal 12 (41%) No burial type / / /
Children 0 – 6 3 (10%) Shaft (2), burial pit (1) / Flexed (R1, L1) 4,7 ± 2,05 Children 7 – 13 6 (21%) Shaft (3), burial pit (3) W-E (3) Flexed (R3, L2) 5,6 ± 4,15 Children 14 – 19 8 (28%) Shaft (4), burial pit (4) N-S (3) Flexed (R1, L2) 6,0 ± 3,97
Table 10: Information on children in different age categories. When more individuals are present in one burial the
number of grave goods is divided by the number of individuals within the burial to determine the number of grave goods per individual.
Relating to the table above (table 10) an important observations needs to be addressed. Very young children (0 – 2 years old) in the age category 0 – 6 years old are not identified in the burials at Selenkahiye.
The identification of children during the excavations and in the osteological investigation was pretty accurate because of the used methods. During the excavations biologists looked especially at the teeth (when present) of the individuals, and during the osteological investigation various methods were used to identify individuals from different age categories.39 It has been
observed that very young children between 0 and 2 years old are missing in the sample. In this period in the Near East very young children were mostly buried in jars near to or under houses.40
An important part of the excavations at Selenkahiye was the investigation of the architecture of the settlement. During these excavations some children in Selenkahiye (age not known) were found buried under the floors of houses (for example burials W21 β 3a and X43 β14, see appendix 1 or van Loon 2001, 216) but only one jar burial has been found. This jar burial was not situated near
39 Van Loon 2001, 192 40 Wygnanska 2008, 608
29 or under a house, and the identity of the individual inside is unknown. Because of the absence of jar burials under the floors of houses and the other observed elements it can be suggested that very young children received a different kind of burial ritual of which no remains were found during the excavations. However from the find of twelve human fetus skeletons dumped in square Q26 it can also be suggested that children up to a certain age did not receive any burial ritual.
Through the analysis of the different children age categories mentioned in the table above (see table 10), no patterns in the orientation or position of the individuals in the burials has been discovered. In some cases there are an orientation and an position that are the most common, but in general there is too much variation to speak of a pattern. For each age category the amount of grave goods per individual is about the same. There is also no difference or pattern in the types of grave goods that are buried with children from different age categories.
Amount (% of total 61) Burial type (amount) Common orientation (amount) Common position (amount) Average number of grave goods per individual
Children 29 (48%) Shaft (9), pit (8) W-E (5), N-S (4) Flexed (R5, L5) 5,6 ± 3,85
Adults 32 (52%) Shaft (21),pit (10) N-S (7) Flexed (R9, L7) 20,8 ± 19,33
Table 11: Information on the children and adult groups. When more individuals are present in one burial the
number of grave goods is divided by the number of individuals within the burial to determine the number of grave goods per individual.
The age of sixty-one individuals in total could be established (included are the twelve fetuses dumped in square Q26). A clear difference between adults and children in general has been observed. This difference is not reflected in the orientation or position of the individuals within the burials. Both groups have common orientations and positions but these correspond with the most common orientation and positions in general (see chapter 2). A clear difference is seen in the amount of grave goods per individual. In general children are buried with considerably less grave goods than adults (see table 11). In case of the types of grave goods in general, children seem to receive a less varied grave goods assemblage than adults. Limestone figurines and stone objects in general have not been found in child burials, beads have only been found within two child burial, and only some child burials contain bronze or copper (five burials) and silver objects (two burials).
30
3.5 Conclusion
From the analyzes described above it can be stated that the burial practice at Selenkahiye contains clear differences from which burial rituals can be identified.
There are two orientations (west-east and north-south) and two positions (flexed on right side, and flexed on left side) that are most frequently used at Selenkahiye (already observed in chapter 2). However no further patterns in the position and orientation of the individuals within the burials has been observed during the four different analyzes done here. In all cases there is too much variation too speak of a further pattern.
In one analysis a difference in the amount of grave goods has been observed. The amount of grave goods per individual differs considerably between adults and children. In general
children seem to receive less grave goods and a less varied grave good assemblage. During the analyzes it has further been observed that the different combinations of grave goods are buried with the dead. The choice for some types of grave goods is connected to the sex of an individual: weapons are only buried with men, jewelry and beads are not only buried with women but also with men, and silver objects are more frequently buried with women than with men.
The largest difference in burial ritual has been observed between the two burial types used in Selenkahiye. Shaft tombs contain in general more grave goods than simple burial pits. Bronze/copper objects, beads, stone objects and objects made of shell occur less often in simple burial pits and silver objects are not found in burial pits.
During the analyzes some other observations were done and some deviating elements in the burial practice have been identified. Children up to a certain age (0 – 2 years old) are not identified within the burials. This may mean that these children received another kind of burial ritual, where buried somewhere else in the settlement or never receive a burial ritual. One tomb within square Q26 contains the interment of two children, another tomb with the same shaft entrance contains the parts of an adult bovine. The excavators think that this must have been an offering of some kind. The tomb contains the richest grave goods given to children at Selenkahiye. Another striking feature of these two tombs is that they are situated within a cluster of tombs that only contain child burials. The tombs themselves contain the same elements as the standard burials but the combination of the above described elements makes it different from the standard. The second deviating element is the discovery of twelve human fetus skeletons in another part of square Q26. These skeletons seem to be unceremonially dumped and did not receive a burial ritual.
31 The final identification of the different burial rituals at Selenkahiye has been based on the
description of the various burial elements in the previous chapter and the analyses done in this chapter. During the identification the small deviations have not been taken into account, since too many identified burial rituals do not provide a clear overview. Consequently two standard burial rituals can be identified at Selenkahiye which are bases on the two burial types constructed at Selenkahiye.
3.5.1 Burial ritual 1
The first identified burial ritual consists of the interment of one to three individuals within a shaft tomb. Primary- and subsequent burial is practiced in the case of the shaft tombs. The east-west orientation and the flexed position are the most commonly used. However there is no unified idea about the position and the orientation of the individuals within the tombs because there is too much variation in position and orientation. Sometimes the position and orientation of individuals within the same tomb is similar. A great amount of grave goods accompany the deceased. The amount of grave goods is slightly higher when two or more individuals are buried in one tomb. Pottery is always given to the dead and in fact the largest amount of the grave goods consists of pottery. After pottery bronze or copper objects are the most common grave goods, followed by beads, silver objects, shell objects, and objects made of stone. Children in shaft tombs receive less grave goods than the adults and only weapons are restricted to a particular group of individuals (males). In some cases tombs were re-opened for a subsequent deposition.
3.5.2 Burial ritual 2
The second identified burial ritual consists of the interment of one individual within a simple burial pit. Primary- and secondary burial is practiced in the case of the simple burial pits. The north-south orientation and the flexed position are the most commonly used. However there is no unified idea about the position and the orientation of the individuals within the burial pits because there is too much variation in position and orientation. Sometimes the position and orientation of individuals in burial pits near each other is similar, which suggests a connection between the individuals. A small amount of grave goods accompany the deceased. In most cases pottery is present when grave goods are given. Bronze or copper objects also accompany the dead in some cases. Faience vessels and silver objects are not buried with individuals in burial pits and beads, stone objects and objects made of shell are rare. In most cases only pottery is buried with an individual in a burial pit. Children in simple burial pits receive less grave goods than the adults.
