strategic objectives of Parliament.
by
Nomxolisi Nobukhosi Okojie
Supervisor: Prof Evangelos Mantzaris
March 2017
Thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Masters in Public Administration in the faculty of Management Science
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DECLARATION
By submitting this thesis electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained
therein is my own, original work, that I am the sole author thereof (safe to the extent
explicitly otherwise stated), that reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch
University will not infringe any third party rights and that I have not previously in its entirety
or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification.
Date: March 2017
Copyright © 2017 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved
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ABSTRACT
Procurement has been designed to redress some of the imbalances of the past; however, this policy instrument is being abused in some institutions around the country. This abuse has caught the eye of the Minister of Finance who, a few years ago, appointed a Chief Procurement Officer (CPO). This office of the CPO is within the National Treasury and it is tasked with ensuring that procurement, currently known as supply chain management (SCM), is properly managed. One of the causes of deficiency within the SCM environment is decentralisation. This is a method used by various institutions, including Parliament.
Decentralisation means that every office is able to procure its own goods and services. This may result in procedures not being followed properly because the people who are trained in procurement or SCM reside in the SCM office. When procedures are not followed properly, this may result in awards of bids being made incorrectly, leading to irregular expenditure and possibly qualified audit opinions. The National Treasury has established a central database for all suppliers. This may curb some of the inconsistencies currently experienced; however, each institution still procures its own goods and services. In the case of Parliament, the database is not being used yet and with programmes in place that take Parliament to the rural areas, the central database may not be efficient.
This study aims to give recommendations to ensure the SCM Section is able to support Parliament in meeting its strategic objectives. The study takes into consideration the unique status of Parliament as a People's Parliament and as such it needs to put people at the centre of its operations. This study also wishes to show that as much as the SCM environment is decentralised in Parliament with the necessary controls in place, there has been an improvement in ensuring that the SCM unit is able to play its strategic support role without compromise.
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OPSOMMING
Verkryging is ontwikkel om die ongelykhede van die verlede aan te spreek. Huidiglik kan daar nie veel goeie dinge gesê word oor hoe die metode misbruik is in sekere instellings dwarsoor die land nie. Die misbruik het die oog van die Minister van Finansies gevang wie so ‘n paar jaar gelede ‘n Hoof van Verkrygingsbestuur aangestel het. Die kantoor is binne die Nasionale Tesourie en is gemoed om te verseker dat verkryging, soos dit huidilik bekendstaan as Voorsienings bestuursketting (VBK) behoorlik bestuur word. Een van die grootste oorsake van tekortkomminge binne die VBS omgewing, is gedesentraliseer. Dit is die metode wat deur die meeste instellings gebruik word, insluitend Parlement.
Desentralisasiebeteken dat elke kantoor verantwoordelik is om sy eie goedere en dienste aan te koop. Dit mag lei tot inkorrek prosedures wat gevolg word, want die persone wie opgelei is om goedere aan te koop, is in die VBS kantoor gesetel. Wanneer die prosedure nie reg nagekom word nie, mag dit lei tot verkeerde tender toekennings. Dit mag lei totongereguleerde uitgawes. Dit mag ook lei tot gekwalifiseerde oudit menings. Die Nasionale Tesourie het ‘n sentrale databasis vir alle voorsieners van goedere. Dit mag in ‘n mate die ongelykhede wat huidiglik ondervind word verhoed, maar instellings verkry nog steeds hul eie goedere en dienste. In die geval van Parlement is die databasis nog nie in gebruik aangesien dit nie vir Programme soos die Neem die Parlement na die mense in plaaslike areas on-effektief en endoeltreffend mag wees.
Die aanbevelings wat in die studie gemaak word is om te verseker dat die VBK afdeling by magte is om die Parlement te ondersteun om hul strategiese doelwitte vir elke Parlement te bereik. Die studie het die unieke status van Parlement in aggeneem deurdat dit ‘n Parlement vir die mense is en so moet dit die mense in die middle van sy funksies plaas. Die studie wil ook bewys dat, alhoewel die VBK omgewing gedesentraliseer is, daar kontrole in plek is wat die vooruitgang van die VBK eenheid verseker om sodoende sy strategies ondersteunings rol vervul sonder kompromie.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I hereby wish to thank God Almighty for the wisdom, guidance and strength during the time of my study. When I was busy with my second chapter, I tragically lost my dear mother who was secretly planning a party for me for when I'd finished my paper. I am grateful to her all the days of my life. I also wish to thank my husband, my children and our church members who had to, most of the time, do without me. My husband's understanding and support during this time is dearly appreciated. He is always my pillar of strength and his prayers and patience are amazing. I hope that my hard work encourages my children to go far with their studies. Lastly, I am grateful to my employers for giving me this opportunity. To Professor Evan, my Supervisor, your guidance and support cannot be measured. This is only the beginning: This project is going far. Education can never lose power.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ... ii
ABSTRACT ... iii
OPSOMMING ... iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... v
LIST
OF
FIGURES... x
ACRONYMS ... xi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ... 1
1.1 Introduction ... 11.2 Rationale and Background ... 1
1.3 Research Problem ... 2 1.4 Research Objective ... 3 1.5 Research Design ... 3 1.5.1 Observation ... 4 1.5..2 Interviews ... 4 1.5.3 Focus Groups ... 4 1.5..4 Documentation ... 5 1.6 Data Analysis ... 5
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ... 6
2.1 Introduction ... 6
2.2 Governance and Control in SCM and Procurement Systems ... 7
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2.4 Location ... 11
2.5 The Combination of Centralised and Decentralised SCM Systems ... 13
2.6 Standardisation ... 14
2.7 Summary ... 16
CHAPTER 3: LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK GOVERNING SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT
(SCM) ... 17
3.1 Introduction ... 17
3.2 The Constitution ... 17
3.3 Public Sector Procurement Reform Legislation... 17
3.4 Preferential Procurement Policy Framework Act (No. 5 of 2000) ... 18
3.5 The Financial Management of Parliament and Provincial Legislatures (Act 10 of 2009) ... 18
3.6 Supply Chain Management (SCM) Regulations ... 19
3.7 The Transitional Arrangements ... 20
3.8 Procurement Delegation of Authority ... 20
3.9 Summary ... 21
CHAPTER 4: RESARCH METHODS ... 22
4.1. Introduction ... 22
4.2 Case Study and the Qualitative Paradigm ... 22
4.3 Content Analysis ... 24
4.4. Face-to-Face Interviews ... 24
4.5 Analysis of Data ... 26
4.6 Observation ... 27
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4.8 Documentation ... 28
4.9 Sampling Frame ... 28
4.10 Ethics... 29
4.11 Chapter Summary ... 29
CHAPTER 5: THE SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT (SCM) SYSTEMS OF PARLIAMENT ... 31
5.1 Introduction ... 31
5.2 Demand Management ... 33
5.3 Acquisition System ... 33
5.4 Logistics... 34
5.5 Risk Management ... 34
5.6 Supply Chain Performance ... 35
5.7 The Supply Chain Management Committee System Section 41 ... 35
5.8 Bid Specification Committee (BSC) ... 35
5.9 Bid Evaluation Committee (BEC) ... 36
5.10 Bid Adjudication Committee (BAC) ... 36
5.11 The ICT System Oracle (Parliament's ERP system) ... 36
5.12 The SCM Office and its Structure ... 36
5.13 Decentralisation ... 37
5.14 Centralisation ... 38
5.15 Summary ... 38
CHAPTER 6: ANALYSIS OF DATA ... 39
6.1 Introduction...39
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6.2 1st Audit Firm Supply Chain Management Project ... 39
6.3 2nd Appointment, Assessment and Report ... 40
6.4 Lessons Learnt ... 40
6.5 interview Responses ... 41
6.6 Interview with Chairperson of a Key SCM Committee ... 46
6.7 The Focus Groups ... 47
6.8 The Interviews ... 49
6.9 SCM in Parliament: Thoughts, Dissection, Functions, Challenges and Interpretation ... 51
6.9.1. Problems and Challenges...51
6.10 Conclusions and Recommendations ... 56
APPENDIX A ... 60
APPENDIX B ... 63
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: The Present Institutional System ... 7
xi
ACRONYMS
AG: Auditor-General
APP: Annual Performance Plan
BAC: Bids Adjudication Committee
BBBEEA: Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment Act (BBBEEA) (Act 53 of 2003) BEC: Bids Evaluation Committee
BSC: Bids Specification Committee CFO: Chief Financial Officer
CIPS: Chartered Institute of Procurement CPO: Chief Procurement Officer
ERP: Enterprise Resource Programme FMO: Finance Management Office
FMPAL: Financial Management Act of Parliament and Legislature GAC: Governance Assurance Committee
ICT: Information and Communication Technology PFMA: Public Finance Management Act
POs: Presiding Officers
PPPFA: Preferential Procurement Policy Framework SLA: Service Level Agreement
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The procurement system is the system used to process SCM requests from when the need is identified until the goods and services are acquired whilst the process is the method applied to acquire the goods and service. The supply chain management (SCM) section of Parliament is there to provide support and ensure that Parliament's strategic objectives are met. The biggest challenge is that procurement is decentralised. Decentralisation means anyone, whether skilled in SCM, or not can do his/her own procurement.
1.2 RATIONALE AND BACKGROUND
The National Parliament's Supply Chain Management policy has a long and diverse history. For many years it was singularly based on a holistic approach that did not include procurement systems, even after the new policy was adopted in 2009.
The key legislation dictating public finances, the Public Finance Management Act (PFMA) (RSA 1999), was the vital cornerstone of the institution's policy guidelines until 2009. The lack of compliance to these guidelines led to severe criticism emanating from the yearly reports of the Auditor-General. The reports identified gaps, weaknesses and omissions in the functions and operational realities of the public finance system.
The institution's systems and operational imperatives regarding the terms and electoral processes are identified clearly in the country's laws. As evaluation and monitoring initiatives are undertaken throughout the Parliamentary term, strategic plans are debated and adopted as Parliament aspires to become a beacon of hope through public participation. The 2009-2014 Strategic Plan aspired to improve and considerably increase the levels of public participation through a general mobilisation of sector parliaments, additional number of public platforms and the improvement of existing processes. One of the key strategic objectives was to utilise existing resources in order to elevate the effectiveness of services to all members of the institution through the adoption of new innovative programs. It can be understood that the procurement process is instrumental in the effort leading to the success of such programs. The contribution of SCM function is vital.
For the programs to be successfully implemented, the key functions, priorities and imperatives of procurement services need to be effective in terms of logistics, risk, demand and supply, sourcing,
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travel, and acquisition. These processes are the foundations of a solid, professional and risk-mitigated SCM operation. This means that there cannot be a successful implementation of a strategic objective with the absence of an effective SCM system that is operationally solid and functional, and where internal and external controls are efficiently and centrally monitored through updated technological systems. Such functions and processes are instrumental in limiting not only human errors or weaknesses, but more importantly to act as a shield against possible fraud, extortion, manipulation and/or corruption.
These need to be supplemented by a technologically advanced system that provides direct and continuous access to all financial reports in a department or section of the institution. The Parliament has introduced such an Oracle ICT system for a number of years now. Through the system's updating of reports, the relevant evaluation and monitoring authorities are able to assess the progress of designated programs.
A wide array of administrative officials in the senior management cadre, as well as Secretary to Parliament (STP), are obligated to follow the process through direct access to the systems. This process is undertaken through the maintenance of all records and reports for a period of five years, including all present and past contracts for purposes of monitoring, assessment and evaluation. A committee system exists as instrumental in assisting the procurement process, especially in connection with services such as travelling, a function that is at present decentralised despite the fact that the delegation system lacks coherence in terms of the relationship of duties and responsibilities of officials.
1.3 RESEARCH PROBLEM
Despite the fact that the Parliament of the Republic of South Africa has been in operation for more than 22 years, the reality is that its SCM operational systems are still in a continuous process of development. In 2015, a series of positive steps led to the introduction and implementation of the new SCM Regulations. These Regulations are applicable to all Provincial Legislatures, with one of the pillars representing future staff excellence through continuous program upgrading and staff training once weaknesses and gaps in the system have been identified.
The basic and fundamental problems upon which this project is based can be listed as follows: 1. How functional are the present parliamentary SCM systems?
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2. How successful are these systems in their mission to serve the institution and those working in it?
3. Are their services in accordance with one of the key principles / objectives of the Batho Pele Principles, i.e. value for money?
4. Is the current decentralised SCM environment able to support the strategic objectives of Parliament?
5. What are the key challenges in respect of the current status of operating in a decentralised SCM environment?
6. What are the major gaps, weaknesses and challenges evident, its processes and systems?
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVE
The key objective is the identification and analysis of weaknesses, gaps and deficiencies in the functions and processes of the supply chain management system currently used in South Africa's National Parliament through a comparison of the present de-centralised version of the SCM system versus the centralised alternative.
1.5 RESEARCH DESIGN
In researching the case study of the supply chain systems of the South African (SA) Parliament, the researcher has combined a number of empirical designs. The project is based on a combination of collection and analysis of primary and secondary data, including official documents of the institution, relevant legislation, policies, rules and regulations related to supply chain management and procurement systems, performance management plans, Auditor-General reports up to 2014, forensic reports produced by professional audit firms for Parliamentary oversight, as well as other available reports.
In addition, structured one-on-one interviews were conducted with key decision makers in Parliament. This included the management team, members of the SCM Committees, and senior members in the core and non-core business. A focus group discussion also took place, consisting of eight senior and middle managers. The methods used are further explained in the following sections.
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1.5.1 Observation
As the researcher was working directly with all sections, it was important for participant observation to take place that would be supplemented by face-to-face interviews with key respondents. The participant observation took place in all sections and units within the institution. The observation was more on units that procure goods and services outside the SCM section of Parliament. This observation was important in that it gave the researcher an understanding of how these units procure goods and services on a daily basis.
1.5.2 Interviews
Open-ended, qualitatively based interviews are the major empirical tool for this project. Despite the existence of secondary and primary documents, including forensic reports, interviews with managers operating within the system are vital, because these participants have first-hand experience of the department/section strategic and tactical significance, and also its operational imperatives. Interviews with senior managers in both Parliamentary establishments/Houses will add their experiences of the services provided by the Department, and its effectiveness and efficiency, to the study. Interview schedules appear at the end of the paper. The interviews with various members of the SCM committees including the secretariat played a very important role in getting undiluted views about the procurement processes. These are very senior managers who get frustrated whenever there are delays in their procurement requests. Interviewing them assisted in giving them answers to many questions and perceptions that they had.
1.5.3 Focus Group
One focus group discussion took place, consisting of senior SCM officials in Parliament. This is a group that is tasked with moving the SCM function forward and it is important that they share their views, understanding and expectations. The researcher spent time in each unit under the SCM section. The frustration experienced by the employees especially in the strategic sourcing unit, the unit that deals with daily sourcing, tenders, procurement for events and management of contracts. This group is tasked to verify and confirm accuracy of procurement scores from other units in Parliament.
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1.5.4 Documentation
There have been a number of primary and secondary data documents made available that deal with a number of issues directly and indirectly related to the systems, functions, gaps, strengths and weaknesses of the SCM processes, departments and sections. Such documents include internally and externally commissioned audit reports dealing with strategic plans and SCM priorities and realities. These were thoroughly scrutinised from a comparative perspective. This means that findings are based on the same methodological empirical design, but different and widely diversified sources of information.
1.6 DATA ANALYSIS
The analysis of data was based on the qualitative frame of reference. While the interviews took place, the researcher made extensive notes. The same process was followed during the focus group discussions.
It is strongly believed that this process was successful in gathering data revolving around knowledge of the environment, personal and professional experience, attitudes, opinions and ideas. The belief is based on the knowledge that the questions have been set as directly related to all aims and objectives of the project. This means that the process of analysis was principally, but not exclusively, based on the categorisation of data after their collection according to the chosen empirical framework.
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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In 2009, the key legislation outlining the fundamentals of Parliament's financial guidelines was promulgated. The supply chain management section of the Financial Management of Parliament Act (FMPPLA) of 2009 ("the Act") specifies that it is the prerogative of the Executive Authority to prescribe a SCM policy that sets in motion the dictates of Section 65 of the FMPPLA (RSA, 2009). These dictates are the foundations of:
The establishment of a set of SCM processes and systems that determine the appropriate function of demand and acquisition, logistics and disposal, continuous management of risk situations, as well as performance assessment, monitoring, and evaluation and compliance with all relevant legislation, rules and regulations.
All of the above need to be in accordance with the specifications of Schedule 3 of the Act. The planning and implementation tool of the supply chain management dictates processes
and systems and are in Section 4 of the Act.
The Accounting Officer of the institution has the responsibility to ensure that the existing systems operate successfully and deal efficiently with potential challenges and risks after regular assessments of the systems, processes and functions, as per Section 15 of the Act. It is up to the Accounting Officer to report to the relevant authorities as to whether the
legally bound prescriptions of SCM processes have been followed in relation to the expected and planned objectives.
In 2011 a new set of special delegations were adopted and approved by the Presiding Officers (PO's). The new guidelines provide for a new, transformation-driven procurement system that makes obligatory policies and rules that need to be followed when targeting rural areas for goods and services. The new directives are in accordance with the Constitution's institution and dictates and strategic objectives of Parliament.
The transitional arrangements resulted from serious debates and deliberations amongst key role players from the PO's, senior administrators and the Auditor-General (AG). The graph below depicts the present institutional system that is the core subject of this research.
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Figure 2.1: The present institutional SCM system (Ernst & Young 2011 IFMEP Project)
2.2 GOVERNANCE AND CONTROL IN SCM AND PROCUREMENT SYSTEMS
The supply chain management system of any organisation relies heavily on management and control, which are the two fundamental elements of functionality and success. Given the influence of a complex market, a proactive strategic procurement operation can present the organisation with the opportunity to plan and implement strategies that reduce waste and inefficiencies. This implies that strategies along with strategic considerations need to be integrated into the existing legal frameworks, rules and regulations, for these to succeed (Emmett, 2008:32-33).
Parliament's SCM and procurement system, like all similar systems in the public service, faces challenges and opportunities resulting from increasing changes in the existing market value chain and differentiation in the marketplace. This means that it is essential to continuously re-assess strategies after thorough assessments, evaluations, and monitor the effectiveness of these strategies based on current and anticipated future business environments and challenges (Sartor, et al., 2013).
For these to become a reality, renewed and reshaped strategies leading to an increase in overall operational efficiency have become non-negotiable, alongside a renewed focus on an improved bottom-line as a guide to efficiency and effectiveness. Such strategies enable public institutions to transform and adopt a long-term strategic approach within an engaging and facilitating environment (Mantzaris, 2013).
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International research in both private and public sectors has shown that at present, supply chain management faces substantial challenges. Such research points to the fact that a small number of large companies control valuable technology and work with key suppliers, but there are many others that also need this technology and access to these suppliers in order to support their future and continuous growth. Such realities point to the fact that an institution, such as Parliament, needs to become pro-active, strategic, tactical and also need to research, design, plan and implement strong and implanted partnerships with major suppliers in order to develop its capabilities and capacities (Luzzini, et al., 2013).
The SCM and procurement process is more functional when its operational dynamics are founded on the cycle of identification, response, mitigation, transference and monitoring. Monitoring, information collection, review and corrective action are key instruments of success in the continuous pursue of excellence when dealing with quality, price, capacity constraints, and design issues. These factors ultimately constitute the foundation of success or failure for a project (Emmett, 2010). In all these organisational and institutional synergies the underpinning final and desired outcome is strategic procurement that is rooted in basic principles and organisational capacities and capabilities leading to an overall efficiency created through well planned and executed, long-term, integrated strategies guided by a well-organised, research-based group function as a driving force. Parliament is a political and social institution serving all citizens of the country, hence SCM and procurement are but one of the key ingredients of political and social transformation. These are ‘change agents' that operate to work hand in hand with all stakeholders and role players in the public and private domains, through a process that aspires to redefine traditional operating models for value creation. Hence, in this equation the SCM and procurement in Parliament needs to adjust to existing market conditions and adopt strategically operational procurement methodologies. SCM and procurement units must research and concentrate on strategic sourcing models that require a detailed spend analysis and the development of detailed category plans. In many ways these can be considered key inputs in the efforts to choose the most appropriate strategy, and are instrumental in building a capable and empowered procurement organisation wherein each procurement employee is responsible for all facets of operations. Institutions and organisations, including the South African Parliament, need to develop long-term partnerships with suppliers and other service providers through continuously strengthening their market intelligence using extensive research, clear vendor pre-qualification criteria, and periodic evaluation and feedback mechanisms. (Baily, 2008:32-33). If these processes are lacking, risks abound (Booth, 2010).
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Coordination between procurement with research and that of development is a major challenge and an international necessity, as one cannot exist without the other. When the cooperation and coordination is absent, functional and structural breakdowns in the overall supply chain are inevitable. This mean that the research and development teams, when they exist, are responsible for analysing the existing market conditions, creating portfolios of evidence, and taking into account competitive and market conditions. Under circumstances of existence, sourcing units are developed and coordinate the institution's procurement activities through the inclusion of functional project managers and representatives from departments such as system support and quality control.
When operational, the existing inspection teams and systems assess potential service providers' financial eligibility, supply capacity and quality assurance systems, monitor the supplied products and assesses how the company functions overall. One of their key monitoring activities is response to the needs of particular markets in different geographies by a supplier. This inspection system needs to be accompanied by a risk management and control plan, which allows the supplier to quickly identify risks and deploy third parties to investigate and analyse issues (Quelch & Knoop, 2009:83-84).
Because of their centrality in the system, these elements and their key ingredients need to be communicated to all stakeholders of the system in totality so that accountability, transparency, good governance and the Batho Pele principles are abided by. Once these elements are evident, there are strong possibilities that the dictates of the relevant legislation, and rules and regulations are being followed. This means that instances of political or administrative interference that are irregular and/or illegal can be lessened or even eliminated.
It is important that supply chain management officials follow the required policies, rules and regulations. However, when they also acquire the necessary skills to understand the particularities of the markets and their mechanisms, contractual obligations and service level agreements, requirements for competition and possible collusions and the essence and importance of bid documents, suppliers or officials who are tempted to engage in fraud and corruption can be stopped (Woods & Mantzaris, 2012:114).
There has been a sector of professional opinion that believes the complexity of supply chain management demands in the public sector is higher when compared to the private sector (Larson, 2009:222). Such a position is adopted based on the assertion by the school of New Public Management that citizens are the ‘customers of the state' and the government, as the elected representative of the people, is the body with the political oversight of the administrative
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organisational stream that manages service delivery. In line with this, government contracts that are generally much larger in volume in comparison to those in the private sector are controlled by a number of clear cut requirements, principles, policies, rules and regulations, meaning that first and foremost they must be equitable as the country's Constitution dictates (Bolton, 2006:223-224; Ambe, et al., 2011:1100-1102).
On the other hand, the private sector concentrates chiefly on the maximisation of profit. This means that the functions and responsibilities of the respective supply chain systems do differ; although in both cases they are basic organisational key strategic planners (Smart Procurement, 2011).
2.3 KEY CHALLENGES OF SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT
Financial instabilities in the world markets, the globalisation of trade and industry, and key developments in technological advances have led to new responsibilities, duties and initiatives for both the private and the public sectors. These in turn have posed new challenges to supply chain systems and the procurement arrangement. This means that new burdens of duties and responsibilities have fallen on the shoulders of organisational leaderships, as realities throughout the sectors change radically, and existing assumptions have become a thing of the past (Pauw, 2011; Pauw & Wolvaardt, 2009:73-74).
As the conditions change and are transformed due to societal and economic developments, the organisational imperatives that accompany such realities differ in the terrain of supply chain management as it is an organisational necessity, a systemic combination of interrelated functions and a combination of activities. Its success can only be guaranteed by high skills, exceptional coordination, and continuous training and upgrading of systems, functions and activities (Fawcett, et al., 2007; Hommen & Rolfstam, 2009:19-20).
Despite these imperative realities for the success of such a system, official state reports have indicated that there are barriers to the achievement of excellence in the SCM systems. These are due to a lack of both leadership and functionaries regarding fundamentals in planning, designing and implementation of decisions. These shortcomings are as a result of dysfunctional organisational settings and systemic weaknesses, lack of leadership, absenteeism, demotivation and a lack of job satisfaction (Public Sector Supply Chain Management Review, 2015).
The lack of high technological equipment in the relevant departments also has negative repercussions in most cases when considering functions and processes, such as the creation, maintenance and upgrading of databases, updated information, communication channels, price
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comparisons, and supply and demand data in regard to services and products. When such weaknesses exist, there are possibilities that communication, transformation and equity, which are by far the most important ingredients of the country's Constitution (Section 127) and the PPPFA, are not implemented in terms of the developmental role of SCM systems. This is the reason why the components of legal, financial, technological and knowledge management need to be treated holistically (Boateng, 2008).
The successful combination of these skills, or lack thereof, becomes evident in the case of the technological advancements relating to database systems that need to be operated by a competent, technologically advanced person. The same can be said in relation to the knowledge, expertise and experience of the person who deals directly with legal issues. There have been cases where a lack of knowledge or experience in terms of legal details has led to serious negative repercussions, such as expensive court cases (Bajari & Tadelis, 2006).
The abovementioned realities point to the significance of cooperation, coordination and synergy within the organisational environment, the establishment of multiple communication patterns and continuous upgrading of existing skills at all levels (Cabrales, Lavado & Cabrera, 2008).
2.4 LOCATION
Within the context of this project it is important to establish a theoretical and empirical base of centralised and decentralised supply change management systems, as well as their differences in operational terms. It has been written that in an organisation utilising a centralised SCM system the key and final decisions are planned, designed and implemented by the purchasing department, which has the absolute control from start to finish in terms of purchases at all organisational layers (Grasman, Faulin & Lera‐Lopez, 2008). According to its supporters and implementers, such a system helps an organisation to standardise sources, streamline and control spending patterns, processes and outcomes, as well all levels and variations of key ICT decisions. The proponents of the system strongly believe that such a continuum is instrumental in creating and improving at all levels of economic, financial, technical and knowledge, producing outputs including economies of scale (Enporion, 2009).
The proponents of the system also pinpoint a number of potential advantages, such as an expansion, maintenance and further development of the base of suppliers and potential suppliers, streamlining of operational needs and imperatives, and the expansion of the knowledge and expertise base.
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However, empirical research has shown that such a system might not necessarily be ideal, especially in the case of organisations that are multi-layered and hence complex in organisational terms. Due to their multi-layered nature, such organisations could face technical, functional and operational difficulties and challenges due to a number of reasons, such as corruption, political interference, tax implications or policy directives that conflate local and central procurement (Larson, 2009:226). Empirical research has also shown that organisations that use this system have faced problems associated with corruption in terms of spending patterns, violation of policies, rules and regulations, functions and implementation that dents performance and ends up as costly. Despite these problems, there have been many organisations, including countries, that have shown preference for the system because of its ‘closed nature', as it assures the implementers that all functions, processes and systems are operated and controlled by its leadership and officials without the interference of outsiders (Beamon, 1998:290-292).
The proponents of the system strongly believe that centralised procurement is instrumental to increase savings through central and bulk purchase and strong and decisive bargaining with the potential supplier in terms of price. Such assumptions, however, demand skills, knowledge and knowledge management, streamlined delegation of powers within the department and its sections, streamlined monitoring and evaluation, knowledge of policies, rules and regulations, and direct or indirect contact with those who exercise political oversight in the case of a public sector organisation. When these prerequisites are fulfilled, it is easier for errors to be avoided as each case can be adequately scrutinised and committees can be streamlined accordingly (Emporion, 2009) There is the tendency for organisations operating in a decentralised mode to prefer the autonomy of SCM systems and operational technological decisions where the responsibility lies with the section manager. It is believed that such a structure is instrumental in speeding up processes and creates a better work environment through the elimination of bureaucratic hurdles in the systemic process that characterise centralised SCM and procurement organisational models. Decentralised models occasionally tend to lack coordination at a number of levels, especially in the case of a fairly complicated organisation, despite the fact that they have optimal effects on individuals. This means that a decentralised operation has in most cases produced optimal results in the case of independent, autonomous or relatively autonomous organisations and this a key reason why it is not chosen by a number of other organisations (Duan & Liao, 2013:288-289).
In the public service environment in South Africa, a large number of state entities at all government levels have learnt the intricacies of these systems the hard way. During the annual audit period, the
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reality is that whatever system is in place, it is the supply chain management and procurement section, its leadership and staff that are held to account. Despite the fact that many government organisations use consultants, in the end the risk or reality of a qualified audit by the Auditor-General lies not with the type of applicable system, but on the understanding, planning and implementation of decisions in accordance with the existing policies, rules and regulations (Mantzaris & Pillay, 2013).
2.5 THE COMBINATION OF CENTRALISED AND DECENTRALISED SCM SYSTEMS
A centralised organisational system basically attempts to implement SCM methods in corporate-based decisions, guided by strategic imperatives rooted in knowledge management and sharing. The tactical steps are undertaken by the various business sections in an organisational model that is founded on the implementation of the best practices and advantages of both SCM systems outlined above. This means that in a centralised operation, strategic commodities predominate in decision-making process because they are the centres of centralised sourcing (Saharidis, 2009:118-119). This means that individual units source categories that are considered non-strategic and such an operation increases organisational and operational effectiveness. This leads to a decrease in procurement costs and individual units have the opportunity and ability to react effectively and timely with potential changes in the terrain of supply and demand. Such a division of operational imperatives can be instrumental in streamlining operations, as performance is enhanced. A centralised system makes possible the development and expansion of a functionally efficient team operating within organisational parameters and characterised by a flexible process that does not deviate from policies, rules and regulations (Chang & Harrington, 2000:1429-1431).
Despite its reliance and adherence to policy dictates, such a system is able to maximise efficiency because it operates at local level and utilises incentives rooted in the benefits of an integrated SCM system. Through effective IT implementation, this SCM system coordinates and guides existing and future processes.
It is possible for a combination of centralised and decentralised systems to be combined successfully under certain circumstances (Varma, et al., 2007:693-4). This can occur when section staff is deployed to different units associated with the procurement functions and cycle. Such a possibility needs to be based on agreement by the respective section management, as there are probabilities of such an exchange deviating from supply chain management processes. This combined system can become a reality in cases of urgency, which is a frequent occurrence for a number of departments
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within the organisation, and when delegated decisions are needed so the processes can be completed timeously (Chen & Chen, 2005:3193-3195). Such a system can only be successful when assessed and monitored, because it is occasionally open to abuse. It has been argued that decentralised systems are better utilised under conditions of urgency and strict, tight deadlines. However, in most cases, special delegations have been and can be withdrawn if corruption is detected (Stadtler, 2005:578).
2.6 STANDARDISATION
The general and widely accepted position in SCM and procurement literature is that standardisation of the process is a near necessity in an organisation. It is believed that such a step will be organisationally beneficial in terms of saving time, costs and for increase in economy of scale (Nikolopoulou & Lerapetritou, 2012:187-8).
In the case of Parliament, internal correspondence has revealed evidence that the approved Supply Chain Management Regulations have not been implemented. This means that the institution has not implemented existing rules and regulations approved by the Executive Authority, and thus there exist inconsistencies in the implementation of SCM processes that have led to serious problems, including deficiencies in accountability arrangements and instances of non-compliance. It can be understood that the controls that should be implemented as obstacles to abuse and fraud and corruption have either been weak or non-existent due to a lack of leadership and poor management. This confirms the non-existence of risk management mechanisms and processes, with the result that functions and processes of SCM are continuously exposed to the threat of abuse and corruption. In addition, there is no evidence of risk mitigation measures due to the lack of compensating controls (Lee & Kim, 2007:235-236).
This reality raises the question over the non-requirement of the institution to follow the regulations and guidelines issued by the National Treasury. Rather, Parliament and its political and administrative leadership are compelled to identify and implement their own internal control frameworks. It would be advisable for the institution to follow the National Treasury regulations that are clear-cut and provide an adequate and well-thought out division of duties and responsibilities for designated management and employees in the SCM systems, as well as clear definitions in respect of control and risk management and other policies and guidelines. Such an undertaking has the potential to convince everyone that the leadership of Parliament has realised the crucial significance of the adoption and implementation of strategic initiatives in regard to internal controls, and their capabilities for positive influence emanating from the implementation of such initiatives.
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An anticipated adoption and implementation of this nature would be instrumental in contesting the present state of immunity from punishment experienced by those who mismanage and abuse supply chain systems, functions and processes. Such a step would result in a significant cultural and organisational change at the institution, as it would enforce the importance of risk management and monitoring systems that could ultimately lead to compliance (Chopra & Miendl, 2003:348-350). These are issues demanding immediate attention, as the importance of Parliament as the law making and oversight authority of the country means that it cannot allow SCM systems to suffer within its own operational domain. Existing weaknesses need to be tackled head on, as technicalities associated with existing manual contract systems, contract values, monthly reports and similar details of out-dated realities are currently limiting the budgeting and audit functions and the opportunities for abuse are on the increase (BCBS, 2003:1-2).
New systems that are adopted could easily be linked to processes associated with a decentralised SCM system. This system could be operational in a much more balanced environment that can further assure effectiveness and transparency in the process. This performance will be continuously monitored in terms of key elements vital in the SCM systemic environment, such as price, quality, transparency, fairness and time frames. When these imperatives are in place, there are strong possibilities that savings can be achieved, effectiveness and efficiency can return, and issues such as irregular or wasteful expenditure can become a thing of the past (Wan Weele, 2009).
On the other hand, as has been stated previously, it is important that supply chain management systems operate under the constitutional dictates of social and economic transformation relating to economic and social inequalities and legacies. In this case it is imperative that the dictates of Section 217 of the Constitution become part and parcel of every SCM terrain and that employees are aware and sympathetic to these realities and understand the significance of the beneficiaries, in the form of the previously disadvantaged, who are entitled to reap the benefits of government's procurement strategies and legislation.
The implementation of any good budget, even one that is the result of a laborious and successful strategic plan, is doomed to failure without comprehensive, effective and efficient supply chain management and a procurement system that is able to honestly and efficiently utilise functions, processes and resources, not necessarily in that order (Schuh, 2009). Such a system will require a number of non-negotiable elements, such as adequate, ethical and skilled resources, efficient functions and experience, and moral leadership in order to thrive. Performance management systems and continuous assessment and monitoring of functioning systems are also important, as
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are codes of conduct and clear-cut anti-corruption mechanisms identifying procedures for disciplinary actions against corrupt employees at all levels (Hoffmann, Schiele & Krabbendam, 2013). Without these fundamentals in place, the SCM system will be under-resourced, with loose organisational systems and processes, unskilled, lowly educated leadership lacking experience, high staff turnover, and lack of technologically advanced machinery.
2.7 SUMMARY
Parliament is a key institution in the social, political and economic life of all South Africans, as it is the law-making institution in the country. It is important for the institution and its functions to be ethical, transparent, accountable and rooted in the principles of Batho Pele (‘people first'). This means that the SCM unit, as one of the most important departments of the Parliament of South Africa, needs to be fully functional, operational and equipped with solid professional and organisationally solid principles.
Chapter three of the thesis will provide a legal and policy background upon which SCM systems and processes are based. It will also explore existing literature on the matter. As the thesis progresses, the researcher will analyse the secondary data available, interview key players in the entire chain as well as conduct a focus group.
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CHAPTER 3: LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK GOVERNING SUPPLY CHAIN
MANAGEMENT (SCM)
3.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter describes the laws governing procurement in South Africa. Before Parliament had its own Financial Management Act, it operated in the spirit of the Public Financial Management Act, (Act of 1999). All the other laws have been and are still applicable to all decisions pertaining to procurement. In 2009, Parliament's own Financial Management Act was passed and, following this, both Parliamentary Houses in 2013, passed Parliament's SCM Regulations.
3.2 THE CONSTITUTION
The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (Act 108 of 1996) (RSA, 1996) Section 217(1) lays the foundations for procurement and determines that:
"When an organ of state in the national, provincial or local sphere of government, or any other institution identified in national legislation, contracts for goods or services, it must do so in accordance with a system which is fair, equitable, transparent, competitive and cost-effective."
3.3 PUBLIC SECTOR PROCUREMENT REFORM LEGISLATION
The nature of the legislative and other frameworks of supply chain management systems and procurement has been characterised by government objectives aimed at social and economic transformation with an emphasis on black economic empowerment. This reality has been evident in the policy directions of government, which basically target success through a mixed economy as identified in the RDP (the Reconstruction and Development Program), which lasted one and a half years and was followed by GEAR (the Growth, Employment and Redistribution Strategy).
There was a commendable effort to elevate the skills development pool in all layers of the state machinery . This was enacted through a widely publicised campaign promoting adherence to the highest levels of international standards, good governance, accountability, transparency and public participation (Public Sector Supply Chain Management Review, 2015:13-15). Supply chain management and procurement were to be the epitome of organisational excellence and good governance using a collaborative effort that would be able to strategically connect supply chain systems' excellence, streamline and decrease costs, add value in a competitive environment and be in the forefront of public service reform. Such a successful process would value competence,
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cooperation, transparency and accountability, leading it to be in the forefront of effective and ethical governance, as well as instrumental in social and economic transformation and empowerment (Boateng, 2008).
3.4 PREFERENTIAL PROCUREMENT POLICY FRAMEWORK ACT (NO. 5 OF 2000)
In September 2003, the adoption of a document entitled Policy to Guide Uniformity In Procurement Reform Processes in Government paved the way for the immediate implementation of a supply chain management system at all layers of government (Bolton, 2006).The decision was based on the belief that such a step would lead to uniformity of the SCM system across government departments in accordance with the Public Finance Management Act. Section 76(4)c of this Act states that:
"The National Treasury may make regulations or issue instructions applicable to all institutions to which this Act applies concerning the determination of a framework for an appropriate procurement
and provisioning system which is fair, equitable, transparent, competitive and cost-effective."
Following the adoption of this document, National Treasury issued a Regulation that sets the strategic parameters and framework for a general and uniform supply chain management and procurement system. The key leadership figure within a government department or parastatal is the Accounting Officer. This is the person responsible for setting up and overseeing an accountable, well-organised, transparent, cost effective, efficient and competitive SCM office. (PFMA Section 38 1(a) (iii)).
3.5 THE FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT OF PARLIAMENT AND PROVINCIAL
LEGISLATURES ACT (10 OF 2009)
The Financial Management of Parliament and Legislatures Act (No. 10 of 2009) (RSA 2009), also known as the FMPPlA, was promulgated in order to guide, assess, monitor and in many ways play a regulatory role in respect of the financial affairs of the Parliament. In this sense, the legislation leads the way for institutions, especially the National Parliament, to ensure that the vital financial ingredients upon which they base their existence and functions, are dealt with in a transparent, effective, efficient and reliable manner. This means that the persons dealing with issues of expenditure, revenue, liabilities and assets will have the necessary ethics, experience, skills and moral authority to ensure that the financial standards, oversight and monitoring that will be filtered into all Provincial Legislatures, are of the highest standards. Chapter 6 of the FMPPLA covers the supply chain management of Parliament and the implementation thereof. It deals with the specifics
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and details of the responsibilities of supply chain management systems in respect of procurement, as well as procedures associated with the institution's assets and similar transactions.
The Executive Authority of Parliament is also required to implement a transparent, honest, cost effective, cost-saving, equitable SCM policy (Section 65), that shields the institution from corrupt practices and is based on impeccably high ethical behaviour, along with a code of conduct that is strict on cases of nepotism, conflicts of interest and collusion. For these principle and legal dictates to become an organisational reality, the appropriate SCM systems should include all functions, procedures and processes that are directly related to supply and suppliers, demand, acquisition, disposal, acquisition, services, risk and performance management, monitoring and evaluation, assessments and legislative compliance (FMPPLA Schedule 3). It is the Accounting Officer's duty to ensure the appropriate implementation of the SCM and procurement policy and ensure that the functions, processes and mechanisms operate to maximise the implementation of anti-corruption measures against greed, avarice and fraud, nepotism, factionalism, dishonesty, wasteful expenditure, and tenderpreneurship (Section 41). When such an organisational environment becomes a reality, irregular practices are eliminated and enforcement of honest practices prevails. In this reality, monitoring services assess the performance of both staff as well as service providers and keep the Executive Authority abreast of developments at all operational levels.
Section 42 of FMPPLA delegates the power to deal with the unsolicited supply of goods or services to the Executive Authority, while Section 43 points out that the Accounting Officer is obligated to make the Auditor-General aware, through formal correspondence, in cases where a tender is awarded to a different bidder than the one recommended by the relevant committee. Section 44 is very clear that no Member of Parliament (MP) may be a member of an evaluation committee or participate as an observer, evaluate tenders or contracts, or bid for goods and/or services to Parliament. It should be noted that it is illegal for MPs in the National Parliament, a Cabinet member, a Member of Provincial Legislature in all provinces, a municipal councillor, or a state employee at any layer of government to bid for a tender. Section 45 states that there should be no interference or undue influence in the parliamentary system, including interference with the dictates of the PPFFA and/or BBBEE Act.
3.6 SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT (SCM) REGULATIONS
Parliament's SCM Regulations (2014) were promulgated in March 2014. Section 4(1) of the said Regulations states that it is the responsibility of the Accounting Officer to build a Parliamentary SCM function that includes all statutory steps, starting with demand management and ending with risk management and assessment, monitoring, and evaluation of the overall performance requirements.
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This is further elaborated on later in the research. In addition, the section leader is obligated to create a number of committees that will oversee the quality of the procurement process, starting with the tender bid process, evaluation and adjudication.
3.7 THE TRANSITIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
The transitional arrangements were approved in June 2011, and deal with transformation and economic empowerment initiatives in the country's rural areas. The arrangements were conceived and planned in such a way as to ensure that the procurement process and its outcomes empower rural communities, economically and socially, through job creation and opportunities.
It can be understood that such a humane and innovative programme was to be well researched and planned, due to the difficulties created by geographically long distances and the resulting logistical challenges and problems. The special delegations paved the way for the institution and the relevant sections to deviate from ‘established'/regulatory SCM and procurement process and provided the opportunity for rurally-based service providers to take advantage of the opportunities to bid for services and goods that were previously closed to them.
3.8 PROCUREMENT DELEGATION OF AUTHORITY
The Accounting Officer has the delegated authority to approve contracts of staff members via the 2011 SCM Policy. This was approved by the Executive Authority in 2009 and its main objective is to guarantee goods and services. This delivery of goods and services can be achieved through a carefully planned and implemented system wherein the processes of clear-cut budget designing and implementation are instrumental in sourcing services and goods. Such a system is expected to accommodate new ideas and plans in terms of sourcing and outsourcing goods and services, as well as create well thought out inventories and enforcement rules that have previously been absent. It was suspected that previously the Executive Authority had not been well versed in the realities of the outside markets or international developments in technology and other areas. Hence, the institution faced a number of problems and challenges in terms of levels of competitiveness and cost effectiveness. This led to problems in terms of processes and functionality as the Procurement Committee appointed service providers and suppliers.
This SCM policy ensures that role players participate within the governance chain of SCM and the procurement system, with the responsibility ultimately resting with the Secretary to Parliament as the Accounting Officer. The policy also states that there needs to be standardisation in terms of all contracts signed, as well as service level agreements within the SCM system. This process ensures
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transparency in procurement, price levels, and delivery schedules, and abiding by the equity and development imperatives of transformation. The policy must be read in conjunction with other policies, such as policies on asset management. Using this policy, Parliament can ensure that the integration of systems is informed by continuous and appropriate risk consideration, better planning and budgeting, and clear communication and coordination with both internal and external stakeholders.
3.9 SUMMARY
The above sections detail the laws, regulations, policies and procedures regulating the SCM functions in Parliament, keeping in mind that Parliament is a complex institution in that it covers the local, provincial and national spheres of government of the Republic of South Africa. The Regulations have been written in such a way that it covers all the communities, even those in deep rural areas. The SCM Regulations' approval should have meant the disposal of the SCM policy and the transitional arrangements, as both are affected in the Regulations. However, some areas have not been covered by the Regulations. In these instances, the SCM Policy closes the gaps. In addition, the current financial delegations are in the process of being replaced by new ones, which are still in draft form.
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CHAPTER 4: RESARCH METHODS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Every researcher is aware that there exists a very wide range of research methods available to them, and it is thus important to understand the differences between the various research methods, and appreciate the advantages and disadvantages associated with each one. In this chapter, the researcher will focus on the research methods employed when collecting and analysing the data for this study.
It is crucial for the researcher to select the method that is most likely to meet the objectives of the research. This ultimately means that the type of information essential for the study's success will determine the type of the research method to be employed. In most occasions, it is dangerous to apply a single method for each and every problem, as applying the same research tool to each situation will be irrelevant and will not produce the desired results (Bless & Higson-Smith, 1995).
4.2 CASE STUDY AND THE QUALITATIVE PARADIGM
The case study method enables a researcher to closely examine the data within a specific context. Crowe, et al. (2011) describes this as a research approach that is used to generate an in-depth, multi-faceted understanding of a complex issue in its real-life context. According to Baxter and Jack (2008:12, quoted in Silverman 2005), a case study design should be considered when:
7. The focus of the study is to answer ‘how' and ‘why' questions;
8. There can be no manipulation of the behaviour of those involved in the study;
9. Covering contextual conditions is crucial in the understanding of the phenomenon examined, or
10. The boundaries are not clear between the phenomenon and context.
For the purpose of this project a case study has been selected as one of the methods of contextualising and understanding the dynamics of the SCM realities in Parliament. The study employed a mixed methods approach with emphasis on the qualitative paradigm through the utilisation of a combination of qualitative approaches within different phases of the research process. These include participant observation, face-to-face interviews, focus group and content
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analysis of primary and secondary sources, such as official reports, strategic plans and auditor's forensics (Terrell, 2012). This study utilises, what can be called, an ‘interpretative' approach and perspective that becomes a reality through the in-depth interviews, focus-group type of interviews and the study and dissection of key policy and other documents where the key idea of interpretation rests in the understanding and dissection of the existing subjective meanings (Goldkuhl, 2012). This is the basis of the analysis within the environment of an institution that aspires to be transparent, accountable, corrupt free, effective and efficient.
Through this approach, the data collected was based on the knowledge, attitudes and beliefs of people who expressed their thoughts based on their everyday experience, professional and social interaction and interpreted existing realities as they themselves constructed them (Sarantakos, 1998:36). It can be understood that the phenomena and realities under investigation could be construed as having a multiplicity of dimensions and layers, hence the strong possibility of the existence of multiple perspectives held by different individuals, with each of these perspectives potentially having equal validity, or truth (Creswell, 2007). The research thus seeks to acknowledge the existence of multiple realities in the organisation, to study and analyse them, reconstruct them, to avoid distorting them, and to use them as building blocks in theorising as well as practicing (Goldkuhl, 2012). Heyvaert, et al. (2013) have written that such mixed methods research can be applied at the primary empirical study level as well as at the synthesis level. In addition, Cameron (2011) has, through empirical studies, showed that mixed method research is a growing area of methodological choice for many academics and researchers from across a variety of disciplines and areas of inquiry.
The study is based on the attempt of the researcher to focus on the ‘what' , ‘how' and ‘why'at the root of the research problem. Such a process is determined by a combination of theory and practice rooted in a ‘pragmatic paradigm'. It places ‘the research problem' as central and applies all approaches to dissecting and understanding the problem (Cameron, 2011:121). The paradigm is rooted in action and change, as well as the interplay between knowledge and action and their relationship. In the process of directing research efforts, it becomes instrumental in re-asserting itself through the exclusion of other paradigms and articulating the theories it already established in the process (Feilzer, 2010; Goldkuhl, 2012).
Sekaran and Bougie (2016) states that the key features common to all qualitative methods can be seen when these are contrasted with quantitative methods. Most quantitative data techniques are data condensers - they condense data in order to see the big picture. Qualitative methods, on the
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other hand, are best understood as data enhancers. When data is enhanced, it is possible to see key aspects of cases more clearly.
4.3 CONTENT ANALYSIS
The content analysis qualitative approach is relevant for this study as it is used to analyse and review the policy documents, legislative measures and rules and regulations upon which the SCM and procurement system of the Institution is founded and operates, as well as to review and analyse the narratives of the interviews. Content analysis is a systematic coding and categorising approach used to explore large amounts of existing textual information in order to ascertain trends and patterns of words used, including their frequency, relationships and structures, contexts, and discourse of communication. (Krippendorff, 2012; Grbich, 2012). It provides the researcher with the opportunity to include large amounts of text information and analyse the content in a systematic way in terms of meanings, frequencies, keywords and comparisons (Wimmer & Dominick, 2005; Neuendorf, 2002). Within this context, qualitative content analysis helps the researcher to ‘summarise' words and sentences in a systematic way into ‘compressed' content categories. This is based on a process of careful coding techniques based on explicit rules of coding (Roberts, 1997). Qualitatively, content analysis can involve any kind of analysis where communication content (reports, speeches, texts, interviews or images) needs to be classified and categorised. Answers to, for example, open-ended questions, strategic planning reports or media articles are studied, dissected and analysed systematically. In this sense, the researcher is able to draw key inferences from the text (Krippendorff & Bock, 2008).
4.4. FACE-TO-FACE INTERVIEWS
The interview schedule was open-ended and structured in accordance with the aims and objectives of the study. It started with a few non-threatening and easy-to-answer items, because it was felt that if the beginning was considered to be "difficult" or "threatening", then there would be little chance that the person interviewed would feel comfortable to respond (Burns, 2007).
An open-ended question gives the respondents the opportunity to express themselves in the way that they choose. Respondents have an opportunity to answer in their own words and have the freedom to express themselves openly and honestly. In this project in particular, open-ended questions gave the respondents the opportunity to elaborate on a key issue, one in which problems and challenges need to be tackled directly so that solutions can be sought in the in the most efficient, professional and effective manner (Creswell, 2007).
