Religious discrimination in the South African workplace

Religious discrimination in the

South African workplace

Adv R Henrico

25730576

Thesis submitted for the degree Doctor Legum

in Perspectives on the Law at the Potchefstroom Campus

of the North-West University

Promoter: Prof N Smit

November 2016

RELIGIOUS DISCRIMINATION

IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN WORKPLACE

Adv. Radley Henrico

Student number 25730576

Thesis submitted for the degree Doctor Legum (LLD) in Perspectives on the Law

at the Potchefstroom Campus of the North-West University

Promoter: Prof Nicola Smit

November 2016

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To the memory of my loving Mother,

Daphne Henrico,

thank you for just being you.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This thesis has been made possible due to the love, spiritual, emotional and financial support I received from various individuals and organisations.

I thank the living God I serve through my Church, the Old Apostolic Church of Africa (the OAC) for His unbounded grace and blessings.

A special thanks to my promoter, Professor Nicola Smit. From the early stages of formulating my research proposal throughout the drafts, meetings and discussions we had concerning my progress, Professor Smit has been unflinching in her support. Her rigorous academic scrutiny, whilst demanding focus and reflection, was always infused with consideration that encouraged me to express my own views. Moreover, at times when it seemed that finishing the task was impossible, she selflessly gave of herself in her kind and friendly advice and encouragement.

I wish to thank the Faculty of Law, University of Johannesburg (UJ), for their constant financial support throughout my postdoctoral studies. In particular, I am grateful to Professor Juanitta Calitz whose unfailing guidance, friendship and support I will always value. Thank you for always being there. Professor Dawie de Villiers has always enthusiastically supported and keenly encouraged the completion of my thesis, for which I am most appreciative. Thanks are also due for the moral support I have continuously received from my colleagues in the Faculty of Law, UJ, throughout my thesis progress and especially the past few months in the finalisation stages thereof. In this regard I wish to acknowledge Professors George Letlhokwa Mpedi – Executive Dean; Patrick O’Brien – former Executive Dean; Murdoch Watney; Daleen Millard – Vice Dean; Hennie Strydom, and George Barrie. I also thank Professor Cora Hoexter for her friendship and encouraging advice regarding completing my thesis. I wish to thank Mrs Lizette van Zyl and Ms Catrin ver Loren van Themaat for their unrelenting efforts and abilities in always providing me with my, at times, continual requests for research information. The professionalism and efficacy with which my requests were dealt is greatly appreciated.

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I also wish to thank the Postgraduate Programmes Committee, Faculty of Law, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus,for their helpful, informed comments and constructive feedback in respect of my oral presentation on my research proposal during or about September 2015.

In particular I wish to acknowledge the support I received from the editor of my thesis, Ms Dineke Ehlers. The expertise, experience and diligence displayed by Ms Ehlers is exceptional. This, combined with critical comments, was profoundly helpful throughout the editing process. I am deeply indebted to Ms Ehlers for all her professional work. I am solely responsible for any remaining mistakes or oversights. When growing up as a child, my Mother always encouraged me to do my best at everything I did in life. My Mother’s indomitable personality meant she overcame life’s circumstances, irrespective of their difficulty. She did so through many sacrifices and an uncompromising insistence on the principles of integrity, self-respect, hard work and dignity. She also made a lasting impression on me in respect of the important role played by the OAC, music, and a good sense of humour. I will forever be indebted and grateful to my Mother for teaching me these valuable lessons of life and so much more. I am humbled by the exceptional example she always set. I miss her immensely.

I also wish to acknowledge the role played by certain individuals who have impacted significantly upon my life. They are members of my Church. I have known Prophet Manie Kleynhans since I was a child. My Mother was his secretary and he was the District Secretary of the Head Office of the OAC. My Mother always spoke with admiration of his leadership skills and ability to give sage advice. Through the years I have come to know Prophet Kleynhans as a friend with whom I have been honoured and privileged to spend many happy hours. I thank him for the wonderful times we have spent discussing various topics of interest and am indebted to him, his wife, Sister Anna Kleynhans (who sadly passed away on 14 November 2016) and his mother, Sister Babsie Kleynhans, for the extent to which they have included me in their lives.

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My priest, Priest Coetzee and his wife, have both been a constant support throughout the sometimes arduous moments encountered in writing this thesis. His support, prayers and blessings whenever I would call him for his wise counsel is much appreciated.

Elder and Sister Roos have always shown their love, kindness and support of which I am grateful.

Overseer and Sister Botha’s warm friendly smiles, constant loving interest and support has not gone unnoticed.

Diane Coutts, my piano teacher, has through my piano lessons and our many discussions and years of friendship offered me the respite one sometimes needs during the rigours of academic research. The joy her lessons brought me and the ability to keep alive the gift which I believe my Mother gave me, is truly appreciated. Throughout the many hours writing this thesis, much time was spent with my miniature chestnut brown-haired Dachshund, Cleo (alias mooi meisie), the love and sparkle of my life, sitting silently and patiently on my lap – for hours on end … Thank you for your love, support and warmth through all seasons, Cleo! I also wish to thank René Steyn at whose Moroccan Restaurant, with Cleo on my lap, I was able to enjoy her unsurpassably good quality espresso coffee while working on my thesis. My family has always been supportive throughout my studies and endeavours. I am grateful to them. My deepest love and affection is expressed to Chantal (my sister) with whom I have been blessed to enjoy years of wonderful friendship filled with good memories and laughter; Danjé and Brett (my nieces) have been a steadfast joy, blessing and inspiration in my life. Thanks are also due to Ray (my nephew) for his kindness. I also acknowledge Greg (my brother); Jaydene and Kerry-Ann (my nieces) and the rare but enjoyable conversations we have. Thank you Garth for your constancy and kindness.

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I appreciate the friendship and constant support shown to me by Tannie Grietjie Hecter, Gabriel Smit and Esmé Kreuter.

At the time of writing this, Gary Hudson and I have been together for more than 25 years. Gary has been unwavering in his support and encouragement through all the many years. It could not have been easy living with someone who was at times very impatient and whose mind was forever focused on what else should be factored into the thesis, or whether I should be articulating a specific argument differently. It must have been difficult living with someone like me … And yet Gary remained patient and understanding throughout. Thank you for all your love and patience which I hold dear. And thank you for believing in me. All my love!

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AAcad Acta Academica ACur Amicus Curiae

AJBE African Journal of Business Ethics AJur Acta Juridica

AHRLJ African Human Rights Law Journal AJCL American Journal of Comparative Law

AJHSS American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences AJSMS American Journal of Social and Management Sciences

AJPSIR African Journal of Political Science and International Relations AlbLR Alberta Law Review

ARR African Research Review

ArsD Ars Disputandi: Online Journal for Philosophy of Religion ATheol Acta Theologica

AULR American University Law Review BCEA Basic Conditions of Employment Act

BCICLR Boston College International and Comparative Law Review BCLR Bulletin of Comparative Labour Relations

BFOR bona fide operational requirement BMJ British Medical Journal

BostUILJ Boston University International Law Journal BYULR Brigham Young University Law Review CanBR Canadian Bar Review

CanES Canadian Ethnic Studies

CanJC Canadian Journal of Communication CanJHR Canadian Journal of Human Rights

CanJLJ Canadian Journal of Law and Jurisprudence CanJLS Canadian Journal of Law and Society

CanJPS Canadian Journal of Political Science CanJW&L Canadian Journal of Women & the Law

viii CanLLJ Canadian Labour Law Journal CanLR Canadian Law Review

CCMA Commission for Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration CCR Constitutional Court Review

CEEA Canadian Employment Equity Act

CFC Constitutional Forum/Forum Constitutionnel CHRA Canadian Human Rights Act

CHRC Canadian Human Rights Commission CHSJ Culture, Health and Sexuality Journal

CILSA Comparative and International Law Journal of Southern Africa CLLPJ Comparative Labor Law and Policy Journal

ColHRLR Columbia Human Rights Law Review ColLR Columbia Law Review

CornILJ Cornell International Law Journal

CPRRC Commission for the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Cultural, Religious and Linguistic Communities

CSJ Crime and Social Justice

CWRJIL Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law DalJLS Dalhousie Journal of Legal Studies

DepLR Depaul Law Review

DEFIRB Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief

DRTheolJ Dutch Reformed Theological Journal EEA Employment Equity Act

ECHR European Convention on Human Rights ECtHR European Court of Human Rights EGPJ Ethics and Global Politics Journal EJCL Electronic Journal of Comparative Law EJIL European Journal of International Law EmILR Emory International Law Review EmLJ Emory Law Journal

ix EmpL Employment Law

ErasLR Erasmus Law Review FedGov Federal Governance

FordhILJ Fordham International Law Journal FordhLR Fordham Law Review

GeorgLJ Georgetown Law Journal GLJ Global Labour Journal

HarvHRJ Harvard Human Rights Journal HarvIL J Harvard International Law Journal HLR Health Law Review

ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

ICESR International Covenant on Economic, Social and Political Rights IICLR Industrial International and Comparative Law Review

IJCanS International Journal of Canadian Studies IJCL International Journal of Constitutional Law

IJCLLIR International Journal of Comparative Labour Law and Industrial Relations IJDL International Journal of Discrimination and the Law

IJJPL International Journal for Jurisprudence and Philosophy of Law IJLPF International Journal of Law, Policy and the Family

IJLSS International Journal of Law and Social Sciences IJRF International Journal for Religious Freedom IJRR Interdisciplinary Journal of Research on Religion ILJ Industrial Law Journal

ILO International Labour Organization

IndICLR Indiana International and Comparative Law Review IROJ inherent requirement(s) of the job

ISIS Islamic State in Iraq and Syria IsrLR Israel Law Review

JAL Journal of African Law

JAmAR Journal of the American Academy of Religion JAmF Journal of American Folklore

x JGR&J Journal of Gender, Race & Justice JHR Journal of Human Rights

JHSuzmF Journal of the Helen Suzman Foundation

JIMI Journal of International Migration and Integration JIR Journal of Intergroup Relations

JJS Journal of Juridical Science

JLERI Journal of Legal, Ethic and Regulatory Issues JLP Journal of Legal Pluralism

JLR Journal of Law and Religion JLSP Journal of Law and Social Policy JMD Journal of Management Development JNatZuH Journal of Natal and Zulu History

JPPL Journal of Parliamentary and Political Law JPSL Journal of Philosophy, Science and Law JPT Journal on Perspectives of Terrorism JRH Journal of Religious History

JR&S Journal of Religion and Society JSI Journal of Social Issues

JSR Journal for the Study of Religion

JTSA Journal of Theology for Southern Africa JWH Journal of World History

JurInt Juridica International

KansURLP Kansai University Review of Law and Politics KentLJ Kentucky Law Journal

LAC Labour Appeal Court LC Labour Court

LCP Law and Contemporary Problems LD&D Law, Democracy & Development LexE Lex Electronica

LouLR Louisiana Law Review LRA Labour Relations Act

xi MacqLJ Macquarie Law Journal

MalLJ Malawi Law Journal

MarJIL Maryland Journal of International Law McGill LJ McGill Law Journal

MichLRFI Michigan Law Review First Impressions -MLR Modern Law Review

MJSS Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences MurULR Murdoch University Law Review

NebrLR Nebraska Law Review NELR North East Law Review

NYLSLR New York Law School Law Review NJCL National Journal of Constitutional Law NotreDLR Notre Dame Law Review

NTM Nordisk Tidsskrift for Menneskerettigheter

NWJIHR Northwestern Journal of International Human Rights NWULRC Northwestern University Law Review Colloquy

OHLJ Osgoode Hall Law Journal

OHRC Ontario Human Rights Commission OHRCode Ontario Human Rights Code

OHRT Ontario Human Rights Tribunal

OJPR Online Journal for Philosophy and Religion OttLR Ottawa Law Review

OxJLR Oxford Journal of Law and Religion OxJLS Oxford Journal of Legal Studies

PAJA Promotion of Administrative Justice Act

PAREJ Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation Journal

PEPUDA Promotion of Equality and Protection of Unfair Discrimination Act PER Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal

PILR Pace International Law Review PubL Public Law

xii R&PA Rhetoric & Public Affairs

RCS Review of Constitutional Studies

RDUS Revue de droit de l'Université de Sherbrooke RJur Ratio Juris

SACRRF South African Charter of Religious Rights and Freedoms SAJBL South African Journal of Bioethics and Law

SAJE South African Journal of Education SAJHR South African Journal on Human Rights SAJHRes South African Journal of Human Resources SAJIP South African Journal of Industrial Psychology SAJLR South African Journal of Labour Relations SALJ South African Law Journal

SAMLJ South African Mercantile Law Journal SAPhJ South African Pharmaceutical Journal SAPL Southern African Public Law

SaskLR Saskatchewan Law Review

SAYIL South African Yearbook of International Law SCA Supreme Court of Appeal

SCJIL Santa Clara Journal of International Law SCLR Supreme Court Law Review

SCR Studies in Comparative Religion SecJ Security Journal

SHEccl Studie Historiae Ecclesiasticae SLR Statute Law Review

SMLJ Southern Methodist Law Review StanILJ Stanford International Law Journal Stell LR Stellenbosch Law Review

SWJ Social Work Journal TempLR Temple Law Review

TILJ Texas International Law Journal TheolS Theological Studies

xiii TSAR Tydskrif vir Suid-Afrikaanse Reg

TulJCIL Tulsa Journal of Comparative and International Law UBCLR University of British Columbia Law Review

UCDJJL&P UC Davis Journal of Juvenile Law & Policy UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights UNBLJ University of New Brunswick Law Journal

UPennJCL University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law

UPennJIEL University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Economic Law UPennLR University of Pennsylvania Law Review

Utah LR Utah Law Review

UTorLJ University of Toronto Law Journal UtrLR Utrecht Law Review

VEccl Verbum et Ecclesia VirgLR Virginia Law Review

YJLF Yale Journal of Law and Feminism YJLH Yale Journal of Law and Humanities YLJ Yale Law Journal

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PUBLICATIONS AND CONFERENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

EMANATING FROM DOCTORAL STUDIES

Articles

Henrico R and Smit N "The contract of employment in labour law: obstacle or panacea?" 2010 Obiter 247-263

Henrico R "Mutual accommodation of religious differences in the workplace – a jostling of rights" 2012 Obiter 503-525

Henrico R "The role played by dignity in religious discrimination disputes" 2014 Obiter 24-38

Henrico R "Re-visiting the rule of law and the principle of legality: judicial nuisance or licence?" 2014 TSAR 742-759

Henrico R "Understanding the concept of 'religion' within the constitutional guarantee of religious freedom" TSAR 2015 784-803

Henrico R "South African constitutional and legislative framework on equality: How effective is it in addressing religious discrimination in the workplace?" 2015 Obiter 275-292

Henrico R "Religious discrimination in the South African workplace: regulated regimes and flexible adjudication" accepted for publication in 2016 ILJ 847-858

Conference contributions National

Henrico R "Religious discrimination in the South African workplace: a democratic jostling of rights" Unpublished contribution delivered at The Society of Law Teachers of Southern Africa Conference (10-13 July 2012 Port Elizabeth)

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Henrico R "Non-compliance with the principle of subsidiarity in South African administrative law: what are the consequences?" The Administrative Justice Association of South Africa Conference (11 and 12 February 2016 KwaZulu-Natal) International

Henrico R "Substituting 'quo modo ' with 'in what manner'? A metamorphosis of legal jargon to user-friendly English when teaching law to non-law students" Faculty of Law, Department of International Practical Business Law International Conference (6 September 2011 Johannesburg)

Henrico R "Flexible adjudication in religious discrimination workplace disputes" Unpublished contribution delivered at the International Labour and Social Security Law Conference (17 September 2015 Cape Town)

Henrico R "Administrative Justice in South Africa: Formalistic Legislation Giving Rise to a Dual System of Law and Uncertainty" Riverside University Symposium on Global Policy and Administration (4 and 5 December 2015, Los Angeles, California)

Henrico R "Educating our future legal practitioners: The imperative of transformative education" at 5th Annual International Conference on Law, Policy and Regulation (31 May 2016 Singapore)

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The research for this study was completed on 10 November 2016. The

study reflects the legal position in South Africa as to this date.

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ABSTRACT

South Africa is a country reflective of a society rich in cultural and ethnic diversity. Locally and internationally the term "rainbow nation" is used to describe South Africa. This diversity that once separated many due to political ideologies and policies is now used as a collective notion. Under the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (the Constitution) we are enjoined to be united in our diversity so as to establish a society based on democratic values, social justice and fundamental human rights. Tolerance is essential for purposes of embracing diversity. The realisation of social justice is made possible through a commitment to transformative constitutionalism and ubuntu.

The aforesaid cultural diversity of South African society also translates into a diversity of religions. This is as much apparent in society as it is in the workplace. South Africa can be regarded as a secular neutral state on account of the lack of intervention by government in private religious affairs and/or activities either on the part of individuals or religious organisations. However, the manifestation of religious freedoms on the part of an employee in the workplace can conflict with the inherent requirements of the job (IROJ). It may even conflict with the operational requirements of an employer’s business. Religious organisations may insist that the IROJ demand employees share their religious beliefs, or exclude applicants from employment. The aforesaid instances give rise to claims of unfair discrimination on the basis of religion.

These claims are often fraught with complexities since they arise from competing fundamental rights. On the one hand, the right which the employee has to freely express his or her religious freedom in the workplace; on the other, the right which an employer has to conduct business in accordance with the IROJ which may limit, restrict or even preclude an employee from manifesting religious freedom in the workplace. The tensions which arise from a conflict between the above fundamental rights in the workplace should be effectively resolved through mutual dialogue between the employee and employer as role-players. However, it is more often

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intensified on account of the inherent imbalance in the bargaining power between the parties to the employment relationship. This renders constructive dialogue difficult – if not elusive. On account of this fact, there is a need for unfair discrimination on grounds of religion to be addressed in terms of an effective legislative and constitutional framework.

The Bill of Rights protects a variety of fundamental human rights. The right to, inter alia, equality, human dignity, freedom of expression and association, freedom of religion and fair labour practices are expressly recognised as basic entitlements. Whilst these rights are accorded to everyone, they are not absolute. They are all subject to a general limitation of rights clause which provides for a reasonable and justifiable limitation of rights in an open and democratic society based on human dignity, equality and freedom. The manner in which a fundamental right may be limited is subject to principles of rationality, reasonableness and proportionality. These considerations have significant roles to play in assessing the extent to which discrimination on the basis of religion can be said to (un)fair.

The legislation addressing religious unfair discrimination in the workplace is currently regulated by the Employment Equity Act 55 of 1998 (the EEA) and the Labour Relations Act 66 of 1995 (the LRA). Common to both these Acts is the fact that workplace discrimination by an employer on the basis of religion may be fair if it is based on the IROJ. Any advantage afforded a claimant in terms of pursuing an unfair discrimination claim on an alleged arbitrary ground in terms of the EEA is significantly diminished by the onerous burden of proof such claim attracts. The purpose of the Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act 4 of 2000 (PEPUDA) is to address unfair discrimination in the private and public spheres of life, other than workplaces. PEPUDA is, however, relevant to religious unfair discrimination in the workplace on account of its generous and expansive definition of whether discrimination is (un)fair.

All legislation is required to be interpreted to in a way that gives effect to the underlying values and principles of the Constitution. This requires that such

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legislation and the text of the Constitution be interpreted "generously” and "purposefully" in a manner that gives impetus to transforming our society. On account of the manner in which the expression of religious freedom manifests itself in the workplace, unfair discrimination claims often present themselves more frequently in the form of indirect as opposed to direct forms of discrimination.

When adjudication conflicting fundamental rights, giving effect to substantive, as opposed to formal. equality simply means that it is impossible to accord both competing fundamental rights equal treatment. What is required instead, is that the competing rights will be treated in accordance with their respective merits, regard being had to the circumstances of each case. An overarching means of determining the fairness of whether discrimination on the basis of religion is fair is to use what our courts have referred to as a "nuanced context-sensitive approach. Thus, there appears to be a general tendency on the part of our courts to no longer simply adjudicate religious unfair discrimination workplace disputes in terms of the so-called Harksen v Lane test, but to rather have regard to a host of factors thereby giving added impetus to substantive equality.

Canada serves as an appropriate international comparator. Like South Africa, Canadian society is multicultural in nature and diversely reflective of many religions. It too has a constitution based on human rights, namely the Canadian Charter (the Charter). Due to the Charter’s limited vertical application, unfair discrimination on the basis of religion is addressed and regulated by the Canadian human rights framework which consists of various legislative measures operating at federal level. An analysis of Canadian jurisprudence on religious unfair discrimination in the workplace is advantageous on account of the emphasis it places on the need for considering the overall issue of substantive equality as opposed to the normative confines of nuances between direct and indirect (adverse) discrimination. Moreover, there is also emphasis on the need for mutual accommodation, as opposed to mere reasonable accommodation when considering the issue of (un)fairness.

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The findings of this thesis are that South African labour law currently does address religious unfair discrimination in the workplace. This is done in the main through the legislative and constitutional framework. However, there is room for improvement. It is recommended that the current restrictive wording of the EEA and LRA be amended to make provision for a wider and broader meaning of (un)fair discrimination. A meaning that permits the adjudicator to take into account multiple factors currently contained in section 14 of PEPUDA is encouraged. More specifically, an employer’s defence should not be limited to the mere IROJ, but should be permitted to extend to include operational requirements. In addition, allowance should be made for instances where so-called negative and positive duties are imposed upon employers. A negative duty is where an employer has no knowledge of the employee’s religious belief, as a result of which he cannot be required to act in any particular manner. A positive duty is where knowledge on the part of the employer requires particular steps, the fairness of which are relative to the circumstances. It is further recommended that a Code of Good Practice Concerning Religious Discrimination in the Workplace be incorporated into the EEC. The rationale for this is to increase awareness and education in the workplace with a view to establishing and encouraging appropriate dispute resolution mechanism procedures in relation to claims of religious unfair discrimination.

In addition, through the "nuanced context-sensitive" approach adopted by our courts greater effect should be given to the notion of mutual accommodation since this advances the notion of substantive equality and recognises the important role to be played by both employer and employee in seeking a solution to a problem in the workplace.

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KEY WORDS

multicultural, tolerance, transformative constitutionalism, ubuntu, democracy, equality, religion, religious freedom, secularism, tensions between fundamental competing rights, limitation of rights, workplace, inherent requirements of the job, unfair discrimination, rationality, reasonableness, justifiability, proportionality, mutual accommodation, "nuanced context-sensitive " adjudication.

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OPSOMMING

Suid-Afrika is ʼn land wat ʼn samelewing weerspieël wat ryk is aan kulturele en etniese diversiteit. Plaaslik en internasionaal word die term "reënboognasie" gebruik om Suid-Afrika te beskryf. Hierdie diversiteit wat op ʼn stadium baie mense van mekaar vervreem het weens politieke ideologieë en beleidsrigtings, word nou as ʼn kollektiewe begrip gebruik. Kragtens die Grondwet van die Republiek van Suid-Afrika, 1996 (die Grondwet) het ons die opdrag om in ons diversiteit verenig te wees om sodoende ʼn samelewing te skep wat gegrond is op demokratiese waardes, maatskaplike geregtigheid en fundamentele menseregte. Verdraagsaamheid is noodsaaklik om diversiteit te akkommodeer. Die verwesenliking van maatskaplike geregtigheid word moontlik gemaak deur middel van ʼn verbintenis tot transformerende konstitusionalisme en ubuntu.

Bogenoemde kulturele diversiteit van die Suid-Afrikaanse samelewing word herlei na ʼn diversiteit van godsdienste. Dit is ewe sigbaar in die samelewing en in die werkplek. Suid-Afrika kan as ʼn sekulêre neutrale staat beskou word weens die gebrek aan regeringsingryping by private godsdiensaangeleenthede en/of -aktiwiteite van óf individue óf godsdienstige organisasies. Die manifestasie van godsdiensvryheid by ʼn werknemer in die werkplek kan egter strydig wees met die inherente vereistes van die werk (die IVVW). Dit kan selfs strydig wees met die bedryfsvereistes van ʼn werkgewer se besigheid. Godsdienstige organisasies kan daarop aandring dat die IVVW vereis dat werknemers hul godsdienstige oortuigings deel, of aansoekers van werk uitsluit. Voornoemde gevalle kan aanleiding gee tot bewerings van onbillike diskriminasie op grond van godsdiens.

Hierdie bewerings is dikwels gekompliseerd, aangesien hulle uit strydige fundamentele regte spruit. Aan die een kant is daar die reg van die werknemer om vrylik sy of haar godsdiensvryheid in die werkplek uit te druk; aan die ander kant die reg van die werkgewer om sake te doen in ooreenstemming met die IVVW wat ʼn werknemer kan beperk, inperk of selfs belet om godsdiensvryheid in die werkplek te manifesteer. Die spanning wat ontstaan weens ʼn teenstrydigheid tussen

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bogenoemde fundamentele regte in die werkplek moet doeltreffend opgelos word deur wedersydse dialoog tussen die werknemer en werkgewer as rolspelers. Dit word egter dikwels vererger as gevolg van die inherente wanbalans in die bedingingsmag tussen die partye tot die diensverhouding. Dit maak konstruktiewe dialoog moeilik – indien nie onmoontlik nie. Weens hierdie feit bestaan daar ʼn behoefte om aandag te gee aan onbillike diskriminasie op grond van godsdiens ingevolge effektiewe wetgewing en binne ʼn grondwetlike raamwerk.

Die Handves van Regte beskerm ʼn verskeidenheid fundamentele regte. Die reg op, onder andere, gelykheid, menswaardigheid, vryheid van uitdrukking en assosiasie, vryheid van godsdiens en billike arbeidspraktyke word uitdruklik as basiese regte erken. Hoewel almal aanspraak kan maak op hierdie regte, is hulle tog onderworpe aan ʼn algemene klousule van beperking van regte wat voorsiening maak vir ʼn redelike en regverdigbare beperking van regte in ʼn oop en demokratiese samelewing gegrond op menswaardigheid, gelykheid en vryheid. Die manier waarop ʼn fundamentele reg beperk kan word, is onderworpe aan rasionaliteit, redelikheid en proporsionaliteit. Hierdie oorwegings het beduidende rolle om te vervul om die mate te bepaal waarin diskriminasie op grond van godsdiens na bewering (on)billik is. Die wetgewing wat oor onbillike diskriminasie op grond van godsdiens in die werkplek handel, word gereguleer deur die Wet op Gelyke Indiensneming 55 van 1998 en die Wet op Arbeidsverhoudinge 66 van 1995. Wat hierdie twee wette gemeen het, is die feit dat werkplekdiskriminasie op grond van godsdiens billik kan wees indien dit op die IVVW gegrond is. Enige voordeel wat dit vir ʼn eiser kan inhou om ʼn eis van onbillike diskriminasie te kan instel word, word egter verminder deur die beswarende bewyslas wat sulke eise meebring. Die doel van die Wet op die Bevordering van Gelykheid en Voorkoming van Onbillike Diskriminasie 4 van 2000 is om aandag te gee aan onbillike diskriminasie in die private en openbare lewensfeer, buiten die werkplek. Die Wet op die Bevordering van Gelykheid en Voorkoming van Onbillike Diskriminasie het egter ook betrekking op onbillike diskriminasie op grond van godsdiens en in die werkplek weens die omvangryke en uitgebreide omskrywing van of diskriminasie (on)billik is wat daarin vervat is.

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Alle wetgewing moet op ʼn wyse vertolk word wat uitvoering gee aan die onderliggende waardes en beginsels van die Grondwet. Dit vereis dat wetgewing en die teks van die Grondwet "ruimhartig" en "met ʼn bepaalde doel" geïnterpreteer moet word op ʼn wyse wat stukrag gee aan die transformasie van ons samelewing. Weens die wyse waarop die uitdrukking van vryheid van godsdiens in die werkplek tot uiting kom, kom eise weens onbillike diskriminasie dikwels voor in die vorm van regstreekse in teenstelling met onregstreekse vorms van diskriminasie.

Wanneer strydige fundamentele regte beoordeel word wat uitvoering gee aan substantiewe in teenstelling met formele gelykheid, beteken dit dat dit eenvoudig onmoontlik is om aan die twee strydige fundamentele regte gelyke behandeling te verleen. Wat in plaas daarvan vereis word, is dat die strydige regte ooreenkomstig hul onderskeie meriete hanteer word, gelet op die omstandighede van elke geval. ʼn Oorkoepelende manier om vas te stel of diskriminasie op grond van godsdiens billik is, is om wat ons howe ʼn "genuanseerde, konteksgevoelige" benadering noem, te gebruik. Dit wil dus voorkom asof daar ʼn algemene geneigdheid by ons howe is om nie meer eenvoudig geskille oor onbillike diskriminasie in die werkplek op grond van godsdiens te beoordeel ingevolge die sogenaamde Harksen v Lane-toets nie, maar om eerder ʼn magdom faktore in aanmerking te neem en sodoende bykomende stukrag aan substantiewe gelykheid te gee.

Kanada het gedien as ʼn geskikte internasionale vergelyker. Soos Suid-Afrika is die Kanadese samelewing multikultureel en kom daar baie verskillende godsdienste voor. Kanada het ook ʼn grondwet gebaseer op menseregte, die Kanadese Handves (die Handves). Weens die Handves se beperkte vertikale toepassing word onbillike diskriminasie op grond van godsdiens deur die Kanadese menseregteraamwerk hanteer en gereguleer, wat uit verskillende wetgewende maatreëls bestaan en op federale vlak funksioneer. ʼn Ontleding van Kanadese regsleer oor onbillike diskriminasie in die werkplek op grond van godsdiens is voordelig vanweë die klem wat dit plaas op die behoefte aan die oorweging van die totale kwessie van substantiewe gelykheid in teenstelling met die normatiewe grense van nuanses tussen regstreekse en onregstreeks (nadelige) diskriminasie. Boonop is daar ook

xxv

klem op die behoefte aan wedersydse tegemoetkoming wanneer die kwessie van (on)billikheid oorweeg word.

Die bevindings van hierdie proefskrif is dat Suid-Afrikaanse arbeidsreg op die oomblik wel aandag gee aan onbillike diskriminasie in die werkplek op grond van godsdiens. Dit vind hoofsaaklik plaas binne die wetgewende en grondwetlike raamwerk. Dit kan egter verbeter word. Daar word aanbeveel dat die huidige beperkende bewoording van die Wet op Gelyke Indiensneming en die Wet op Arbeidsverhoudinge gewysig word om voorsiening te maak vir ʼn wyer en breër betekenis van (on)billike diskriminasie. ʼn Betekenis wat die beregter in staat stel om veelvuldige faktore in aanmerking te neem soos wat tans in artikel 14 van die Wet op die Bevordering van Gelykheid en Voorkoming van Onbillike Diskriminasie vervat is, word aangemoedig. Meer spesifiek, ʼn werkgewer se verweer moet nie bloot tot die IVVW beperk word nie, maar moet toegelaat word om tot bedryfsvereistes uitgebrei te word. Boonop moet toegewings gemaak word vir gevalle waar werkgewers sogenaamde negatiewe en positiewe pligte opgelê word. ʼn Negatiewe plig is waar ʼn werkgewer geen kennis van die werknemer se godsdiensoortuigings dra nie, en daar gevolglik nie van hom of haar verwag kan word om op ʼn sekere manier op te tree nie. Positiewe plig is waar kennis by die werkgewer sekere stappe vereis, waarvan die billikheid volgens die omstandighede bepaal word. Daar word ook aanbeveel dat ʼn Kode van Goeie Praktyk rakende Diskriminasie in die Werkplek gegrond op Godsdiens ingesluit word by die Wet op Gelyke Indiensneming. Die rasionaal hiervoor is om bewustheid en opvoeding in die werkplek te verhoog met die oog daarop om geskikte geskilbeslegtingsmeganismes met betrekking tot eise van onbillike diskriminasie op grond van godsdiens te vestig en aan te moedig.

Daarby moet, deur middel van die "genuanseerde kontekssensitiewe" benadering wat deur ons howe aangeneem is, groter uitvoering gegee word aan die idee van wedersydse tegemoetkoming, aangesien dit die idee van substantiewe gelykheid bevorder en die belangrike rol erken wat beide die werkgewer en werknemer speel om ʼn oplossing vir ʼn probleem in die werkplek te vind.

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SLEUTELWOORDE

multikultureel, verdraagsaamheid, transformerende konstitusionalisme, ubuntu, demokrasie, gelykheid, godsdiens, godsdiensvryheid, sekularisme, spanning tussen strydige fundamentele regte, beperking van regte, werkplek, inherente vereistes van die werk, onbillike diskriminasie, rasionaliteit, redelikheid, regverdigbaarheid, proporsionaliteit, wedersydse tegemoetkoming, "genuanseerde konteksgevoelige" benadering

xxvii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication ...ii Acknowledgements... iii List of abbreviations ... vii Publications and conference contributions emanating from doctoral studies ... xiv Date of completion of research ... xvi Abstract ... xvii Key words ... xxi Opsomming ... xxii Sleutelwoorde ... xxvi Table of contents ... xxvii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background ... 2 1.2 Area of focus ... 14 1.2.1 Central research question ... 14 1.2.2 Aims of the study ... 15 1.2.3 Hypotheses and assumptions ... 15 1.2.3.1 Hypotheses ... 15 1.2.3.2 Assumptions ... 16 1.3 Research methodology ... 17 1.4 Study outline ... 18

xxviii

CHAPTER 2: SCOPE AND CONCEPTUAL MEANING OF IMPORTANT TERMS PERTAINING TO RELIGIOUS UNFAIR DISCRIMINATION IN THE

WORKPLACE

2.1 Introduction ... 20 2.2 Religion ... 20 2.2.1 Introduction ... 20 2.2.2 The term "religion" as provided for under the Constitution ... 21 2.2.3 How "religion" has been interpreted ... 24 2.2.4 The term "religion" as interpreted by foreign and international

jurisprudence ... 33 2.2.5 The term "religion" as interpreted in Germany ... 39 2.2.6 The term "religion" as interpreted in Canada ... 42 2.2.7 The term "religion" as interpreted in the United Kingdom ... 43 2.2.8 Concluding observations on the interpretation of the term "religion" ... 47 2.3 Religious community and organisational rights under the Constitution in the

context of labour law ... 49 2.3.1 Introduction ... 49 2.3.2 The constitutional guarantee of religious organisational rights ... 50 2.4 South Africa as a "secular" society... 57 2.4.1 Introduction ... 57 2.4.2 South Africa prior to the democratic order ... 57 2.4.3 South Africa under the democratic order ... 59 2.4.4 Religious observances and symbols in the workplace ... 65 2.5 Discrimination within the context of South African labour law ... 70 2.5.1 Introduction ... 70 2.5.2 The concept of "unfair discrimination" ... 70

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2.5.3 The ILO notion of "discrimination" in the workplace and "unfair

discrimination" ... 72 2.5.4 Universal and African notion of "discrimination" contextualised alongside

"unfair discrimination" ... 74 2.6 Equality ... 75 2.6.1 Introduction ... 75 2.6.2 Substantive and formal approaches to equality ... 77 2.7 Human dignity ... 79 2.7.1 Introduction ... 79 2.7.2 A normative understanding of the constitutionally protected right to human

dignity ... 79 2.8 The rule of law... 83 2.8.1 Introduction ... 83 2.8.2 Distinguishing between "rule by law" and "rule of law" ... 83 2.8.3 The effectiveness of the rule of law in advancing religious freedom ... 87 2.9 Transformative constitutionalism ... 90 2.9.1 Introduction ... 90 2.9.2 Defining transformative constitutionalism ... 91 2.9.3 Transformative constitutionalism and ubuntu ... 95 2.9.4 Transformative constitutionalism as an imperative for addressing

religious unfair discrimination in the workplace ... 102 2.9.5 The importance of tolerance to facilitating transformative

constitutionalism ... 103 2.10 Conclusion ... 107

xxx

CHAPTER 3: THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONSTITUTIONAL AND STATUTORY FRAMEWORK PERTAINING TO EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE

3.1 Introduction ... 108 3.2 The constitutional provision of equality ... 110 3.2.1 The conceptual importance of equality ... 110 3.2.2 Equality and rationality ... 118 3.2.3 Equality and the general limitation of rights clause ... 124 3.2.4 Equality and the differentiation between direct and indirect

discrimination ... 133 3.3 Interpretive sources ... 138 3.3.1 Introduction ... 138 3.3.2 Constitutional imperatives ... 139 3.3.3 Interpreting the text of the Constitution ... 141 3.3.4 Considering international law ... 144 3.4 The legislative framework in respect of equality ... 148 3.4.1 Introduction ... 148 3.4.2 Interpretation of legislative provisions ... 149 3.4.3 The Employment Equity Act ... 152 3.4.4 The Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act .. 167 3.4.4.1 The notion of reasonable accommodation... 173 3.4.4.2 Reasons for applying PEPUDA ... 178 3.4.5 The Labour Relations Act ... 180 3.5 Conclusion ... 185

xxxi

CHAPTER 4: COMPARISON WITH INTERNATIONAL AND FOREIGN LAW PERTAINING TO RELIGIOUS DISCRIMINATION IN THE WORKPLACE

4.1 Introduction ... 190 4.2 Canada ... 193 4.2.1 Canada as a suitable comparator ... 193 4.2.2 The diverseness of Canadian society ... 195 4.2.3 Canadian secularism ... 199 4.2.4 Relative notions of secularism ... 201 4.2.4.1 Religious dress, colours, symbols and observance ... 207 4.2.4.2 Addressing religious dress, colours, symbols and observance ... 210 4.2.5 An introductory overview of the Canadian system of government ... 213 4.3 The Canadian human rights framework ... 216 4.3.1 The Canadian Charter... 216 4.3.1.1 Aspects of the Preamble to the Canadian Charter... 217 4.3.1.2 General Canadian Charter provisions ... 219 4.3.1.3 The right to equality and freedom of religion ... 219 4.3.1.4 The right to freedom of association ... 221 4.3.1.5 Interpretation of the Canadian Charter ... 223 4.3.1.6 Implications of the vertical application of the Canadian Charter ... 224 4.3.2 Human rights principles ... 227 4.3.2.1 The principle of subsidiarity in Canadian jurisprudence ... 227 4.3.2.2 The Canadian human rights legislative model ... 228 4.4 Canadian human rights legislation at a federal level ... 230 4.4.1 The Canadian Human Rights Act ... 231 4.4.2 The Canadian Employment Equity Act ... 235

xxxii

4.4.2.1 Normative provisions of the Act ... 235 4.4.2.2 Protection afforded by CEEA in religious discrimination ... 236 4.4.3 Giving effect to legislative framework ... 238 4.5 Canadian human rights legislation at provincial level ... 240 4.5.1 The uniqueness of Ontario as a province ... 240 4.5.2 The Ontario human rights framework ... 241 4.5.2.1 The Ontario Human Rights Commission ... 241 4.5.2.2 The Ontario Human Rights Code ... 242 4.5.2.3 Proving discrimination in terms of the human rights legislation ... 248 4.5.3 Direct discrimination ... 249 4.5.3.1 Constructive discrimination/Adverse effect discrimination ... 249 4.5.3.2 Problems emerging from distinguishing between direct and

constructive ("adverse effect") discrimination ... 251 4.5.3.3 Defences to claims of discrimination ... 255 4.5.3.3.1 Exceptions to the prohibitions on discrimination ... 255 4.5.3.3.2 The duty to accommodate ... 256 4.5.3.3.3 Bona fide reasons ... 256 4.5.3.4 Seminal aspects of the OHRCode ... 257 4.5.4 The Ontario Human Rights Tribunal ... 258 4.5.5 Decisions by the OHRT ... 259 4.5.5.1 Introduction ... 259 4.5.5.2 A few examples ... 259 4.5.5.3 The OHRT and policy ... 262 4.6 Canadian Supreme Court case law jurisprudence ... 263 4.6.1 Introduction ... 263

xxxiii

4.6.2 A matter of toleration ... 264 4.6.3 Setting the stage for a stance against religious discrimination ... 264 4.6.4 Future role of adjudication in relation to equality jurisprudence ... 276 4.7 Canada and its obligations under international law ... 277 4.7.1 Introduction ... 277 4.7.2 Canada and the ILO ... 278 4.7.3 Canada and international human rights instruments ... 280 4.8 Conclusion ... 281 CHAPTER 5: JURISPRUDENCE OF SOUTH AFRICAN COURTS IN RELATION TO RELIGIOUS DISCRIMINATION IN THE WORKPLACE

5.1 Introduction ... 283 5.2 Interpreting the Bill of Rights ... 285 5.2.1 Introduction ... 285 5.2.2 Methods of interpretation ... 285 5.2.3 Purposive interpretation ... 287 5.3 Adjudicating equality jurisprudence in South African law ... 294 5.3.1 Introduction ... 294 5.3.2 A brief overview of the predemocratic dispensation ... 294 5.3.3 The influence of the interim Constitution on equality jurisprudence in

South Africa ... 296 5.3.4 South African equality jurisprudence under the final Constitution ... 302 5.4 Discussion of cases on religious discrimination ... 304 5.4.1 Attempting to define "religion" in a secular society ... 309 5.4.2 Challenges facing religious freedom in a secular society ... 312

xxxiv

5.4.3 Religion as a way of life and not a mere belief ... 314 5.4.4 Discrimination and the inherent requirements of the job ... 318 5.4.5 Discrimination and impetus to reasonable accommodation... 325 5.4.6 A more context-sensitive approach toward religious discrimination ... 333 5.5 Conclusion ... 340 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 General background ... 345 6.2 Definition of concepts and normative terms ... 347 6.2.1 Secularism in South Africa ... 347 6.2.2 Transformative constitutionalism and religious freedom ... 349 6.2.3 The importance of tolerance in facilitating transformative

constitutionalism ... 351 6.2.4 Describing discrimination in South African law... 352 6.2.5 Relevance of religious observances and symbols in the workplace ... 353 6.2.6 Attempting to define "religion" ... 354 6.3 Significance of a legislative and constitutional framework in respect of

religious discrimination in South Africa ... 355 6.3.1 The relevance of the supremacy of the Constitution and the rule of law 356 6.3.2 The importance of substantive equality ... 357 6.3.3 The importance of human dignity ... 357 6.3.4 The general limitation of rights ... 358 6.3.5 Interpreting the text of the Constitution ... 358 6.3.6 Interpreting legislative provisions ... 359 6.3.7 The notion of reasonable accommodation ... 360

xxxv

6.4 Comparative jurisprudence ... 362 6.4.1 Relevance of Canada ... 362 6.4.2. Canadian secularism ... 362 6.4.3 The Canadian Charter... 362 6.4.4 The human rights framework ... 363 6.4.5 A merger of direct and indirect discrimination in Canada ... 364 6.4.6 Canadian Supreme Court jurisprudence ... 365 6.5 South African court jurisprudence ... 366 6.5.1 A "nuanced context-sensitive" approach to adjudication ... 366 6.5.2 Discrimination and impetus to reasonable accommodation... 367 6.6 Main findings ... 368 6.6.1 South Africa as a secular pluralistic society and the need for tolerance .. 368 6.6.2 The definition and explanation of what is meant by religious unfair

discrimination ... 370 6.6.3 The need for religious unfair discrimination to be addressed in the

workplace ... 372 6.6.4 The relevance of the legislative and constitutional framework in place

regulating religious unfair discrimination in the workplace ... 374 6.6.5 Tests our courts have developed in adjudicating disputes relating to

religious unfair discrimination ... 377 6.6.6 The effectiveness of South African labour law in addressing religious

unfair discrimination in the workplace... 380 6.7 Recommendations ... 383 6.7.1 The approach to defining the term "religion"... 383 6.7.2 Addressing conflicting interests in the workplace ... 383 6.7.3 The tests to be used in protecting fundamental rights in the workplace . 390

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6.8 Conclusion ... 391

Thus the whole of our continent shows that we

must neither preach nor practice intolerance

…

Toleration, in fine, never led to civil war;

intolerance has covered the earth with

carnage

…

Reflect on the frightful consequences of the

right of intolerance …

Religion was instituted to make us happy in

this world and the next. What must we do to

be happy in the next? Be just. What must we

do to be happy in this world, as far as the

misery of our nature allows? Be indulgent.

2

CHAPTER 1:

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

The excerpt from Voltaire on the previous page reflects at length on the advantages to be gained and the disadvantages to be suffered from religious tolerance and intolerance respectively.1 _{Religion has defined and continues to define our history} and lives in various ways.2 _{Ancient Egypt owes its history, mystical buildings and} dynasties that have transfixed humanity from time immemorial, to the influences of religious beliefs.3 _{A description is given of God in the book of Exodus as "[t]he Lord} is a man of war: the Lord is his name".4 _{However, in Corinthians it is stated as} follows: "For God is not the author of confusion, but of peace …".5 _{Are these two} verses an anomaly, or is the first merely an exhortation that in certain instances we need to act diligently, and if need be, with discipline and rigor, to achieve our objectives? 6 _{Religion has been employed not only as a measure of goodness,}7 _but also as an instrument of harm. The Church of England, with Queen Elizabeth II currently as its official head or "Defender of the Faith", owes its origins to the seismic break King Henry VIII made with Rome and the Catholic faith in 1534, albeit for

1 _{Becker and Parker (2014) JSR 234; Roux Safe Spaces: Human Rights Education in Diverse}

Contexts 29; Nehustan Intolerant Religion in a Tolerant-Liberal Democracy ; Clark and Corcoran 2000 R&PA 627; Amoah and Bennett 2008 AHRJ 357-375; FOR SA 2015

http://www.forsa.org.za/growing-intolerance-and-discrimination-against-christians.

2 _{Mill On Liberty, Utilitarianism and Other Essays 415-416; see also Trisk 2011 JTSA 74-78; Mitchell}

and Mullen Religion and the Political Imagination in a Changing South Africa; Strauss "A

philosophical approach to law and religion: the context of human society" 382; Rautenbach 2014 PER 521-621; Phillips The Telegraph; Volf Flourishing: Why We Need Religion in a Globalized World; Sandburg Religion, Law and Society.

3 _{Oakes and Gahlin Ancient Egypt 268-277; Okon 2012 AJSMS 96-97.} 4 _{Chapter 15:3 Holy Bible Old Testament 92.}

5 _{Chapter 14:33 Holy Bible New Testament 225. A similar diametrically opposed proposition}

appears from the verse "I form the light, and create darkness: I make peace, and create evil: I the Lord do all these things" in Isiaiah 45:7 Holy Bible Old Testament 839.

6 _{It is submitted that a parallel may be drawn between these prima facie diametrically opposed}

verses and the Greek notion of pathei-mathos derived from The Agamemnon of Aeschyles (c. 458 BCE) meaning in the humanitarian sense that through adversity or suffering and learning comes wisdom and knowledge. For further reading see Smyth Aeschyles, Agamemnon 176-181.

7 _{Mpedi 2008 ATheol 105; Mogoeng "Law and Religion in Africa: the quest for the common good in}

pluralistic societies"; see also De Barros 2014 www.mambaonline.com/2014/05/28; Du Toit 2006 BYULR 684; Van der Vyver 2012 SCJIL 157.

3

reasons of fulfilling his self-serving interests of being able to divorce and remarry.8 St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre on 15 August 1572 will also be remembered as a time when human beings were slaughtered merely for being Protestant or non-Catholics, and where the streets of Paris and the River Seine turned red with the blood of the victims.9 _{Mary Queen of Scots is remembered as "Bloody Mary" for the} 300 Protestants she sentenced to be hanged merely on account of their faith.10 _The loss of too many innocent lives and the terror which gripped the world in the aftermath of the November 2015 terror attacks in Paris which took place in the name of a fundamentalist organisation called ISIS, professing to represent the true calling of the Muslim faith, is an all too vivid reminder of religious intolerance. The gunning to death of over 50 innocent people in a gay club in Orlando, America on 13 June 2016 by someone pledging allegiance to ISIS is another example of religious intolerance. It is paradoxical that religion, which should serve as a vehicle for sanctuary and edification, has also served as the very stage upon which humanity has suffered untold misery, misfortune and sadness. What makes this drama relevant and demanding of our attention is that it is not confined to the annals of history. It continues to play itself out in modern-day society, both nationally and internationally.11

In Western societies which have become increasingly modern, globalised, multicultural, secular and pluralistic12 _{the need exists to pay attention to the} phenomena of religion, as it manifests itself in society in general and in the

8 _{Ackroyd The History of England 83 ff.}

9 _{Holt The French Wars of Religion, 1562-1629 26; Probasco "Queen Elizabeth’s reaction to the St.}

Bartholomew’s day massacre" 80-83.

10 _{Dawson The Politics of Religion in the Age of Mary, Queen of Scots, The Earl of Argyll and the}

Struggle for Britain and Ireland 20.

11 _{In 2016, 35 out of 50 countries listed religious persecution as the most worrying factor by}

governments in consequence of religious extremism terror attacks – see Open Doors 2016 https://www.opendoorsuk/documents/ww.report-160113.pdf. Also see Pityana 1994 JTSA 10-13; Possamia, Richardson and Turner Legal Pluralism and Shari’a Law; McConnell 2015 YLJ 535.

12 _{In the sense that a society is representative of people from various cultural, ethnic, racial and}

religious backgrounds – see Coertzen 2012 Supplementum 175-178; De Freitas 2014 BYULR 425-426, especially authority cited at fn 16; Botha 2009 Stell LR 193-194, 204-210, 214-215.

4

workplace in particular. In South Africa,13 _{with a population of 54,4 million,}14 available statistics on religious observation and affiliations15 _{reflected that 86 per} cent of the population regarded themselves as being Christians. An estimated 1.9 per cent considered themselves to be Muslim; 5,4 per cent asserted they followed ancestral, tribal, animist or other traditional beliefs whilst only 0,2 per cent of the population indicated they were Jewish.16 _{It is also interesting to note that the} manifestation of religions is geographically defined in that Christianity was most prevalent in the Northern Cape at 98,4 per cent and in the Free State at 97,7 per cent whereas in KwaZulu-Natal Christianity stood at 78,5 per cent, 12,3 per cent of the population followed ancestral, tribal, animist or other traditional African religions and 3,3 per cent professed they followed "nothing in particular". The Western Cape revealed itself as containing the highest density of Muslims at 5,3 per cent whereas in Gauteng the rate was recorded as being 2,4 per cent. The highest percentage of Hindus was found to occur in KwaZulu-Natal at 3,3 per cent.17 _{With regard to} religious observance 75,6 per cent of individuals following the Muslim faith indicated they attended religious services and ceremonies, to the exclusion of weddings and funerals, according to the survey. Furthermore 52,5 per cent of adherents of the Christian faith and 36,6 per cent of Hindu followers attended services once a week.

13 _{As a country, South Africa can in no way be considered to be a religious country in the sense that}

the state is dominated by religion being at the helm of government as is the case in Saudi Arabia, for example. However, it is a subject of ongoing debate whether South Africa is purely secular or religiously neutral on account of its recognition of cultural diversity co-existing with the protection of religious freedom and communities. For further reading see Amien 2010 IJLPF 362; Prinsloo 2009 Alternation 40-48; Benson 2013 Supplementum 23-26; Ferrari 2011 IJRF 35; Feron 2014 EGPJ 185-188. See also Brown "Religion, spirituality and the postcolonial: A perspective form the South" 3-4. The issue of secularism is analysed and reflected on in Chapter 2.

14 _{Stats SA 2015 http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0318/P03182015.pdf 8-9. Also see}

Coertzen 2014 AHRLJ 127-128 for statistical data on religious groups in South Africa as in 2007.

15 _{What is meant by "observation" appears from Stats SA 2015}

http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0318/P03182015.pdf (hereafter the Survey) to be gauged in terms of the frequency with which a member of a particular religious belief attends church or religious services. Whilst "affiliation" is not defined it could arguably be gauged in terms of membership fee records and or fees paid; however, for purposes of the Survey "affiliation" should, it is submitted, be accepted in terms of the census which was conducted on the basis of persons stating their association or membership in respect of a particular faith or religion.

16 _{Stats SA 2015 http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0318/P03182015.pdf 30-31. Also see}

summary at p 3 of this Survey.

5

The survey noted that the highest level of "infrequent participation in services" was found in respect of individuals who said they followed ancestral, tribal, animist or other traditional African religions. Individuals affiliated to the latter religion represented 16,7 per cent but indicated they were most likely never to attend religious services; followed by 8,4 per cent of Muslims and 6,6 per cent of Hindus.18 The need to pay attention to religion, as previously mentioned, is borne out by the somewhat prescient observation made by Judge Albie Sachs in 1990:

Ideally in South Africa, all religious organisations and persons concerned with the study of religion would get together and draft a charter of religious rights and responsibilities – it would be up to the participants themselves to define what they consider to be their fundamental rights.19

A decade later, and as Coertzen has pointed out, "without being aware of what Judge Sachs had written"20 _{a South African Charter of Religious Rights and Freedoms} (the SACRRF) was duly signed by 24 Christian denominations and a multitude of other religious groups21 _{at the University of Johannesburg on 21 October 2010.}22 _The SACRRF was adopted pursuant to the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (hereafter the Constitution).23 _{Even more noteworthy is that it was the first} charter of its kind to be developed in the new South Africa.24 _{It was a document} which sought to address religious freedoms and rights by means of a collective effort and initiative on the part of civic and religious interest groups of South Africa in an attempt to unite the interests of all religious concerns (and individuals) without the need for any formal legislative regulation.25 _{Essentially, the right to} self-determination of religious freedom – with reference to the rights and responsibilities as set out in the various articles of the Constitution (which is explored in greater

18 _{Stats SA 2015 http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0318/P03182015.pdf 31.}

19 _{See Sachs Protecting Human Rights in a New South Africa: Contemporary South African Debates}

46-47.

20 _{Coertzen 2014 AHRLJ 126-129.}

21 _{Such as, for example, the Hindu faith; the Tamil Federation; the Muslim theologians; the African}

Independent Churches – groups representing a sum total of an estimated 10,5 million of the then total South African population of 52 million. See Coertzen 2014 AHRLJ 129.

22 _{See Coertzen 2014 AHRLJ 129.}

23 _{In terms of section 234 civic organisations have the capacity to draft such instruments like the}

SACRRF.

24 _{See Coertzen 2014 AHRLJ 129.} 25 _{See Coertzen 2014 AHRLJ 129.}

6

detail in Chapter 2) – would seek to obviate the need for judicial intervention. The involvement of interest groups in creating the SACRRF is demonstrative not only of the relevance of religious freedom but also a culture of healthy participatory conduct and dialogue in a multicultural democracy. Commitment to a sense of community and the success of a democratic dispensation makes it imperative to celebrate diversity which must surely also extend to the recognition that there are others in our community who have no religious inclinations26 _{or whose degree of orthodoxy} varies but whose beliefs nevertheless deserve to be acknowledged, respected or even accommodated in the interest of tolerance. The requirement to tolerate means to put up with something – not necessarily because we agree with what we have to tolerate, but on account of a greater benefit derived from our tolerance than would result from intolerance.27 _{There must also be a limit to such tolerance. One cannot} be expected to tolerate conduct, behaviour or the manifestation of a belief that contributes to a denigration of another’s human dignity or causes harm to another.28 The by-product of tolerance is expressed notionally in the idea of "live and let live". Depending on the circumstances, intolerance can result in hostility, conflict, litigation and economic loss. Tolerance, on the other hand, can strengthen our sense of humanity, community, society, commitment to change29 _{– all of which are important} to South Africa in the context of transformative constitutionalism:30 _{a change from a} culture which was once authoritarian and exclusionary to a culture which is now

26 _{Namely those who are atheists or agnostics.}

27 _{Meski 2010 PER 41-42; Preece 1998 Politica 150; Du Plessis 2016 JRH 241-243.} 28 _{Becker and Parker 2014 JSR 261-262; Jackson 2014 JSR 14.}

29 _{For further reading see Hoexter and Olivier The Judiciary in South Africa 78-81, especially the}

authorities cited at fns 77 and 78; Klare 1998 SAJHR 150; Pieterse 2005 SAPL 161; Ngcobo 2011 Stell LR 37; De Vos 2001 SAJHR 9.

30 _{As coined by Klare 1998 SAJHR 171 and subsequently popularised by jurists and scholars in}

South African jurisprudence. See, for example, Mureinik 1994 SAJHR 33-37; Pieterse 2005 SAPL 156-160; Rapatsa 2014 MJSS 889; Le Roux 2005 TSAR 105-110; Langa 2006 Stell LR 353-356; Van Marle 2009 Stell LR 288-290; Liebenberg 2006 Stell LR 7; Davis Democracy and Deliberation: Transformation and the South African Legal Order 178; Zitke 2014 AAcad 63-65; Qozoleni v Minister of Law and Order 1994 3 SA 625 (E) 634E-F; Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association of SA: In Re Ex Parte Application of the State President of the RSA 2000 2 SA 674 (CC); Bato Star Fishing (Pty) Ltd v Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism 2004 4 SA 490 (CC); Minister of Health v New Clicks South Africa (Pty) Ltd 2006 2 SA 311 (CC); Matatiele Municipality v President of the RSA 2007 1 BCLR 47 (CC) para 100.

7

justificatory,31 _{inclusive and embracive of all those living in South Africa, with all their} differences, be these cultural, ethnic or religious.32 _{Support for this submission is} borne out by the fact that the colloquial reference to South Africa as the "rainbow nation" echoes the imperative contained in the Preamble of the Constitution that "South Africa belongs to all who live in it, united in our diversity ".33 _{The benefits to} be derived from a culture of tolerance in diversity are far outweighed by the losses sustained and suffered through intolerance. It speaks of a willingness on the part of interested persons to seek a change – to transform our society from its recent past, an association with hostility, intolerance and exclusivity, to one of hospitality, tolerance and inclusivity. Implicit to this notion is a change that can and must be activated by our legal system. However, as articulated below, the need, desire and catalyst for a change in the way we perceive things, react, consider and conduct ourselves and treat our fellow members in society in general and in the workplace in particular is an imperative that far transcends the confines of the regulatory framework of our legal dispensation. It is a spirit for changing our society that must come from each and every person making up the rich social diverse tapestry of South Africa that infuses all dimensions of society and our existence.

Work is an inexorable part of human existence. It is the lifeblood of commerce, industry and a significant aspect of the lives of people from diverse cultural, ethnic, political, social, economic and religious backgrounds within our society. It is the means by which persons are able to sustain themselves, their life partners or families. Some work to survive; others to live a more fulfilled life and thereby reach their goals. In whichever way one looks at the scenario, it cannot be denied that work forms an integral part of the lives of all people of society. People have to work in order to live. They also live to work. The workplace, in the traditional sense of the word, referring to an area where employees engage with colleagues and their employers, is in many instances a micro-image of our macrocosmic society. In this

31 _{The notion of a paradigm shift from an authoritarian culture to one which is justificatory is one}

which was captured by Mureinik 1994 SAJHR 31.

32 _{McDonald 2015 JSR 205. See also Mofokeng 2007 LD&D 130; Rautenbach 2010 JLP 163-165;}

Van Vollenhoven 2015 PER 2309-2311.

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sense, it can only be expected that the multicultural diversity that characterises society will also be visible in the workplace. A variety of religious rights and interests in the workplace does not and will not necessary translate into a satisfactory working environment. An example of this would be where the inherent requirements of the job (IROJ) may be the performance of abortions at a clinic, which an employee finds offensive and objectionable on grounds of his or her religious belief. A further example is where an employer, out of economic considerations and for operational reasons, requires its employees to work on a Saturday, but is met by an objection from an employee or employees who are Seventh Day Adventists who claim that Saturday is their day of worship and attending church. Or take the case of an applicant for work34 _{to an airline carrier for the position of a flight hostess. The} applicant wears a hijab, niqab or burka on account of her Islamic faith and the inherent requirement of the position advertised is that a specific uniform is worn whilst performing duties as a flight hostess, which uniform cannot be worn with any of the aforesaid Islamic covers or scarves. This example aligns itself closely with one in which employees of, for example, the Christian faith wish to display a piece of jewellery representing a crucifix around their necks. A problem might arise in such cases where the dress code of the employer, due to the IROJ, prohibits the wearing of the crucifix, for example when the employer has a uniform dress code or may operate in an industry that renders services to a clientele that is traditionally Muslim or Jewish, such as a butcher selling solely kosher or halaal meat.35 _{Another example} is where non-mainstream religious employees at a workplace36 _{request that since} Christian public holidays37 _{are recognised on the calendar, certain of their days of} spiritual belief should also be duly recognised. What of the case of a devout Muslim male who works for an employer who traditionally is permitted additional time off on a Friday to perform his salah (prayers); however, due to operational requirements of

34 _{Who qualifies for protection of rights afforded to employees in terms of the authority as laid}

down in Wyeth SA (Pty) Limited v Manqele 2005 6 BLLR 523 (LAC) para 20.

35 _{Assuming, of course that the employee would be performing a role within the workplace that}

relates to interacting and engaging with clientele or customers and is hence going to be visible and an integral part of the business of the employer.

36 _{Such as Rastafari, Taoism or traditional African religions.}