The utilization of modern technology to advance management techniques in the South African game farming industry

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iJNwu

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The utilization of modern technology to

advance management techniques in the

South African game farming industry

P van Zyl

• orcid.org 0000-0002-2917-3656

Mini-dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements

for the degree Master of Business Administration at the

North-West University

Supervisor:

Graduation ceremony

: May 2019

Student number: 22182594

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study would not have been possible without the help of others. Firstly, I would like to thank my Lord and Saviour who gave me the opportunity and means to complete an MBA. Without the grace of the Lord I would not have been here today.

Secondly, I would like to thank the North-West University for the opportunity it offers its staff to take on formal studies while working fulltime. In this regard I also want to thank my dear colleagues for the encouraging words on days when the road ahead still seemed long and difficult. Also, I would like to tharik my manager for approving my study leave to complete the tasks necessary for me to complete this degree.

Thirdly, a special thank you to my family. To my parents who have always encouraged me to believe in my own abilities and who taught me the valuable life lesson that anything in life that is worthwhile requires hard work, patience and sacrifice - thank you. Thank you to my brother and sister who have always been there to support me.

I am especially grateful for the lessons that I learnt through the sport of Rugby from a young age. With this I leave you with a quote about rugby, given to me by my team captain at school, which I apply in all areas of my life:

"Rugby is not a game based on points and tries. It is about the passion and heart that drive us into a state of self-determination that can break any tackle, beat any line and overcome any mountain. It is about the love of the game where self-belief fuels the motivation that drives the body to do better each time. You have to believe in yourself to achieve the impossible" - Matthew Hill

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ABSTRACT

Game farming or wildlife ranching, as it is commonly known, is a major constituent of the South African tourism industry. Technology can be integrated with current management practices under the four pillars of the industry, known as breeding, hunting, ecotourism and game products, to advance management techniques in the game farming industry.

The main objective of this study was to identify modern technologies that can be used as

managerial tools in different areas of the South African wildlife ranching industry to ensure

its future sustainability.

To clearly identify what technologies can be used, this study was based on knowledge

gained through a literature review and the evaluation of the empirical data collected from

263 participants, on which recommendations were based for modern technologies that can be used as managerial tools in different areas of the South African game farming

industry.

Recommendations were based on the suitability of each technology for each of the

fundamental management pillars of the industry and suggestions were made for future

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1-1: Chapter Layout.. ... 8

Table 3-1 :Percentage of respondents from each province ... 32

Table 3-2: Distribution of different sized game farms in South Africa ... 33

Table 3-3: Species ... 36

Table 3-4; Importance of activities ... 37

Table 3-5: Technology usage ... 42

Table 3-6: Anova table with Cronbach's alpha results for the importance of activities on game farms ... 48

Table 3-7: Anova table with Cronbach's alpha results for the scale of usage of technology on game farms ... 48

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2-1: The Four Pillars of the Wildlife Ranching Industry ... 14

Figure 3-1: Size of existing game farms in South Africa ... 34

Figure 3-2: What can a sustainable game ranch size ... 34

Figure 3-3: Positions filled by respondents on game farms ... 35

Figure 3-4: Respondents' experience ... 35

Figure 3-5: Importance of activities conducted on game farms ... 41

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CHAPTER 1 NATURE AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY

1.1 Introduction

Game farming is a major constituent of the South African tourism industry. Wildlife tourism activities occur on privately owned game farms and state-owned reserves. The South African game farming industry faces many challenges such as the global patterns in

hunting, climate change, wildlife translocation, and land reform (Taylor, Lindsey & Davi es-Mostert, 2016:85). A wide variety of modern technologies can possibly be integrated with current management practices to assist in overcoming these challenges (Marvin, Pin

-Koh, Lynam, Wich, Davies, Krishnamurthy, Stokes, Starkey & Asner, 2016).

To clearly identify areas where such technologies can be implemented, this study will focus on the four main pillars of game farming. These pillars are game breeding,

ecotourism, hunting and the production of game products (Van der Merwe & Du Plessis,

2014:12). Another aspect that this study will need to take into consideration is the types of game farm management activities.

South Africa is mostly a dry, semi-arid country, which means in some regions of the country it can be difficult to farm with normal livestock such cattle and sheep due to the

harsh conditions. In the near future wildlife, which are biologically better suited for these types of environments, could play an increasingly bigger role in the economy considering that game farming is likely to be one of the better economic performers and big contributors of foreign exchange to South Africa. Game farming practices are also consistent with the international goal of creating a "sustainable, living planet". Moreover,

the high unemployment rate in South Africa is a matter of concern to all, and the game

farming sector can prove to be a valuable tool to create additional job opportunities for skilled and semi-skilled labour (Van der Merwe & Du Plessis, 2014:4).

1.2 Problem statement

The game farming industry can be a major contributor to economic wealth and empowerment in a poverty-stricken South Africa. Current problems that the industry faces can limit its overall potential for being a major economic contributor in South Africa. These problems include:

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• Difficulty evaluating under which economic, ecological, and social factors the industry performs at its best.

• Development of effective regulatory legislation for the industry remains a problem. • Policy makers find it difficult to include the game farming industry in land use planning

activities.

• Difficulty developing incentives and practices to advance the industry.

• Government still does not fully support the game farming industry as a contributor to the South African green economic agenda (Taylor et al., 2016).

A possible solution to these problems may be to implement modern technology in key functional areas that form part of the industry. Currently no clear guidelines exist to assist managers in the industry in implementing such technologies. Also, no new technologies have been clearly identified that can be used effectively in the industry. Thus, the primary research question is:

Can modern technological advances be used as managerial tools in different areas of the South African game farming industry to ensure its future sustainability?

1.3 Objectives of the study

The following section describes the study's objectives and what it set out to achieve to answer the primary research question above.

1.3.1 Primary objective

The main objective of this study is to determine what modern technologies can be used

as managerial tools in different areas of the South African game farming industry to ensure its future sustainability.

1.3.2 Secondary objectives

To achieve the main objective, the following secondary objectives are set out:

• Conduct a literature review on current management activities and technology used in all four pillars of the industry.

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• Survey types of technologies that can be used as management tools.

• By developing a questionnaire, determine whether any role players in the industry are currently using modern technologies to manage their establishments.

• Offer recommendations on possible technologies that can be used specifically in a game farming environment.

• Draw conclusions on the use of modern technologies as management tools in the

industry.

1.4 Scope of the study

1.4.1 Field of study

The scientific field under which this study falls is tourism and management sciences.

1.4.2 Geographical demarcation

The geographical demarcation refers to the boundaries, or conceptual separation,

between items. The geographical demarcation for this study is a national scale within the

borders of South Africa. Currently, an estimated 8 979 game farms exist within these borders.

1.4.3 Importance and benefits of the proposed study

According to Venktess (2017), Africa as a whole is predicted to have one of the largest

continental populations in the world in the near future. To support this population, Africa

will need to take innovation and business support to higher levels than before. According

to Memon (2017), South Africa already has an unemployment rate of around 27. 7% and both government and private sectors will need to become more proactive if they plan to

reduce unemployment rates in South Africa.

As one of South Africa's well-known industries, the game farming industry can assist in

addressing unemployment by implementing innovative measures and techniques with which to manage its practices. In the current economic climate, it is becoming increasingly

difficult for the average farmer to stay profitable and so many have transitioned to game

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farms which cover approximately 20 million hectares of land (Kruger, 2016). The economic contribution of the game farming sector occurs within the four pillars of game farming, namely game breeding, ecotourism, hunting, and the production of game products (Van der Merwe & Du Plessis 2014:13).

The sector nearest to game farming is commercial farming. Commercial farming has seen many new innovationions in South Africa over the last few years. These innovations include mobile applications, drone-specialised sensor and internet technology - almost none of which is being used the South Africa game farming industry (ACES, 2017; ITR,

2015; Johnson, 2017; Ryan, 2017; Wilson, 2014). As such, it is important to research how these technologies can be used in the game farming industry to help South Africa create more job opportunities and support the growing population of the near future.

1.4.4 Delimitations

The primary focus of this study is on the utilization of modern technology as management tools for game farm managers in South Africa. This study requires the participants to actively work in the everyday operations of game farming aspects which fall under the four pillars of game farming as set out by Van der Merwe and Du Plessis (2014:13). The researcher acknowledges that global huting patterns, climate change, wildlife translocation limits and land reform are factors that influence this industry (Taylor et al.,

2016:83), which are important to consider. Implementing technology in the industry will not necessarily result in changes within all the areas described in the literature review.

This research aims to provide new insight into the industry and to make constructive and valueble recommendations.

1.4.5 Assumptions

According to Botha (2015:9) critical assumptions make research more meaningful. Researchers need to make certain implicit assumptions when researching a specific topic and stipulate them as the study's underlying assumptions. The following assumptions have been made for this study:

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1.4.5.1 Assumption 1

This study assumes that the game farming sector has four main pillars under which all management activities fall. These pillars are game breeding, ecotourism, hunting, and the production of game products.

This study assumes that almost no technological innovations seen in the agricultural or other similar sectors and have yet to be implemented by managers of game farms.

This study assumes that technologies used in the agricultural and conservation sectors can also be used for the game farming industry in a similar way.

All participants of the survey are actively working as managers in at least one or more of the sub-sectors within this industry.

1.4.6 Key terms

The following terms are often used in the game farming and technology sectors:

Alien animal: An animal that is not indigenous to South Africa and of which the origin does not occur within the borders of the country.

Biltong hunting: An activity involving the hunting of wildlife by means of a rifle, bow, or similar weapon for the use in a variety of meat products.

Biltong/meat hunter: A person participating in the activity of biltong/meat hunting of which the main purpose is to obtain meat for meat products.

Exemption: A permit that is issued upon application of an owner/farmer which exempts the holder from the requirement of obtaining certain other permits for hunting.

Exempted game farm: Refers to a farm that is fenced or enclosed to prevent certain species of wild animals from escaping.

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Feathered game: Any bird, excluding ostriches. Furred game: Any wild mammal with fur.

Game: Non-domestic animals.

Game birds: Birds permitted for hunting under provincial hunting proclamations.

Game farm/ranch: Adequately fenced land containing a variety of game species that can

be used for hunting, meat production, live game sales, and to provide infra and supra-structures for eco/wildlife tourists.

Hunter: Any person who undertakes the legally restricted activity of hunting.

Hunting: The pursuit and killing or capturing of wild animals.

Hunting industry: All businesses and agencies that provide services for hunters,

transportation, and entertainment including accommodation, attractions, food and drink.

Hunting outfitter: A person who owns a hunting business that provides hunting services

and is responsible for the marketing and management of a hunting operation.

Sustainable tourism: Tourism that is economically viable and does not destroy the

natural resources on which future tourism activities will depend.

Sensor technology: Technologies with the ability to obtain information on many different

objects without having any direct contact with them.

Mobile application: A software program specifically developed for small wireless

computing devices such as tablets and smartphones.

Electric vehicle: Any form of vehicle only powered by an electricity source (ACES, 2017;

Oxford Dictionary, 2017; Rouse, 2013; Matulka, 2017; Van der Merwe & Du Plessis,

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1.5 Research methodology

1.5.1 Description of overall research design

This study will follow a quantitative research approach. This type of approach focuses on

expressing quantities in the collection and analysis of data. Quantitative research also has a deductive approach that involves testing the relationship between research and

theory. The practices and norms used in natural sciences are incorporated in this

approach (Bryman et al., 2014:31 ).

This research approach is consistent with the natural science epistemology named

positivism, which provides a basis for the subject to be researched without the researcher

being influenced by the subject or the other way around. Scientific data collected in this type of approach can be interpreted as quantitative data and will allow for the use of mathematical and statistical techniques to be analysed. Furthermore, quantitative data allows the researcher to identify patters and relations in the data that can be useful when presenting findings (Botha, 2017:71 ).

To accurately research the relationships between management approaches in the game

farming industry and different technologies which can be used, a cross-sectional research

design will be used. This type of research allowed for collection of data for two variables namely the activities that need to be managed on game farms, and what technologies can be implemented as management tools. The cross-sectional approach will also allow for data to be collected for a single point in time while supporting quantification of such data (Bryman et al., 2014:106). To facilitate the understanding of the flow of the research process, see Table 1-1 below.

Table 1-1: Chapter Layout

Title: The utilization of modern technology to advance management techniques in the South African game farming industry

Chapter 1: Nature and scope of study

Chapter 2: Literature review of activities, management and technology use in the industry

Chapter 3: Empirical study

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1.5.2 Population/sampling 1.5.2.1 Unit of analysis

Defining the study population requires defining the criteria for a game farm. In a study conducted by Taylor et al. (2016:10), game farms were defined as privately owned property by an individual, company or consortium and used for deriving commercial benefit from wildlife. These farms do not have to be profitable and may also include farms on which mixed farming practices take place. For the purpose of this study, the unit of analysis will oe managers and owners of such game farms as defined above who derive

commercial benefit in any of the four pillars, namely game breeding, ecotourism, hunting,

and production of game products (Van der Merwe & Du Plessis, 2014:11).

The total amount of game farms in South Africa, which includes exempt and open farms, is 8 979 and covers around 170 419 square kilometres.

1.5.2.2 Unit of analysis: location

The game farms are located across South Africa and so this study will be conducted on a national scale, in other words the unit of analysis is in South Africa. The information about the units of analysis will be in the public domain and any individual or organisation will be free to participate in the survey.

1.5.2.3 Unit of analysis accessibility

Accessibility to the respondents will be relatively simple - many game farms have websites and advertisements with contact information on the internet.

1.5.2.4 Suitability of unit of analysis

Understanding suitability requires considering the primary research question:

Can modern technological advances be used as managerial tools in different areas of the

South African game farming industry to ensure its future sustainability?

Evidently, the focus will be on identifying which technologies can be used as managerial tools in the South African game farming industry. This means that the unit of analysis will require people or role players who preform managerial roles on establishments as defined

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by Taylor et al. (2016:10). This definition states that game farms can be privately owned by an individual, company or consortium and must derive commercial benefit from wildlife. These role players will also need be in a position to determine which technologies they already use and which future technologies they might consider using on their establishments for more effective management.

1.5.2.5 Alternative unit of analysis

The only other feasible unit of analysis will be to also include staff who work on game farms and not only management. Staff members generally also have a good idea of how game farms operate within their working areas and often have hands-on experience which would help them determine whether a given technology would be suitable for a specific task or not.

1.6 Limitations of the study

The limitations of this study include the likes of accessibility to internet and e-mail communication. Game farm management can be very hands-on in that managers are often out in the field where internet access is not available, meaning that it could be difficult to get suitable respondents to answer the questionnaires in a timely manner.

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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

The game farming industry in South Africa has undergone many stages, some positive and some negative. Game farms can be very complex to manage successfully, and managers of such establishments need to take note of the many different managerial aspects for them to be successful. The entire sector is built on four fundamental pillars,

namely breeding, hunting, ecotourism, and game products, which need to be managed effectively (Van der Merwe & Du Plessis, 2014:4).

While considering how this industry fits into the bigger scheme with other sectors, many

outside factors have been found to also influence on the sector. These influences include a global pattern in hunting, climate change, transportation, as well as land reform in South Africa (Taylor, 2016:85). In South Africa are around 8 979 privately owned and registered game farms which cover approximately 20 million hectares of land (Kruger, 2016). The

current economic can make it difficult for farmers to stay profitable, thus many farmers have converted to game farming to make ends meet.

The tourism sector has proven itself to be a generator of large income and opportunities

in the country (Kruger, 2016). Advancing the sector will require new and innovative management methods. The world has seen the rise of many different technologies in

recent times, including technologies available to game farms and which can be adapted for the game farming environment, which can help improve and advance the sector for the future.

2.2 The history of South African game farming

The game farming industry in South Africa has an unstable past. According to Van der Merwe and Du Plessis (2014:4) the history of the game farming industry can be divided into three distinctive periods in history:

• Period 1: 1652 until the end of the 19th century • Period 2: Post-Anglo-Boer War until 1960 • Period 3: 1960 up to the present

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2.2.1 Period 1: 1652 until the end of the 19th century

In the beginning of this period, South Africa was country with a vast amount of animal

species. The early settlers arrived in the Cape of Good Hope in 1651 (SAHO, 2017).

These early settlers used relatively primitive weapons and so the impact on animal

populations at the time was relatively small, and the game population remained stable at

first. However, as time progressed certain factors started to influence the wildlife

populations of the region negatively. For example, the development of the muzzle loading rifle improved shooting accuracy of hunters and also led to the increase of unregulated

hunting in the regions. The trading of wildlife-related products like ivory from rhino horns

were highly profitable at the time (Van der Merwe & Du Plessis, 2014).

The beginning of the South African diamond rush drew even more people into the region in 1866, placing additional pressure on the wildlife population (Lunderstedt, 2013). This substantial increase in people in the region meant an increased demand for food, and the

easiest source of meat at the time was the wildlife in the region (Van der Merwe & Du

Plessis, 2014:4). In 1893 rinderpest broke out in South Africa, and many farmers at the

time killed the surrounding wildlife population because it was seen as the main cause of

the spread of the disease between farms (DAFF, 2017). The Anglo-Boer War brought

farming in the region to a temporary halt, which gave the wildlife time to reproduce and increase its numbers again (Van der Merwe & Du Plessis, 2014:4).

2.2.2 Period 2: Post-Anglo-Boer War until 1960

During the period that followed the Anglo-Boer War the British-controlled government was

in favour of protecting the little wildlife that was left, but this all ended abruptly when a

disease called the naga-disease broke out in the region. The disease was carried mainly

by a specific species of fly called the Tsetse fly. To protect their livestock, farmers started

culling wildlife by the masses again to help stop the spread of the disease. At the time, wildlife did not have much value to anyone - wild animals were undesirable competition

to farming livestock, and wildlife was considered a pest with no monetary value. In fact, farms that had no wildlife on them were worth more than farms with wildlife (Van der Merwe & Du Plessis, 2014:5).

Another major contributor to the decrease of wildlife in South Africa was the severe

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Second World War. This increase in wildlife numbers was short lived because the Second World War also led to the development of more accurate weapons, and so people would start using these weapons for hunting purposes after the war. Farming in general also became a problem to wildlife reproduction. In the 1950s farmers used millions of kilometres of livestock fencing which made it difficult for wildlife to find one another to breed. Wildlife was no longer able to freely migrate across the country and was almost eliminated entirely. Wildlife numbers were at an all-time low - for example, at the end of

this period South Africa was only left around 2 000 blesbok, 19 bontebok, 90 Cape mountain zebra and only 30 white rhinoceroses (Van der M~rwe & Du Plessis, 2014).

2.2.3 Period 3: 1960 up to the present

In the early 1960s, the rights over wildlife by private land owners changed so that private landowners would now have full ownership of the wildlife on their land, giving wildlife commercial value. This is widely regarded as one of the most significant agricultural

transformations in the history of South African agriculture in addition to its being a major revolution in South African conservation. However, the outcomes of this major change in game farming only took effect in the early 1990s. Since then the game farming industry has grown at an average rate of 5.6% per year for areas exempted for game farming. This growth rate was brought on mainly by the major economic and ecological benefits derived from keeping plains game species, and many farmers have since switched from commercial livestock farming to game farming. The industry has also seen an increase in intensive wildlife breeding practices in the mid-2000s which in turn has resulted in further growth at a rate of 6.75% per year (Rossouw & Cloete, 2014:373).

2.3 Game farm management in South Africa

Game farm management has many different aspects that need consideration to understand how the industry works. It is noteworthy that not all land is suitable for all game farming activities - habitat, vegetation and size all play major roles in the suitability of a game ranch (Ekofocus, 2018). To understand how managers of wildlife farms manage such establishments, observe the four pillars of the game farming sector in South Africa as seen in Figure 2-1 below:

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Wildlife Farming

Breeding Hunting Ecotourism Game Products

Figure 2-1: The Four Pillars of the Game farming Industry

Source: Van der Merwe and Du Plessis (2014:13)

Eloff (1999:23) categorises game breeding under two distinctive parts, the first being the

breeding of regular species which are not endangered and. the second being the

specialised breeding of game species which are considered to be endangered.

Hunting can be broken down into biltong hunting, bow hunting, trophy hunting, and bird

hunting. Hunting can be described as the process of searching, following, and driving wild animals for the sole purpose of killing or capturing these wild animals by means of shooting, poisoning, or trapping (Van der Merwe & Saayman, 2003:105). It is relevant to mention the four main aspects of ethical hunting as set out by Confederation of Hunting Associations of South Africa (CHASA) as can be seen in the list below:

• Obey legislation.

• Comply with the principle of fair chase.

• Cause minimal suffering for the hunted animal.

• Conform to broadly accepted norms of respect for nature and fellow man (CHASA,

2018).

Hunting is a major element of many game farms in South Africa for which many new

technologies have become available to the market.

Ecotourism is the phenomenon of tourism-related activities in areas of ecological interest. This type of tourism refers to the responsible travel into natural areas while conserving

the natural and socialite environment. This type of tourism aims be sustainable for all

stakeholders involved and to educate tourists both on a cultural and a biological level

(CTH, 2017). The three main aspects of eco-tourism that must be noted is that it:

• must be nature based;

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• must be managed in a sustainable manner (CTH, 2017).

Game products refer to the production of products which are manufactured from wild animals. Examples of these products can be biltong, venison, animal hides and any other taxidermy products (Van der Merwe & Du Plessis, 2014:13).

2.3.1 Aspects to consider in game ranch management

As seen above, the four pillars of game farming form the foundation of the entire industry and any manager will need to take into consideration all four these pillars when conducting business in this industry. Further consultation of the literature reveals ·many critical aspects under the four pillars that require understanding and consideration in this

industry. Planning and managing a wildlife ranch can be time consuming but is a fundamental aspect of any game ranch. According to Bothma and Du Toit (2015:53),

some of the different aspect that require consideration when managing a game ranch are:

• acquisition of game ranch; • vehicles;

• the use of information systems; • building and camping amenities;

• information management • hides, lookout towers and vulture restaurants;

• economics;

• bomas and holding pens;

• habitat evaluation;

• animals and their requirements;

• fencing;

• wildlife and field health;

• water planning;

• animal management and utilization;

• roads;

• habitat management;

• airstrips;

• rural development.

2.4 Factors that influence the game farming sector

Like in any other industry, the game farming sector is affected by many different factors on a global and local scale {Taylor et al., 2016:85). The following factors should be considered to facilitate understanding the challenges that game ranchers have faced in recent times.

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2.4.1 Global patterns in hunting

The hunting industry has grown rapidly since the 1980s until the early 2000s. This growth

in the South African hunting industry has been ascribed to the game farming industry's growth and an increase in species varieties and colours constantly being made available for hunting. Namibia, South Africa's primary game farming competitor, has also seen significant growth. Namibia has implemented a highly successful community conservancy programmes and in so doing has increased the land available for hunting. Game farming can also be affected by changes in hunter participation in key markets such as the US. A slight decrease in these markets can be observed in addition to a steady increase ·in hunters from new markets, such as Russia and China. Countries like South Africa with its natural resources have the opportunity to draw major economic benefits from the decline in hunting opportunities elsewhere in the world if managed correctly (Taylor et al., 2016:85).

2.4.2 The effect of climate change on the game farming industry

According to US Forest Service (2017:6), climate change can be seen as the significant statistical change in the average state of the climate's variability over an extended period. Climate change is direct or indirect attributes of human activity that alter the makeup of the global atmosphere, and can be observed over comparable periods. In the last 50 years the average yearly temperatures in South Africa have steadily risen (Ziervogel et

al., 2014:605).

Climate change has become a major driver of the global loss of biodiversity and it has been forecasted that around 4% of African mammal species will be threatened critically by changes in the climate. As it is a significant contributor of growth to the South African economy, it is important to understand how climate change might affect the game farming industry. The ability to accurately measure these changes and make predictions will allow wildlife ranch mangers to make informed decisions. Climate change can influence many factors of the industry, which can include the likes of species composition, ecosystem balance, water availability, and vegetation type (Taylor et al., 2016:88).

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2.4.3 Limitations of the wildlife translocation industry

The capturing of wildlife in South Africa usually lasts around eight months between the months of March and October. There has been a heated debate on whether or not the capture season should be extended to all year. The main reason for extension of the season would be that translocators would be able to capture and move animals all year,

thereby generating more fulltime employment opportunities. The main argument against all year-round capture and translocation is the issue of animal welfare. During the months of March and October temperatures are on average lower than during the rest of the year; ·this helps reduce the stress that animals experience during capture and transport (Taylor,

2016:92).

Moreover, regulations are also problematic for many wildlife ranchers, who are not satisfied with the Threatened or Protected Species Regulations. The general viewpoint is that the Department of Environmental Affairs uses outdated geographical species distribution maps, which restricts the ability of wildlife translocators to move wildlife across provincial borders. In addition, when wildlife is transported, an export and an import permit between provinces of South Africa is required, and this system is also said to be ineffective due to the time it takes to get the permits (Taylor et al., 2016:93).

2.4.4 Land reform

More than a hundred years after the 1913 Natives Land Act and 20 years into its democracy, the South African government has failed to develop and produce an effective and fair land reform programme (Dugmore, 2014:5). To address this problem the Department of Rural Development and Land Reform (DRLR) initially set out three primary strategic objectives:

• Objective 1: Promote equitable land redistribution and agricultural development.

• Objective 2: Provide comprehensive farm development support.

• Objective 3: Establish functional systems and institutional arrangements (DRLR,

2015:35).

To achieve these objectives, the Department aimed to provide comprehensive and effective support to smallholder farmers. They also aimed to acquire strategically located land to increase the availability of land and the productive use thereof (DRLR, 2015:35).

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This plan holds much potential for providing access to the game farming and agricultural

industry. However, land has recently become a sensitive and emotive issue in South Africa.

A motion brought forward by the Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF) to amend Section 25

of the Constitution to accelerate the process of land redistribution through the expropriation of land without compensation was passed by The South African National

Assembly. This motion which was supported the majority of parties when it was debated

at the National Assembly in February 2018. Amending Section 25 of the Constitution would make it legal for the state to expropriate land from private land owners without

compensation (Mokoena, 2018). According to Mogashoa & Kitshoff-Botha (2018:16) from

Game farming South Africa, expropriation without compensation can affect the industry

in three ways as discussed in the following sections.

2.4.4.1 The effect on the South African game farming industry

The effect on the game farming industry in South Africa as a whole would be detrimental.

Security of tenure is imperative because it secures a multibillion rand industry.

Threatened security of tenure might result in ranchers becoming unwilling to invest in the

land they own or in forms of business conducted on such land, resulting in a chain reaction

across the entire tourism industry, the effects of which could be detrimental to the South

African economy.

2.4.4.2 The effect on the South African economy

Foreign investors also have concerns about the threats associated with land reform and

as such it will affect foreign investment negatively in many industries including the game farming industry. Furthermore, this will have affect financial institutions, particularly where

property is used as collateral for loans and other financial transactions.

2.4.4.3 Social impact

Over the past two decades, land distribution has often led productive and sustainable farms to deteriorate to such a state that it has impacted the livelihoods of the previous

employees, families and societies in these areas. Land once productive has been

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2.5 The value of the game farming sector to the South African economy

In the current economic climate, it is becoming increasingly difficult for the average farmer to remain profitable and so many have transitioned to game farming in order to do so. In South Africa are around 8 979 privately owned and registered game farms, covering approximately 20 million hectares of land (Kruger, 2016). As with anything in the sector,

the economic contribution by the game farming sector occurs within the four pillars of game farming.

Hunting generates an .estimated R9 billion per year, which makes up around 30% of the

total industry gross domestic product (GDP). 55% of the revenue produced from hunting

is generated from wildlife and 45% from associated goods and support services required to produce hunting trips. Despite the constant expression of dislike by anti-hunting circles,

hunting has saved the wild animal population in South Africa. Had it not been for the economic value placed on wildlife by hunters, the game farming industry, and by extent wildlife, would not have existed the way it does today. Moreover, hunting is seen as an effective conservation method when populations of specific species need to be culled to keep the ecosystem balanced and healthy (De Villiers, 2016:1 ).

2.5.1 Ecotourism economic contribution

Ecotourism is regarded as one of the fastest growing tourism sub-sectors in South Africa.

This sub-sector in the tourism industry generates around 20% of global tourism revenues.

This type of tourism is ideal for South Africa for its climate and biodiversity. Ecotourism

proves to be an effective contributor to the game farming industry because of the variety of activities that can be adapted to suit at any wildlife ranch (De Villiers, 2016:1).

Consider, for example, that ecotourism can generate revenue on wildlife farms with the

following activities: • River rafting; • Hiking; • Bird watching; • Fishing; • Rock climbing;

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• Game watching;

• Zip lining;

• 4x4 trails;

• Mountain biking (Cape Nature, 2017).

2.5.2 Wildlife products economic contribution

Currently the harvesting, processing and exporting of game meat and related products

remain a largely untapped resource of the game farming industry. International demand

for such products is high but the lack of a constant and reliable supply remains a

challenge. Biltong, which is probably one the best-known wildlife-related products,

produces around R1 .5 billion in annual revenue. The nature of producing such products is a challenge in that current abattoirs are not suited to process game animals. Future

forecasts show that this sub-sector will grow in the near future as soon as the government

starts providing the necessary support (De Villiers, 2016:1 ). 2.5.3 Game breeding economic contribution

This sub-sector is a major contributor to the economy. It has shown consistent positive

growth over the last decade, and its main income is generated through trading, sales to

hunting outfitters, and exports. Auctions also play a noteworthy role in the sales of wildlife,

although the majority of wildlife sales still exchange hands through private deals (De

Villiers, 2016:1 ). Sales through formal auctions have increased from R93 million in 2005

to R1 .8 billion in 2014. This indicates an estimated average annual increase of 26% over the past nine years, however this growth is expected to slow (Cloete, 2015). Main drivers

of this incredible growth include the production of rare and exotic animal varieties and the

attraction of the outdoors (De Villiers, 2016: 1 ). 2.6 Technology for game farming

The following section will review literature sources on the different technologies available

for game farms or which can be adapted for use in the game farming environment, as

well as how they are presently being used. To identify technologies for possible use or

which are already in use in the game farming industry, the four pillars of game ranch

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have been used to guide this part of the literature review. Literature on technologies currently being used in the agricultural sectors will also be reviewed to identify technologies that can easily be adapted for use on a game ranch.

2.6.1 GIS and smart collar technology

According to Dr. Helena Theron and Japie van der Westhuizen (2016), game breeding is

a specialised industry that requires the same level of scientific information and accuracy as livestock production to ensure long-term improvement and viability of genetics in the industry. Many forms of technology can aid in the collection of information about game animal behaviour and genetics.

Global positioning satellite (GPS) collars have been used for decades but they have become obsolete because their functions are limited in some areas of animal data collection. GPS collars only have the ability to record distances between position readings and cannot indicate whether an animal has taken a side trip or has moved directly to that position. In addition, they could not tell researchers whether these animals ran or walked to a position. That being said, in the year 2014 Terrie William, Christopher Wilmers, and Gabriel Elkaim from the University of California designed and engineered a SMART collar. The SMART collar was equipped with a GPS for location, a manometer for heading, and accelerometers to track the type of movement. This additional information made it possible predict animal behaviour more accurately and in turn provide crucial

information for making practical management decisions pertaining to certain species (Willoughby, 2017:3266-3268).

Coupled with the technology mentioned above, another form of technology that proves useful for wildlife ranchers when combined with the use of SMART collars is geographic

information systems (GIS). This type of information system can capture, store, manage,

analyse, and display many different types of geographical data. GIS data coupled with attribute data, which is data that contains detailed information on the geographical spatial data, becomes a highly effective problem-solving tool (University of Wisconsin, 2018). GIS can also be used as a wildlife management tool. Any area, with no exception to wildlife farms, is affected by human activity which can cause problems such as habitat loss, invasive species introductions, and pollution growth which all pose a major threat to

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the health and welfare of wildlife and biodiversity. GIS can help manage these issues in the following ways:

• Establish habitat requirements and ranges; • Determine population linkages;

• Manage disease levels;

• Track the progress of management activities;

• Track wildlife densities (Sherekete, 2017).

2.6.2 Advance genetic analytics

Before 1953, animal breeders used statistics to make predictions about the inheritance

of specific hereditary traits of animals. At that stage nobody truly knew what the

mechanism was behind the inheritance of certain traits from one generation of animal

species to the other. However, this all changed in 1953 after the discovery of the double

helix structure of DNA by Watson and Crick. Since this discovery many advances have

been made in the field of genetics. Initially it was a highly expensive and labour-intensive

process to study and analyse genetics. However, in recent times technological advances

in robotics have advanced this form of research. Robots can perform largescale

genotyping, which has made the process a great deal more effective and available

(Oldenbroek & Van der Waaij, 2014:26).

2.6.3 Record keeping and management software

Game breeders' objectives should be to gather, analyse, and apply useful information on

genetics and consider all breeding animals as candidates for production in the next generation. As seen in section 2.6.2 above, advanced genetics analytics can be very

useful because this type of analysis is done over many generations. The game breeder

will need a system for recording traits, keeping accurate records of the environmental

factors, and applying unique identification across herds. This data is used to apply models

that can separate environmental influences from genetics and help predict heritability

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Helping game breeders in this regard requires a consideration of technological advances in computer-related software and services. SA Stud Book is an animal recording and improvement association that offers services in the line of data capturing, editing, checking, processing and report generating on their Logix Game database platform. Currently 42 different game species can be recorded in the Logix Game database, which includes sub-species, different bloodlines as well as colour variants. Game breeding is still a relatively young industry in South Africa and breeders need to start implementing these types of technology to ensure sustainability of the industry (Farmer's Weekly, 2016).

2.6.4 Sensor technology

Sensor technology has the ability to obtain information about many different objects without having any direct contact with the object. Sensor data can provide wildlife ranchers with up-to-date, real-time information about the area of the farm where such a technology is used. This can allow a manager of a game ranch to make instant and precise management decisions (ACES, 2017). One type of sensor already in use in the agricultural sector is broken fence sensors, also known as vibration or inertia sensors.

This type of sensor is mounted on fences or barriers and is able to detect a problem in the structure itself. These sensors can be set to specific vibration levels, which can be useful for monitoring fences on game farms (FCSA, 2018).

2.6.5 Rifle scope camera

Many hunters and shooters have adopted rifle scope video cameras because this modern camera technology provides a digital view of the point of aim when shooting and helps young hunters learn how to aim. What is more, with this technology users do not experience any problems with eye relief. However the main advantage of this technology lies in its video recording functionality (Begum, 2015) - hunters are able to record every shot they take, and some manufacturers of these scope cameras have added additional functionality like watermarks, date stamps, as well tamper-proof video which means anybody who shoots with such a camera fitted can be held accountable for anything that they shoot (Hooked Tactical, 2018).

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2.6.6 Night vision scopes

Night vision scopes can be a great asset to a game rancher in improving management.

These scopes gather light which is reflected off a sensor and converted into a viewable

image. This type of modern technology can assist with game farms management activities

like wildlife counts and pest animal control while causing little disturbance for other animals (Weston, 2014).

2.6.7 Ozonic scent machines

Ozone is a strong oxidizing chemical prone to reacting with chemicals that have unsaturated molecular structures. It binds with a variety of organic compounds produced

in nature, which results either their total destruction or a chemical alteration to such an extent that they lose their characteristic chemical properties, including scent (Socola,

2016). An ozonic scent machine is a portable ozone machine that transforms oxygen

molecules into ozone molecules, which then bond with organic human scent molecules,

reducing the scent plume of the hunter and making it more difficult for animals detect their

scent (Mc Adams, 2015). These machines are very effective in their purpose, although

some think that such devices might influence negatively the principles of fair chase,

resource conservation, and equal opportunity (Hunting Network, 2017).

2.6.8 Global positioning satellite (GPS) tags for hunters

Handheld GPS units have evolved from simple products that marked positions on black

and white screens to highly advanced models with preloaded topographic maps,

backtracking features, and multitudes of icons for marking game signs, stand sites,

trailheads, and access points. These devices have returned countless hunters back to their camps safely (Peterson, 2011 ). In recent times GPS devices have become smaller

and many companies are producing what they call GPS tags. Take for example a

company like Pocket Finder (2018) who created a product called the Pocket Finder Key,

which is a small GPS tag no bigger than the size of a car key. This small device has the

ability to accurately locate using three different location technologies, with which it can track a moving person or vehicle with a live update every 60 second, and it can send an

S.O.S signal with the push of a button (Pocket Finder, 2018). With any type of tourism, it

is important to be able to manage the movement of tourists throughout an establishment.

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and thereby help offset negative impacts on the ecosystem and maintain the integrity and vitality of the establishment (GDRC, 2018).

2.6.9 Electric vehicles

The electric car was not developed overnight; it is the result of a series of scientific breakthroughs including the electric motor and the direct current battery. During the 1800s many inventors and engineers had begun experimenting with the idea of powering a motor vehicle using batteries and electric motors, which would lead to some of the first small-scale electric cars. Horse-drawn carriages were still the main mode of .

transportation at the time the first electric carriage had been created by Rove rt Anderson.

The first real, practical electric cars were only developed in the 1900s (Matulka, 2017).

Recently the management team at Chobe Game Lodge initiated a plan to be the first lodge in Africa to operate a complete fleet of electric safari vehicles. A company called Freedom Won SA was contracted to convert a Land Rover into the first silent electric game drive vehicle in Botswana, and soon thereafter a new electric safari skimmer boat was developed. These vehicles use long-life lithium batteries as a source of power, which can be charged with electricity generated from the hydroelectric scheme at Victoria Falls, thus being fully renewable energy. Not only are these vehicles carbon dioxide emission-free but they also enhance the tourism experience by having reduced noise levels. Wildlife behaviour has been indicated to be more confident without the noise produced by the normal diesel-powered vehicles. Such types of vehicles can also be used for game farms in South Africa (Wilson, 2014).

2.6.10 Drones

Conservation is one of the fundamental aspects of ecotourism. Drones are becoming an increasingly useful technological tool for its many different applications, which can impact largely on conservation and the entire game farming industry. Drones or unmanned aerial vehicles originated in the military, where they were used to gain useful information, though their use has extended to other areas that require undisruptive surveying techniques. The use of drones in ecology management is still under development (lvaservic et al.,

2015:113-118). Drones are a relatively affordable means by which wildlife managers can survey and map many different ecological aspects. Drones can be programmed to fly a

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specific route completely autonomously and can record high definition video (HD) video and photos that can be reviewed and analysed (O.C., 2018).

Species distribution maps provide a visual representation of where a species occurs as well as their distribution patterns (NRL, 2014). There is growing support for the use of

drones to help count different species and build accurate species distribution maps.

Drones have already been used to monitor a wide range of species that includes birds,

reptiles, elephants, and even species such as turtles, whales, dolphins and dugongs.

Drones safely reach places where we people are unable to perform specific functions

efficiently. Advances in machine learning algorithms and artificial intelligence will also

enhance the ability to collect and analyse data. To this effect, drones can be widely

applied for many purposes, including managerial purposes, technical services,

anti-poaching, fence surveying, and search-and-rescue efforts.

This technology has vast potential; however, a vast photographic database is required for

accurate object identification. To illustrate, many animal species are sexually dimorphic,

and animals can occur in a variety of habitats and have the ability stand, sit or lie down.

This means that the artificial intelligence and computer programmes required for this type of game count and identification still needs to be taught for all the variations of specific

types of animals (Jewitt & Wijnberg, 2018).

2.6.11 Action cameras

Video cameras can be a tool for collecting data in remote locations where other means

of observation-based data collection are unfeasible. Advances in imaging technology and

innovative mechanical systems for mounting cameras have given rise to the action

camera (AC). These are lightweight, compact, and wireless devices which can easily be

secured to most surfaces and are durable enough to withstand use in harsh outdoor

environments. These cameras were initially marketed for extreme sports (like surfing) but

have since attracted the attention of conservation researchers. ACs have high-capacity

memory cards, which allow them to function independently for a short period in a manner

similar to bio-logging devices (like accelerometers and thermal loggers). Many action

cameras are equipped with waterproof housing systems, making them ideal for outdoor

type environments. Moreover, camera manufacturers provide numerous specialised

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Understanding how this technology can advance the ecotourism pillar also requires taking note that eco-tourism is nature based, and people must be educated and managed in a sustainable manner (CTH, 2017). As is observable from the literature, these cameras can be used in a wide variety of outdoor environments, which means that they can be used in nature-base environments also. Action cameras are an engaging tool for educational and marketing purposes for being effective in illustrating experiences in the field as well as animal behaviour in natural environments. Many research groups presently use footage from action cameras on social networking and video-sharing platforms to educate the public (Struthers, 2015).

2.6.12 Mobile applications

A mobile application is a software program specifically developed for use on small wireless computing devices such as tablets and smartphones (Rouse, 2013). One of South Africa's leading cellular service providers, Vodacom, has invested a massive R21 million over three years into the new Connect Farmer platform. This is a cloud-based web and mobile application with the ability to link many different farmers across South Africa to the agricultural value chain and which will provide access to relevant information,

services, and markets. With such systems already in use for small holder farmers, this type of technological advance could also prove to be useful for game ranchers' (Ryan,

2017).

Other forms of mobile applications used in the agricultural sector which could also be used for the game farming sector come in form of applications like Beef Tracker. This is an application that allows beef cattle ranchers to demonstrate ways for cattle production to be conducted in a sustainable manner within a natural ecosystem. This application works by entering pasture and herd data onto a mobile device linked to the internet. After entering all the required information, the application can analyse the data and calculate grazing capacity and use. This application is a useful tool for complex ranching operations. With the constant development of this application, the following features have been added to the application: editing through cellular service networks, the ability to represent portions of a pasture as non-irrigated or irrigated, and the ability to report animal units to be harvested on an annual basis. Concerning carrying capacity and production, this type of data analysis application can help secure the sustainability of similar operations (Oltjen et al., 2017).

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Founded in 2008, iNaturalist started as a crowdsourcing site where users could post a picture of any plant or animal and the community, and consisted of both scientists and naturalists who would identify the pictures. Their mission was to connect experts from the scientific community and the public and to foster enthusiasm about fauna and flora while gathering data to aid professional scientists in monitoring changes in ecosystems. Recently, iNaturalist has revealed their plans to launch a mobile app that uses artificial intelligence (Al) to identify animals and plants. The app uses "deep learning," which entails the use of artificial neural networks that allow computers to learn in a similar way as people qo. The app learns by processing labelled images from a database of "research grade" observations which have been verified by experts. Once the model has learnt enough labelled images from the database, it will be able to identify unlabelled images. Not only does this technology have potential in the scientific community but also in other nature-based tourism applications (Matchar, 2017).

Other forms of mobile applications are focused on the tourist experience but which may also be an important tool for game farms. Access to the internet has provided tourists with considerable possibilities for searching information and planning tourism-related activities. Recent developments of information and communication technologies allow tourists to obtain interesting information from the internet during their trips through tour guide mobile applications (Smirnov, 2014).

These types of application can hold many advantages for a tourism-related business like a game farm. This type of mobile application helps free up time by removing the human factor, namely the tour guide. Nobody is required to adhere to a specific schedule, and tours can be conducted at any time. Mobile applications can also be listed on the Apple & Android App Stores, which makes tours easily searchable and accessible, which in turn can also help attract new clients (Action Tour Guide, 2018).

2.6.13 Renewable energy technologies

Solar electricity is one of the cleanest forms of renewable energy available in modern times. It can be used in many different applications around the home or business. Solar-powered photovoltaic panels convert solar energy to electricity. This technology can help reduce utility bills, which means that in the long run these systems pay for themselves in addition to reducing air pollution caused by utility companies that produce electricity from

The utilization of modern technology to advance management techniques in the South African game farming industry

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