Tracing bikes through minds : cyclists' perception of safety on the streets : the case of Amsterdam

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UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM GRADUATE SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES MASTER’S OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

Cyclists’ perception of safety on the streets

The case of Amsterdam

Shravan Shah student number: 11133945 shravan.shah@gmail.com SUPERVISOR Dr. David Evers d.v.h.evers@uva.nl SECOND READER Dr. Tuna Tasan-kok m.t.tasankok@uva.nl Date: 26th_{June 2017} Word Count: 17875

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

A street in a city is a place where lot of things happen synchronously. A street is a combination of various elements which brings it to life, varying from the trees and furniture on the sidewalks to vehicles on the carriageway. Every street is designed for a specific purpose. Just like a street in any city and its various associated elements take some time to cater to the specific needs of people, through this thesis research, I would like to thank everyone who believed in me and my efforts to make this study a success.

Firstly, I would like to thank my girlfriend, Shailaja for letting me pursue my dreams and supporting me all the way in this master’s program. I am grateful to my parents, my sister, family, friends, colleagues and professors from CEPT University, University of Amsterdam, Centrum Wiskunde en Informatica and Planning the Cycling City summer school group for being supportive and for their words of encouragement to take up this thesis research. A special note of acknowledgement to my thesis supervisor and guide at the University of Amsterdam, Dr. David Evers. He is the best supervisor I could have asked for. Thank you for guiding me in each and every step of this thesis research. You are the best! I would like to thank my second reader, Dr. Tuna Tasan-Kok for showing interest in my research. I hope she finds the study interesting.

I would also like to thank some of my other professors at the University of Amsterdam, Dr. Marco te Brommelstroet and Meredith Glaser for providing me with valuable advice and helping me in this thesis research. I would also like to thank Dr. Elenna Dugundji and Dr. Rob Van Der Mei from Centrum Wiskunde en Informatica for providing me an environment to learn more on the theme of stochastics and its relation to transportation planning research. I would like to express my gratitude towards my interviewees, Dr. Paul Schepers (Rijkswaterstaat), Heleen Vonk (Gemeente Amsterdam), Nancy van der bol (Gemeente Amsterdam), and Robert Hulshof (CROW Fietsberaad) for providing me with invaluable insights on the perception of safety of cyclists in Amsterdam and the Netherlands in relation to design of the streets. I would really like to thank all the cyclists of Amsterdam and students of the University of Amsterdam who took interest in my research, but the space doesn’t permit that!

I have had a great time in Amsterdam, learning about how cities have evolved over the years and how transportation systems have been an engine to the growth of cities. I hope to learn more about cycling and transportation planning in the years to come.

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Average annual percentage change in cyclists’ death 2010-2013 in the European Union ... 9

Figure 2. Street of Bruges, Belgium ... 13

Figure 3. A table from the design manual for bicycle traffic showing the type of cycling infrastructure that should be used ... 15

Figure 4. The scenario of cycling in Amsterdam compared to other cities over the years. .... 20

Figure 5. Map showing the streets where the surveys took place ... 28

Figure 6. Cross street section of De Lairessestraat (typical street) ... 30

Figure 7. Cross street section of Sarphatistraat (fietsstraat) ... 30

Figure 8. Cross street section of Leidsestraat (shared street) ... 31

Figure 9. Cross street section of Weesperstraat (fietspad) ... 31

Figure 10. Cross street section of Wateringschans (fietsstrook) ... 31

Figure 11. Locations marked by people on the streets which are perceived to be unsafe for cycling in Amsterdam ... 35 Figure 12. De Lairessestraat ... 35 Figure 13. De Lairessestraat ... 36 Figure 14. Sarphatistraat... 36 Figure 15. Sarphatistraat... 37 Figure 16. Leidsestraat ... 37 Figure 17. Koningsplein ... 38 Figure 18. Weesperstraat ... 38 Figure 19. Weesperstraat ... 39 Figure 20. Weteringschans ... 39

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Figure 21. Weteringschans ... 40

Figure 22. The web based survey form ... 42

Figure 23. Blackspots for cyclists in Amsterdam ... 44

Figure 24. Redesigning of De Lairesstraat ... 47

Figure 25. Safest street design perceived by the cyclists of Amsterdam ... 48

Figure 26. Spots marked unsafe for cycling by people on the street. ... 48

Figure 27. Spots perceived unsafe by cyclists in Amsterdam compared with the neighborhood ... 49

Figure 28. Cycleways and unsafe spots in Amsterdam ... 49

Figure 29. Perception of cyclists - Safe and Unsafe spots to cycle in Amsterdam ... 51

Figure 30. Map of Plusnet fiets and Hoofdnet fiets (cycling infrastructure) ... 51

Figure 31. Perception of Safety of the cyclists in Amsterdam ... 52

Figure 32. Measure of perception of safety of the cyclists in Amsterdam ... 52

Figure 33. Dangerous things about cycling in Amsterdam ... 53

Figure 34. Safest street design as perceived by the cyclists ... 54

Figure 35. Suggestions for the City of Amsterdam for improving the perception of safety of the cyclists ... 55

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Characteristics of different street designs ... 17

Table 2. Types of street designs with names and characteristic features ... 29

Table 3. Data collection methods ... 33

Table 4. Details of the conducted interviews ... 34

Table 5. Street design with name of the street, date of survey and figure numbers ... 34

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1

“A bicycle is the finest mode of transport known to man.” Adam Hart-Davis, English inventor

1. INTRODUCTION

a. Abstract

All over the world cycling has been recognized as one of the most efficient and sustainable way of transportation (Lawson, Pakrashi, Ghosh, & Szeto, 2013a). Cities all over the world have been promoting a shift from other modes of transportation to cycling for some decades now. Some western European cities have succeeded in making this transition more than others (Pucher & Buehler, 2008). This change has been possible due to multiple factors, which range from changes in policy, to provision and availability of better infrastructure. One such case is the Netherlands, where the government’s active involvement and law-abiding citizens have made cycling in cities safe and joyful (P. Schepers, Twisk, Fishman, Fyhri, & Jensen, 2017). There still exists a perception that cycling is an unsafe mode of transportation, which acts as a major barrier to increase in modal share of cycling around the world (Fishman, Washington, & Haworth, 2012; Horton, 2016; Lawson et al., 2013a). It is hence really important to understand the perception of cyclists and their association with the urban environment to bridge this gap of cycling modal share. The street network in a city, which is designed to fit particular modes of transportation, affects the travel behavior pattern (P. Schepers, Hagenzieker, Methorst, Van Wee, & Wegman, 2014) of people, including cyclists.

The multi-modal nature of transportation systems in cities have always inspired researchers to look into the aspects of network infrastructure, design and operations management. This study will explore the relationship between infrastructure and design further, specifically focusing on the design of streets and how it influences the perception of safety of the cyclists. The study focuses on different typologies of street designs which exist in the Netherlands. The city of Amsterdam is taken as a case for the research as conceptual hierarchical structure of streets can be found here. In Amsterdam, the number of trips on bicycles have increased by more than 40% over the last several years (Amsterdam, 2012) but the perception of safety has decreased. I hope the research will interest the reader to come up with new questions in the field of transportation planning and design.

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b. Introduction

“Neither the city planners nor the traffic planners put city space and city life high on their agenda, and for years there was hardly any knowledge about how physical structures influence human behavior. The drastic consequences of this type of planning on people’s use of the city were not

recognized until later.” – Jan Gehl

Governments around the world have certain goals to improve road safety and cycling in cities, however, the topics of perceived cycling safety and cycling mobility have not been researched really well (P. Schepers et al., 2014). This study is intended to help fill the existing knowledge gap in the field of urban planning about perception of safety on the streets of urban areas and its association with the cyclists. It will answer how street design affects the perception of safety of the cyclists. The study is not trying to solve the issue of getting people to cycle in cities, but is looking at the perspective of how safe people feel to ride their bicycles in cities, and whether street design influences the perception of safety. I hope the research will spark new questions in the field of transportation planning and design.

Many cities have for decades ignored the human dimension in urban planning (Gehl, 2013). A lot of urban planning and design guidelines tell us how a street should be designed from the perspective of a traffic or a civil engineer (Roess, Prassas, & McShane, 2011). Cities need to be planned better and according to the human scale. The same theory applies in the field of transportation planning. Handy states that it is essential to match spatial and travel behavior data for more inclusive planning of the urban transportation systems (Handy, Boarnet, Ewing, & Killingsworth, 2002). It is further stated that the term ‘built-environment’ always includes the human interactions in an urban space. It also includes the relationship between land-use, urban design and transportation systems. The scale of a street is a three-dimensional space which includes the street furniture and described in terms of a ‘human-scale’ (Handy et al., 2002). Thus, it is really important to include the human scale in transportation planning conundrum.

Transportation has shaped the way cities have grown over the years (Burgess, 2008). Cities have various kinds of transportation systems to cater to the structure of the city and most importantly its people (Mees, 2000). A distinctive characteristic of cities in the Netherlands is that there are two prominent modes of transportation (Rietveld, 2000): cycling and walking. This has made Dutch cities more livable (Lowe, 1990), since people enjoy the freedom to move and explore the cities more easily without relying ono motorized transport. The history, the tradition, availability of infrastructure and planning practices in the Netherlands have provided ample opportunities for cyclists to easily master the travel patterns in these cities.

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3 27% of trips in the Netherlands (Pucher & Buehler, 2008) are made on bicycles. Cycling comprises big part of the Dutch culture. Everyone in the Netherlands, young or old; rich or poor; male or female cycle. People in all parts of the country cycle without using helmets. There is no law which mandates helmet use by cyclists. This study focusses on the largest city of the Netherlands, Amsterdam, where 32% of trips are made on bicycles (M. T. Brömmelstroet, 2016) every day, and there is high perception of safety among the cyclists (Pucher & Buehler, 2007). However, despite Amsterdam being considered amongst the top cycle-friendly cities (Copenhagenize, 2015), the number of accidents relating to the cyclists have increased in the past decades (Townsend, 2016). Cyclists are the most vulnerable group on the streets as mentioned in the road safety report published by the city of Amsterdam last year (Amsterdam, 2016a). The scope of increasing the modal share of cycling and redesigning the existing street infrastructure in Amsterdam is in the future mobility plan of the city (Amsterdam, 2017d). It is a safe ground to conduct the research due to the presence different types of street designs for cyclists: fietsstraat1_{, fietspad}2_{, fietsstrook}3_{, shared streets}4_and typical street5_{(CROW & de Groot, 2007).}

A huge amount of money and effort is being spent to redesign the street infrastructure (Pucher & Buehler, 2008), to make them safer and more enjoyable for cyclists. Engineers can help make streets safer for cyclists by using prescribed architectural and urban design standards described in theory and street design manuals such as NACTO’s “Street design guide” (NACTO, 2013) or CROW Fietsberaad’s “Design manual for bicycle traffic” (CROW & de Groot, 2007). However, it is very important to take into account the perception of safety of the cyclists as cities might fail to scale up cycling if this important human factor is not taken into consideration. Cities around the world are struggling to draw more cyclists on streets. Big decisions are being made on investing in infrastructure to improve the attractiveness of streets in cities. The purpose to improve street design for cyclists can be both bane or a boon for the cities. This is due to the fact that the decision made by the people for choosing the right mode of transportation depends on how safety is perceived on the streets (Rodrı́guez & Joo, 2004). I would say ‘a fairly good designed street in a city might still be avoided by the cyclists if it is perceived as unsafe.’

To understand and gather relevant data on how people perceive safety while cycling, I interviewed cyclists in Amsterdam. Based on different typology of street designs at various locations in Amsterdam, cyclists were asked questions about the perception of safety. A GIS6 based internet survey was also used to reach to a larger audience, where users could mark the places where they felt unsafe while cycling in Amsterdam. The survey also asked users if the street design affected their perception of safety. Interviews with professionals working in

1_{A type of street design where motor vehicles and cyclists share the same space but the motor vehicles have a speed limit.} 2_{A type of street design where the cycling lanes are physically separated from carriageway by a barrier or are elevated to an extent.} 3_{A type of street design where the cycle lanes are painted bike lanes on the carriageway and are not physically separated.} 4_{A type of street design where the street is shared by all types of vehicles, motorized and unmotorized.}

5_{A street design where there is a bicycle lane, transit lane and lane for motor vehicles but nothing is physically separated and there is no speed limit.} 6_{Geographical Information System}

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4 the field of safety of cyclists gave me insight on how streets are designed in the Netherlands in relation to cycling safety. Transcripts of the interviews are in the appendix section of this study.

The study is divided into four main sections. The ‘Theoretical framework’ section describes the debates around theories of perception of safety, design of streets, and cycling as a mode of transportation. Traffic safety literature was also used wherever required. The ‘Methodology’ section contains a translation of theoretical concepts into indicators for analysis. The ‘Results’ section includes analysis of data and outcomes of the research. The ‘Conclusion’ section binds all the other sections together to come up with possible further scope for research.

This study will be relevant to the city planners who wish to improve cycling infrastructure and street designs in their cities based on perceptions of safety. The study talks about how variations in street design affect the perception of safety of cyclists by taking the case of Amsterdam. It also mentions the other factors which affect cyclists’ perception of safety in cities such as Amsterdam.

c. Motivation for Research

The motivation to for this study was twofold. One, I am an avid cyclist myself. I go for long rides when practicing for races and also cycle the narrow streets of cities to explore. The issue of safety, both on long distance practice rides and short distance city rides, has always concerned me. I have always worn a helmet on a city ride except when in the Netherlands. Thus, I wanted to contribute to improving the safety of cyclists around the world. The purpose of coming to Amsterdam was to study urban planning as I was interested in gaining more knowledge about the city became one of the best cities to cycle in the world. I was instantly immersed in the bicycle culture in Amsterdam, and understood that there is a unique problem that the city faces. There are more bicycles than there are people in Amsterdam (Amsterdam, 2017c). Apart from bicycle thefts, conflicts between cyclists and other modes of transportation, safety of cyclists is a major concern in the Netherlands (P. Schepers et al., 2017). I was in fact motivated and impressed to find out that only few researchers have worked on the topic of perception of safety. It is not mandatory to wear helmets in the Netherlands as I have mentioned above (Weijermars, Bos, & Stipdonk, 2016), which adds to the problem of people risking their lives while riding bicycles in Amsterdam. The problem in Amsterdam will be faced by other cities of the Netherlands as well the world in near future (Jacobsen, 2003). If that is going to be the case there is an urgent need to address this topic of perception of safety to not let cyclists lose the freedom of cycling. I would personally not like to see cyclists move to other modes of transport, unless and until it is necessary.

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5 The second reason to take up this research was my interest in streets and the constant urge to improve their design. The feeling of urgency to improve the design of the streets which works best for cyclists on which the cyclists should feel more comfortable got me interested in taking up this research. Street seen as a public space has always been significant for me. Street infrastructure and furniture in cities around the world has always fascinated me. I have always been captivated by good design of cities and its streets. Enduring to that idea, I came up with this motivation of including design of streets in my research to start my quest of coming up with the best design solution for the cyclists in urban areas.

These two ideas mentioned above have helped me to build up to answer the question if perception of safety of cyclists is affected by the design of the streets or not? I took the case of Amsterdam for multiple reasons One, Amsterdam has largest number of cyclists on the streets every day in the city compared to anywhere else in the world. The bicycles represent 36% of the traffic movement in the city of Amsterdam(Amsterdam, 2017d). The attitude of cyclists, the laws regarding the use of helmets and the differences in the design of streets in Amsterdam were all influencing factors in taking up this research. It was easy to access the data, the cyclists and the people for interviews as I am staying in Amsterdam. Knowing people working in the field of cycling safety was the biggest advantage for this thesis research. Also, it was really easy to interview cyclists in Amsterdam as most of them speak English (Edwards, 2016).

The topic of perception of safety of cyclists is one of the least researched areas (P. Schepers et al., 2014) and its relation to the design of the streets or the built environments has only few research publications. It is therefore important to contribute to the existing knowledge and improve the safety of cyclists in the cities of what is considered to be a cycling nation (Kuipers, 2013). I have also included other concerns relating to the safety of the cyclists prevalent in the Netherlands, i.e. the scooters and mopeds on the bicycle path, the tourists on the bicycle only path, behavior of cars, trucks and buses towards cyclists, and general traffic, though they have been discussed briefly in the study.

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6

“Nothing compares to the simple pleasure of riding a bike.” John F. Kennedy

2. Theoretical Framework

a. Introduction

Transportation has been the engine of growth for the world and its cities for decades (Greene & Wegener, 1997). Accessibility and mobility has a direct connection to economic and social progress in urban areas. Transportation is related to both mobility and accessibility based measurements (Litman, 2003). Litman divides the measurement of transportation systems into three parts, traffic, mobility and accessibility. Cycling and transit are considered relatively small portions of traffic, and slow modes of transportation. In modern cities however, the dream that wide carriageways carrying motorized traffic will solve the of travel demand and traffic problems (Ben-Akiva & Lerman, 1985) has been crumpled by many factors including congestion, air and noise pollution, urban sprawl, traffic accidents and most significantly safety issues (in recent times).

Cycling is a non-motorized form of transportation which has become a necessary part of the modern transportation system in cities (Rietveld*, 2001), although the cyclists are considered in the category of vulnerable road users (Ekman, 1996; Leden, Gårder, & Pulkkinen, 2000; Wei & Lovegrove, 2013). This is why safety of cyclists in modern cities is an important subject. One way to improve safety of cyclists in cities is by providing better infrastructure and built environment (Saelens, Sallis, & Frank, 2003). Built environment in this study refers to design of streets. The typology of street designs is divided into five types: Fietspad, Fietsstraat, Fietsstrook, shared streets and typical street as found in the Netherlands (CROW & de Groot, 2007). These typologies will be discussed in relation to the perception of safety and urban cyclists for the city of Amsterdam in the literature review section.

b. Literature Review

The literature review section is divided into three main parts: Perception of safety, urban and street design, and urban cycling. Other types of street designs do exist in the Netherlands, however only three types of cycle-specific street designs listed above are discussed. The cases of shared street and a typical street (not painted cycle lanes) are also discussed.

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7 I. Perception of safety

To discuss the theory of perception of safety we dive into the literature from the field of applied psychology, which says that all human behavior is considered as a risk-taking task (Simonet & Wilde, 1997). According to Simonet & Wilde (1997), understanding perceptions follows from understanding behavior. They give an example of a hockey player to explain the perception of safety and level of safety by stating that “one would expect him to increase his exposure to his game opponent when he is fully equipped with protective gear and, thus, to sacrifice safety for a better chance of winning by adapting his behaviour to changed conditions”. The behavior change here is a result of the change in perception of safety. Safety measures have allowed humans to venture into harsh environments. As Simonet & Wilde (1997) put it, physical risk can’t be removed with impunity by technical innovation. Technical innovations may only lead to a decrease or increase in the perception of safety. Other factors such as the occurrence of a dangerous event, or changes in external conditions can lead to a variation in perception of safety and also a change in behavior patterns. Thus, the perception of safety is homeostatic (Simonet & Wilde, 1997). “A homeostatic process refers to the dynamic preservation of equilibrium in the psychological and physiological state of an individual under changing external conditions” (Simonet & Wilde, 1997).

Aschenbrenner & Biehl’s (1994) in their “Munich taxi experiment” compared taxis equipped with ABS7_{systems to those not thus equipped. Taxis were randomly assigned to drivers. Three} years of experimental data show that taxis with ABS installed had more accidents than the ones without ABS system. This demonstrated a behavior change in the drivers in the presence of ABS systems towards more reckless driving. Understanding the potential behavior changes accompanying technical innovations will to a better approach in handling matters related to the perception of safety (Aschenbrenner & Biehl, 1994). Additionally, Brown argues that, a sufficient level of skills for driving or riding a bicycle can implant false confidence in drivers and riders, leading to a decrease in capability of handling the vehicles safely (Brown, 1986). This may also affect the perception of safety of other people on the streets, such as pedestrians or cyclists, in the long run.

There are various techniques and methods developed for measuring the perception of safety of cyclists. The safety behavior model measures the perception of safety based on the survey responses in relation to the attitude and behavior of the cyclists in an urban multi-modal network. The perceived safety model is a model developed to investigate the determinants which influence a cyclist’s perception of safety in the same multi-modal network for cyclists in Dublin city (Lawson, Pakrashi, Ghosh, & Szeto, 2013b). These models are used mostly when the cyclists are compared to motorists (the mode of transportation is compared). There is no

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8 existing model in existence for determining the risk and perception of safety where the perception of safety of the cyclists is compared to the design of the streets.

The theory of ambient-focal dichotomy describes driving vision in terms of two parallel streams of processing, labelled the ambient and focal subsystems (Leibowitz & Post, 1982; Schieber, Schlorholtz, McCall, & Castro, 2009). Ambient vision is used to track the position of the lane and focal vision is used to anticipate hazards and future alterations in the path (Donges, 1978). (Bjørnskau, 1995) proposed that visible changes in the infrastructure will thus lead to a change behavior pattern.

In recent times and the past, safety of people in the ever-growing urban areas, or as we call it, ‘cities’ have been addressed by the governments around the world as well as great authors from the field of urban planning. Jan Gehl in his book “Cities for People” mentions the four key objectives for cities – lively cities, safety, sustainability and health. It is further mentioned in the book the urgent need of attention is desired about the safety of pedestrians and cyclists. A universal intervention needs to be setup for improving the perception of safety of the cyclists in cities (Gehl, 2013). The book also mentions how design changes in cities will help in improving the perception of safety. In the broader sense, Jane Jacobs in her book, “The Death and life of great American cities” describes the art of placemaking and connects it to public safety. She mentions how the design of pedestrian friendly places help in making cities and its people safe. The general urban design theory, which speaks about the human centric urban planning approach (J. Jacobs, 2016a) is also applicable for design of streets in cities. The World Health Organization states that improving safety of people on the streets has been on the top priority list for most of the governments around the world (World Health Organization, 2015). There is no difference to that opinion in the European Union. The European road safety policy document states that, “National and local governments are increasingly involved in promoting cycling and walking, which will require that more and more attention is paid to road safety issues. Most of the actions will have to be carried out at the local level. Given the significant environmental, climate, congestion and public health benefits of cycling, it merits reflection whether more could not be done in this area.” (J. P. Schepers, 2013). The European transport safety council (ETSC) in its report says most cyclist fatalities are due to motor vehicles. The report further states that most of the cycling fatalities in Europe involves a motor vehicle (Townsend, 2016). Figure 1 proves that in the Netherlands the safety levels for cyclists have reduced to 2-3%. This proves that better infrastructure is needed for improving the perception of safety for the cyclists. The policy document also states that cyclists in the EU say that perception of safety affect their willingness to cycle in cities. Further it is stated that infrastructure for cyclists play a major role in improving perception of safety of the cyclists. The Safe System Approach states that bicycles should never mix with motor vehicle traffic, where speed of the motor vehicle exceeds 30 km/hr8_{. The same theory} applies to the field of traffic safety including the cyclists. This reflects the urgency of

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9 addressing the issues related to the safety of the cyclists in modern cities. This is why separating cyclists and motor vehicles with necessary interventions in street design is necessary.

Figure 1. Average annual percentage change in cyclists’ death 2010-2013 in the European Union

Source: (Townsend, 2016)

There is a substantial increase in the number of cyclists and accidents related to cycling in cities of the Netherlands in recent years (P. Schepers et al., 2014). Safety of cyclists in the cities of the Netherlands is a key issue which is addressed in the strategic road safety plan 2008-2020 (Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment, 2008). The policy document also mentions how safety of cyclists is more important than motor vehicles in the Netherlands. The quality of travel experience, which includes the perception of safety, comfort and aesthetics of the streets are important components in determining route choice of cyclists. Dedicated infrastructure for cycling plays a major role in improving perception of safety of the cyclists. Further, the influence of peers and friends, crime rates, personal safety affects the perception of safety for the cyclists. Habituations also has an effect such that the perception of safety gradually increases if the same route is taken every day after an incident as Simonet & Wilde (1997) mention, “World-wide, thousands of human beings are dying in traffic each day. Yet, each tomorrow, we collectively take to the road once more.”

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10 II. Urban and street design

Urban design is the art of building cities. It is a method by which man creates a built-environment that fulfills his aspirations and represents his values (Moughtin, 2003). Urban design is the technical method of solving challenges of cities by controlling and adapting the environment for social, economic, political and religious requirements. The central part of designing any city are the humans that inhabit (Moughtin, 2003). He mentions in his book “Urban design – Street and Square”, how important it is for planners and city designers to understand the fast changing world and its different cultures. The city planners and designers are the ones who influence a city’s culture. They are responsible for the constant changes in the city. Urban design does not only involve building cities, but also understanding of techniques for social good. Planning surveys, cultural data, anthropological studies are some of the techniques which are very important for the urban design narrative (Moughtin, 2003). The participation in city planning by politicians, planners and architects needs to be in sync to effect improvements. Urban designers and planners also need to have a knowledge of the political situation in order to convince government to build for social good.

The planning method in the past was based on Sir Patrick Geddes’ dictum: ‘Survey. Analysis. Plan’ (Moughtin, 2003). According to RIBA (Royal Institute of British Architects) though, the modern process is divided into four phases; assimilation, general study, development, communication (Royal Institute of British Architects, 1980). Marcus argue that, an urban designer or planner goes through stages of analysis, synthesis, appraisal and decision in detail (Markus, 1969; Maver, 1970). This method is well suited to city and regional planning, not only in planning and designing buildings, but designing streets as well since it is an integrative process (Moughtin, 2003). The concepts of urban design and architecture; order, unity, balance, symmetry, scale, proportion, rhythm, contrast and harmony are important in defining good architecture of cities and its elements (Moughtin, 2003).

Order in the city relates to the ways in which people perceive the surrounding environment. “A vivid and integrated physical setting, capable of producing a sharp image, plays a social role as well. It can furnish the raw materials for symbols and collective memories of group communication” states Kevin Lynch in his book “The image of the city” (1960). The main element for achieving this image is establishing order in streets, districts and landmarks (Lynch, 1960). Unity in urban design theory brings all the architectural forms in a city together. “Observers will distort complex facts to simple forms.” states Lynch. The establishment of order and unity is through the use of proportion. “Creating a strong urban image is the goal of urban design” states Lynch. The apparent proportion in which elements are placed are affected by the context of the place. “The designer’s task will be to unify floor and walls into spaces which will meet all the functional requirements and are pleasing and attractive” (Bor,

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11 1900). Similarly, the proportions of the streets have to be designed effectively to please its users and meet their functional requirements.

Another important aspect of urban design is scale. Scale in urban planning and design is always in relation with the humans. The dimensions of buildings, streets and other elements in a city are always measured in comparison to a human figure (Moughtin, 2003). In theory, scale in Urban planning always refers to the fields of economics and sociology. The work by H. Maertens in 1884, “The optical scale in the Plastic Arts” forms the basis of theory in urban planning. It defines man as the measure of scale.

It is not essential that humans would find everything harmonious and pleasing in cities. There would be urban design elements which would be unstable, appear disproportionate and unsatisfactory, for example lack of trees on sides of a carriageway. “The city must be experienced to be appreciated. The city is not an artefact to be viewed.” (Moughtin, 2003). Scale, proportion and the size of the city creates or destroys harmony.

Rhythm and balance with proportion in urban design create a perfect cityscape. “In design of an area, a district or a neighbourhood or housing group, the climax should be towards it’s centre so that all routes lead to it” (Moughtin, 2003). The center space or square of a city might define the designs of the streets in a city.

The last piece in the urban theory puzzle is contrast. “Extreme contrasts may produce disorder and lack of clarity.” (Moughtin, 2003). A city designer always faces challenges in attaining the right degree of contrast in placing the elements together. This happens when two design elements are so persistent that there is a competition between them. It is essential to merge the design elements in cities for a smoother transition in space. These concepts define the urban design theory and the aesthetic quality of urban forms from a perspective of a city’s user. It is to be noted here that streets and its designs are an integral part of the urban design theory and form.

There can be three kinds street scenes, the tragic, the comic and the satyric scene (Vitruvius, Morgan, & Warren, 1960), in a city that can be compared to a backdrop for a theatre performance. Decorations of each these types of scenes are different, which means a street has different kinds of elements. A tragic scene is delineated with columns, pediments, statues and other objects suited for a monarch. A comic scene consists of private dwellings, with balconies and views representing windows. A satyric scene is decorated with trees, caverns, mountains and other rustic objects (Serlio, 1982).

There are two main types of streets, one inside cities and the other which connects the cities, as mentioned in the book by L. B. Alberti “De Re Aedificatoria” (1485). The streets in the cities or towns are further subdivided into two broad categories that follow the tragic and the comic scenes as described by Vitruvius. “if the city is noble and powerful, the streets will be straight

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12 and broad, which carries the air of greatness and majesty.” (Alberti, 1955). In small cities though, Alberti suggests that the streets should be winding and lead to the center. The winding streets add an idea of greatness to the small city.

The terms street, avenue, way, highway, route or path can be used interchangeably as well as the terms roads, boulevard, mall or promenade. All these terms lead to one assumption that the street is an ordinary line of communication between different places, “a two-dimensional ribbon, running on the surface of the landscape” (Moughtin, 2003). One significant difference between a road and a street as mentioned by Moughtin, is fast moving and heavy traffic. Le Corbusier states in his book “The radiant city” that “Our streets no longer work. Streets are an obsolete notion. There ought to be no such a thing as streets; we have to create something that will replace them”. He further stated that, “No pedestrian will ever again meet a high-speed vehicle” (Corbusier, 1967). A road or a carriageway is a place primarily for high speed vehicles, while a street is place for cyclists, pedestrians and slow-moving vehicles as well. A complete street has space for cyclists, pedestrians, and motor vehicles.

The functions of a street are many. As the social aspects of urban planning are increasing in importance in recent decades, the standards and structure of street design have changed. A civic design approach for the streets has been developed. “Streets and their sidewalks, the main public places of a city, are its most vital organs. Think of a city and what comes to mind? Its streets. If a city’s streets look interesting, the city looks interesting; if they look dull, the city looks dull“ (J. Jacobs, 2016b). Jacobs describes an ideal street as a public space in her theory of street design. Though she emphasizes sidewalks, sidewalks can be compared to the bicycle lanes in the context of this study. “The physical environment has much less effect than planners imagine… the social environment has considerable more effect” (Gans, 1968). The social changes in modern cities have led to car-centric cities and the streets have adopted to it. Chats on the doorstep with friends have been replaced by telephone calls (Moughtin, 2003). User density, land-use mix, pedestrian (or cyclists)-vehicular interaction, configuration and context help in planning the best street design for a particular place (Schumacher, 1986). Analysis on the form and design of the streets has not been as well researched as the design of public squares in cities. Despite streets comprising a majority of the urban realm, they have always been given the third priority, after buildings and public spaces in modern planning practices (Moughtin, 2003). The form or design of a street can be analyzed in relation to polar qualities, such as straight or curved; long or short; wide or narrow; enclosed or open; and formal or informal. Furthermore, a street can also be analyzed in terms of scale, proportion, contrast and rhythm (Moughtin, 2003).

The engineers have prioritized the use motor vehicles over cyclists or pedestrians in the recent street designs. Modern street designs are to serve certain number of passenger car units (PCUs) per hour (Hebbert, 2005). Certain street design guides mention the upper limit of an uninterrupted length of a street, which is under 1500 meters, because beyond this

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13 distance human scale is lost. A street should be designed in a way that it has a comfortable view for the users which has geometric consistency (Fitzpatrick et al., 2000), and landmarks have prominent positions. Long vista is reserved for special streets” (Moughtin, 2003). A number of street design techniques have been formulated for design of comfortable streets (Moughtin, 2003). (Collins, Sitte, & Collins, 2006) state that “The ideal street must form a completely enclosed unit! The more one’s impressions are confined within it, the more perfect will its tableau: One feels at ease in space where the gaze cannot be lost in infinity”. Sitte has illustrated this case using the case of Bruges as seen in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Street of Bruges, Belgium

Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/quadralectics/16018828158

Proportion is an important aspect of street design theory which includes the idea of symmetry. The ideal height to width ratio of 1:2 is considered as a good street design (Moughtin, 2003). Aesthetic factors of a street define the nature of the street. Narrow streets facilitate shopping, walking and even cycling. Unity in street design is necessary to facilitate any kind of movement with a perception of ease. The use of common materials, architectural details and elements define the unity in a street’s design. The axial planning technique of streets works brilliantly for cities but loses in terms of charm to the meandering streets of smaller cities, where one can experience the city more intimately. “The chief quality of a street is due mainly to the handling of volume, but the mood or character of the street is created by its architecture” (Moughtin, 2003).

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14 An experiment carried out in the 1970s infers that under normal circumstances, a cyclist needs a cycle track of width of 2 meters (Godthelp & Wouters, 1978). Function of a street determines its design primarily. Intensity of bicycle traffic, speed of motorized traffic and intensity of motorized traffic are the other main factors which should affect the design of streets, especially for the cyclists (CROW & de Groot, 2007). The purpose of streets has changed from the 70’s to accommodate motorized vehicles. Policies and masterplans should dictate the form of the street.

Directness, safety and comfort are the most essential parts of a street designed for cyclists. Directness in distance from one place to the other is really important, that is the street should be designed as straight as it is possible. The street should also meet the requirements of width in terms of flow speed and curve radii (CROW & de Groot, 2007). A clear view of the street, guidance along the street and possible separation from the carriageway with recommended speed limit is really important in terms of safety aspects for the cyclists. Conflicts at intersections and crossings should be also taken into account really seriously when designing the street. A possible separation for all the different kinds of vehicles from cyclists, if the speed is marginally different is a key element in street design (CROW & de Groot, 2007). It is also mentioned in the “Design Manual for Bicycle Traffic” that cyclists should not be forced off the street. Design measures should be enforced to not let this happen. The surface of the road should be smooth and the width, horizontal and vertical course must be set in a way that it is comfortable to view of the cyclists. The curve radii should also be in conjunction with the design speed. Visibility of cycling infrastructure especially during the dark is an absolute key feature that needs to be included in the design. Comfort for the cyclists on the streets means that the cyclists are not forced to cycle at speeds below the design speeds. The street should be designed in such a way that the cyclists don’t have to face any delay. Extreme bends on cycle routes should be avoided unless and until necessary, although gentle bends have a positive perception of a cycle route (CROW & de Groot, 2007).

Cyclists should not be exposed to fumes and noise from the motorized vehicles. Vegetation and other protective structures should be installed on the side of the bicycle paths to minimize the effects of weather and winds (CROW & de Groot, 2007). Attractiveness of a street designed for cyclists is very important. It has major connection to the perception of surroundings for the cyclists. Certain factors for an ideal route are, restricted motor traffic, right width of the street, right of way for the cyclists and proper lighting and separation from pedestrian paths (if required).

The “Design manual for bicycle traffic” has divided the type of cycleways or cycling street designs into various types. Solitary or isolated tracks are only meant for cyclists, occasionally mopeds in the Netherlands (CROW & de Groot, 2007). They are not linked to a carriageway. The solitary cycle tracks are found mainly outside the city limits.

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15 In a city, cycleways should be designed in conjunction with the built environment. Depending on the actual conditions and the situations in the cities, designers and planners have to decide the ideal situation for placing and designing cycling infrastructure. There are three basic premises mentioned in the “Design manual for bicycle traffic” (CROW & de Groot, 2007):

a. The most preferable situation for cyclists should be known to the designer.

b. For creating bicycle friendly infrastructure analyzing the entire traffic situation is important.

c. Thinking from a cyclist’s perspective is very important when designing cycleways as it is possible that there is more than one possible solution in creating infrastructure.

Figure 3. A table from the design manual for bicycle traffic showing the type of cycling infrastructure that should be used

Source: The Design Manual for Bicycle Traffic

Figure 3 shows the recommended options of how cycleways can be built inside the built-up areas of the cities.

In the cities, a concept of narrow profile is advised to be used, so the motor vehicle is forced to stay behind the cyclists, in the case of combined traffic scenario. It is very important to include the calculations of the intensity of motorized traffic when designing streets for cyclists.

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16 The “design manual for bicycle traffic” (CROW & de Groot, 2007) discusses specific types of design of cycleways used in this research.

A fietsstraat or cycle street is a street design where both motorized vehicles and cyclists are allowed. Cyclists have the right of way whereas the motorized vehicles need to follow a speed limit of 30 kilometers per hour and are treated as guests. A fietsstraat’s structure should be laid in such a way that: (1) It causes minimal nuisance to parked vehicles, and (2) asphalt is used as a paving material.

It is further in the “design manual for bicycle traffic” (CROW & de Groot, 2007) that there are number of advantages of cycle streets(fietsstraat):

1. They use less space compared to a solitary cycle track or a fietspad. 2. They are cost effective compared to a fietspad

3. They improve accessibility for cyclists 4. They increase social safety

The ideal intensity of motorized traffic should be around 2000 PCU9_{per day on a fietsstraat} (CROW & de Groot, 2007).

Fietsstrook or painted cycle lanes is the second type of design which is discussed in this research. It plays an important role in the safety of cyclists in an urban area. It ensures safety and comfort of the cyclists. Characteristics of a cycle lane are:

1. A sufficient width of 1.5 to 2.5 meters

2. Marked with a visible color (preferably red, green or blue) 3. Marked with a symbol of bicycle

Fietsstrook that are less than 1.2 meters in width are more dangerous than those around 2 meters wide. A good alternative to cycle lanes is the use of suggestion lanes, but the opinion is still under debate. A suggestion lane has no color coding as cycle lanes. It has a width of around 1.5 to 2 meters and it combines parking bay facilities (CROW & de Groot, 2007). The last type of street design for cyclists is cycle tracks or fietspad. They are separate cycle lanes and are considered to be the safest infrastructure based solution for cyclists in cities. The cyclists on the fietspad are separated from motorized traffic due to its. The disadvantage of the fietspad is mainly at intersections, since cyclists are not in direct field of vision of the motorists (CROW & de Groot, 2007). An alternative drawn in the “design manual for bicycle traffic” is a parallel road. However, it is not considered a good design and is still under consideration as it affects the safety and comfort of cyclists when motor vehicles are allowed on the same stretch of street. Two-way fietspad have challenges and advantages. It does

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17 allow the bicycle traffic to behave unexpectedly but prevents movements where cyclists have to cross the carriageway shortening the distance between two places in some cases.

“Speed of motorized traffic of 60 km/h, combined traffic, high cycle intensities and comfortable cycling do not go in hand in hand with each other” (CROW & de Groot, 2007). With an intensity of 2500 PCU/day, a dedicated infrastructure for the cyclists should be considered.

Any bicycle related infrastructure should be marked properly (CROW & de Groot, 2007). If cyclists are sharing the same space with motor vehicles then a speed limit of 30 km/hr for the motor vehicles should be imposed. This true for any kind of street, where cyclists interact with motorized vehicles including, trams and buses. If the public transportation system has its own dedicated infrastructure, then cyclists are allowed to cross it but not cycle in the particular street sections if the speed limit for the public transport is more than 30 km/hr (CROW & de Groot, 2007).

There is a debate about the conflict of pedestrians and cyclists in the cities of the Netherlands, particularly Amsterdam (Mudde, 2017). Urban planners and designers have to consider providing a soft separation between cyclists and pedestrians. If the footpath is too narrow, the pedestrians tend to walk on the cycle tracks making it necessary for the cyclists to shift to the carriageway. This is an avoidable situation if the streets are designed keeping the safety of pedestrians and cyclists in mind (CROW & de Groot, 2007).

Type of street design Function Dimensions (in Meters)

Cycle track Provide a connection for cyclists 2 to 3.5 meters

Carriageway for combined traffic

Provide a connection for all types of vehicles

3.85 to 4.85 meters

Cycle Street High quality cycling connection,

partly used by motorized vehicles

4.5 meters

Cycle lane (painted) Separation for cyclists without any

physical barrier

2 to 2.5 meters

One way cycle track Complete separation of motorized

vehicles and cyclists

2 to 4 meters

Two-way cycle track Complete separation of motorized

vehicles and cyclists

2.5 to 4 meters

Table 1. Characteristics of different street designs

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18 Types of street designs other than the ones mentioned above might also involve cyclists, but are not included as they are beyond the scope of this research. Studies have shown that purpose built bicycle infrastructure in cities, here referred to as “street design”, reduces crash and injuries (Lusk et al., 2011). Theories of physics help in designing infrastructure to help cyclists steer their bicycles safely (P. Schepers et al., 2014), and human factors theories and ergonomics theory also help in designing streets for cyclists better (Birth, Pflaumbaum, Potzel, & Sieber, 2009).

III. Urban cycling

Buehler & Pucher (2012) in their research state that there is a large variation in the amount cycling from country to country. For example, cycling accounts for only 1% of the total modal share for cities in the United States and Australia, while the countries of the Netherlands and Denmark have over 20% of modal share of cyclists (Buehler & Pucher, 2012). An average cyclist, cycles around 2.5 kilometers every day in the Netherlands (KiM, 2011). The modal share of cycling is high in cities of countries such as the Netherlands, mainly because of presence of cycling infrastructure, climate, the attitude towards bicycle culture, and perceived safety (Rietveld & Daniel, 2004). Additionally, the bicycle has rich a heritage in the Dutch society as a vehicle for daily use, rather than a tool for leisure or sports (Stoffers, 2012). This section will discuss cycling in urban areas for daily use. Cyclists who use bicycles for recreational, sports or leisure purposes have not been considered.

(Elvik, 2009) states that, cycling is perceived as one of the most sustainable modes of transport in cities around the world. It involves no emissions of greenhouse gases or burning of fossil fuels, is cheaper than most other modes of transport, and is healthy for people. (Elvik, 2009) also states that more the number of cyclists and pedestrians in a city, higher the likelihood of that city being safer. (Jacobsen, 2003) states that an effective way of improving the perception of safety is increasing the number of cyclists in cities.

Sometimes in urban areas cycling can prove to be faster than other modes of transport, and occasionally allows the cyclists to avoid traffic congestion situations (Olde Kalter, 2007). However, there are disadvantages to cycling too. Cyclists have to put in physical effort especially when carrying loads. The weather plays an important factor in the decision-making process of cycling. Long distance cycling is generally avoided unless for leisure and recreational purposes. Cycling is also occasionally avoided due to factors related to safety (Heinen, Van Wee, & Maat, 2010a).

In cities and urban areas cycling is mainly for utilitarian purposes. There is no available resource which gives an overview of all the factors affecting cycling in cities (Heinen et al., 2010a). However, the most significant factor affecting urban cycling is the distance of one place from the other. The concept of acceptable distance of travel for work and other related

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19 activities is directly related to where people chose to live. This is why in the Netherlands, small and medium sized towns have a high modal share of cycling (Rietveld, 2000). Land use and the notion of a compact city link higher density levels with higher share of cycling in cities. Heinen in his research states that the above statement is backed by a number of researchers (Heinen, Van Wee, & Maat, 2010b) state that the type of built environment also has an effect on the usage of bicycles. An attractive built environment and design is a necessary stimulating factor for cycling. (J. P. Schepers, 2013) states in his study the role design of streets plays in the perception of safety of cyclists in a city. According to him, the risk factor is reduced if cyclists are cycling on a well-designed cycleway, such as a separated bicycle path.

Crash risk is a result of the due to interaction between three factors: road users, vehicles, and infrastructure (Othman, Thomson, & Lannér, 2009). Streets play a very important role in any kind of cycling related movements in a city. Special street designs used for traffic calming and bicycle paths decrease crash risk, increasing cycling ridership (Taylor & Mahmassani, 1996). Regular maintenance and repair of the bicycle infrastructure is also key to getting people to cycle (Pucher & Buehler, 2008). (Reynolds, Harris, Teschke, Cripton, & Winters, 2009) in their research state how factors of road design affect the use of bicycles and how it is important factors for policy makers of a city to look at this connection between these two (Reynolds et al., 2009). The research from (Reynolds et al., 2009) also speaks about the role of purpose built cycling infrastructure and its association with perception of safety. It states that purpose built infrastructure for cyclists help in reduction of crashes and injuries among the cyclists, radically increasing the perception of safety. (P. Schepers et al., 2014) in his research has linked the theories, concepts and models of road safety to urban cyclists. To my knowledge, his work in the field of perception of safety for the cyclists is the best known in the Netherlands.

The World Health Organization, in its ‘Global Status Report on Road Safety 2015’ reports that 5% of traffic related deaths are of cyclists. The actual number is surely higher, since accidents involving cyclists are under-reported by 60% worldwide. According to an interviewee, Paul Schepers the police have stopped reporting and recording the cycling related accidents in Amsterdam. Elvik in his study talks about the resistance to traveling on bicycles in cities due to the perception of safety in conjunction with design of different kinds of streets. The same study also talks about different kinds of street elements and how cyclists interact with it (Elvik, 2009). He further states in his study that converting a street into any kind of bicycle friendly street (fietsstraat, fietspad or fietsstrook), thereby restricting the motor vehicles, will largely increase the degree of safety.

Pucher & Buehler in their study, “Making Cycling Irresistible: Lessons from The Netherlands, Denmark and Germany” (2008) state that urban cycling in the Netherlands has made significant progress over the years. In the Netherlands, the modal share of cycling in cities range from 15% to 50% (Rietveld & Daniel, 2004). The government has been promoting cycling as a safe and convenient mode of transportation to get around within the city limits

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20 and beyond. The high modal share of cycling in cities of the Netherlands is due to infrastructure, policy innovations, integration with public transit and training over past decades. The government in the Netherlands has constantly put in the effort to provide cyclists a safe environment for cycling. Infrastructure or the built-environment also includes street design. In cities, some factors promoting cycling are, land use, less urban sprawl, climate, altitude, the presence of dedicated bicycle facilities and infrastructure and importantly perception of safety (Heinen, Van Wee, & Maat, 2010c; Rietveld & Daniel, 2004). In 1930 a survey was carried out to count the number of cyclists in Amsterdam city. It was noted that there was significant increase in people cycling than the previous years. Bicycles in the Netherlands became cheap after the World War I due to hyperinflation in Germany (Jordan, 2013). The Dutch level of cycling was high for almost a century before a dip was experienced in the 1960’s (Ebert, 2012). It can be seen in the Figure 4.

Figure 4. The scenario of cycling in Amsterdam compared to other cities over the years.

Source: (de la Bruheze, Adri Albert, 2000)

With the advent of the car age in the 1950’s, the ownership of cars grew rapidly, and continued to grow till the 1970’s. This led to increase in fatality rates. Mass protests were organized by the citizens of Amsterdam against motorized vehicles. Road safety for people was finally addressed by the Amsterdam city council in 1978 when a new traffic plan was devised to allocated space for cyclists and pedestrians (Aluvihare, Brömmelstroet, & Horst, 2014).

This led to a revolutionary change in public policy for the city of Amsterdam. Today, the people of Amsterdam cycle over two million kilometers, representing 36% of total trips made

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21 daily. It is the fastest growing mode of transport in Amsterdam (Amsterdam, 2017d). The article – “Long term bicycle plan 2017-2022” states that there is short supply of space in the crowded city center for cyclists. It also mentions that measures will be taken to improve safety of cyclists and reduce the travel time. The article lastly mentions an increased allocation in the budget towards increasing cycling in Amsterdam. A comprehensive history of how the Dutch got their bicycle culture can be found on the Web blog called “Bicycle Dutch” (Wagenbuur, 2011).

In 2009 the European commission published a report where one of the seven objectives were to encourage the establishment of adequate infrastructures to increase the safety of cyclists. The research by Schepers (2013) links to the policy changes at the European level about the rising proportion of cyclists’ deaths and seriously injured cyclists (J. P. Schepers, 2013). This research however only slightly describes about how the perception of cyclists’ change based on the street design.

Although there are a high number of cyclists in certain cities of the Netherlands, there is limited research on the subjective safety of cyclists (Lawson et al., 2013b). They further state that safety of cyclists has always been placed as part of the multi-modal transportation system in cities, and has always been measured based on the use of cycling accessories, particularly helmets and lights. In contrast, Pucher & Buehler, (2008) state that helmets are rarely used by cyclists in the Netherlands. This trend has led to questions on improving the safety of the rising number of cyclists in Dutch cities (Pucher & Buehler, 2008).

The perception of a bicycle being an unsafe mode of transportation is restricting its usage (Heinen et al., 2010b). It is also mentioned in some of the studies that, cycling facilities, design of streets and road safety measures affect the value of high percentage of people cycling in the cities of the Netherlands (Garrard, Rose, & Lo, 2008; Lawson et al., 2013b; Pucher & Buehler, 2008) . In general, it can be said that urban cyclists prefer dedicated cycling infrastructure. The preferences of cyclists are based on subjective notions of safety or perception of safety. Cyclists also prefer a continuous bicycle infrastructure and streets without parking, and bicycles also don’t like to wait at stop signs and traffic lights (Heinen et al., 2010b). There is a little research on the effect of surface quality on the cyclists, although the research by Heinen et al. speaks marginally about it.

“Considering the different perceptions of danger between a professional downhill skier and an amateur facing a steep and icy slope, or a mineworker and a claustrophobic person stuck in a defective lift” (Simonet & Wilde, 1997). These differences in perception due to difference in skill level result in different behavior patterns, leading to faster or slower, more aggressive or more cautious courses of action (Simonet & Wilde, 1997). The case of the cyclists in urban areas in relation to the street design is similar.

The reforms in policies and infrastructure have surely impacted the rise of number of cyclists in Dutch cities (Council, 2006), but the fundamental question of the perception of safety on

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22 the streets remains unanswered. (J. Schepers & Heinen, 2013) describe in their study why shifting to cycling from cars has a minor effect on road safety. The effect of modal shift is dependent on the age of the population in which the shift is concentrated, and injury risk of cyclists. Furthermore, the number of serious injuries due to single-bicycle crashes is expected to increase with an increase in number of cyclists on streets due to this modal shift.

Schepers et. al’s state in their study that the design of streets has an impact on perception of safety of cyclist as the road safety research figures suggests (P. Schepers et al., 2017). Elvik (2000) states that the ‘feeling of safety’ is one of the factors that is not included in safety assessments of cyclists (Elvik, 2000). It is mentioned in a number of studies that potential bicycle users prefer bicycle paths to bicycle lanes and roads without cycling facilities (Abraham, McMillan, Brownlee, & Hunt, 2002; Stinson & Bhat, 2005; Wardman, Hatfield, & Page, 1997).

These theories give an overview about the importance of giving preference to the cyclists and infrastructure for making the cities safer and sustainable. It also helps in understanding how the perception of safety is important in promoting cycle use, and is related to the built environment.

c. Problem Statement

The notion of road safety is increasingly becoming important in the modern world. Traffic safety in urban areas is a topic which needs urgent attention (HAMELYNCK, 1994; World Health Organization, 2015). In cities, mobility and transportation play a significant role as a network, connecting places and people (Bertolini & Dijst, 2003). In this network, the streets of the cities play a major role. Serving as a vital link for communication between places in the urban fabric (A. B. Jacobs, 1993). They are the instrument of modern cities designed to carry motorized and unmotorized traffic. In some cities of Northern Europe there are street designs which cater to the specific needs of non-motorized vehicles especially bicycles (Pucher & Buehler, 2007). These street designs differ from the typical ones prevalent everywhere else in the world. They contain a significant amount of space for bicycles depending on the location.

The Dutch street designs are so refined that they have been portrayed as a standard worldwide, for the countries that want to provide better infrastructure for cyclists. For example, major cities around the world have tried to replicate the fietspad (separated bicycle path) and fietsstrook (painted bicycle lane) designs of the Netherlands (Dill & Carr, 2003). For the cyclists, these two designs are perceived safest all over the world (Beatley, 2012).

The concept of converting cities to a sustainable transportation system (Greene & Wegener, 1997) is growing around the world at a very rapid pace. A significant number of people in the cities around the world have already shifted or will shift to non-motorized vehicles, cycling in

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23 particular as the preferred mode of transportation (Pucher, Dill, & Handy, 2010). The research talks about the case of the city of Amsterdam (Pucher & Buehler, 2008) in the Netherlands. As stated in the article “Recent data about dynamics in Amsterdam” (M. T. Brömmelstroet, 2016), 32 percent of people in Amsterdam use cycling as means of transportation. Studies have also shown that Amsterdam has always ranked as one of the top cities in the world where people cycle (Copenhagenize, 2015). It is further evident that it is due to the fact that the city of Amsterdam invests immensely in cycling infrastructure projects (Amsterdam, 2012).

The city of Amsterdam is fairly unique in a lot of ways. It is one of the most culturally diverse and vibrant cities in the world (Uitermark, Rossi, & Van Houtum, 2005). Amsterdam might be one of the best places to cycle or the “Cycling City” (Jordan, 2013) of the world but it is not without its own set of issues. Amsterdam is a compact city, with a population of over 800, 000 in 200 square kilometers (Amsterdam, 2016b). There are a large number of cyclists in the city, and the number keeps increasing every day (Amsterdam, 2017a). Due to the rising number of cyclists, Amsterdam is facing a huge challenge to keep the cyclists in the city safe and content (O'SULLIVAN, 2016). The main challenge though is the safety of the cyclists inside the city limits.

Streets vary in design, size and the quality due to a lot of factors as mentioned in the street design theory section. The aim of this study is to further investigate the connection between typology of street design and safety of cyclists. This study will contribute to the growing knowledge of how street design affects urban cyclists. The study takes into account certain streets of Amsterdam as examples which are mentioned in the ‘Case Selection’ section. The study investigates the best and the worst typology from the point of view of cyclists. There is utmost need to research how designs affect the perception of safety of cyclists as this type of research has not received much attention (J. P. Schepers, 2013).

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“The role of the street is social as well as utilitarian.” Andres Duany

3. Methodology

a. Conceptual Framework

This section connects theories of street design and perception of safety for cyclists to the practice of urban planning in cities.

Urban design is a field where the city planning and design practitioners make decisions about how the natural and built environment in a particular place relate to one another keeping the human perception and interactions in mind (Moughtin, 2003). It means that that a city planner or an urban designer has to keep in mind the social aspects in mind while preparing plans for cities. Street design is a transportation policy and design approach in the field of urban planning and architecture, which was conceptualized in the early 1800’s (Hawkes & Sheridan, 2009).

Cycling is a human-powered mode of transportation. Bicycles convert the physical energy of the human body to into kinetic energy, propelling the bicycle forward. With advancement in technology, the bicycle as a machine has improved in efficiency, though the basic physical principles remain the same. Urban cyclists are people using bicycles as a mode of transportation at any given moment. An urban cyclist’s view of safety changes in relation to a lot of factors, most significant among them is the availability of good infrastructure on the streets. Safety has become a priority when designing streets.

Cities have grown rapidly in the last decade with growth in population, keeping urban planners busy with new challenges in the field of transportation planning. Cities are struggling to accommodate new modes of transportation and advancements in transportation technology. While innovation hasn’t affected the principle behind cycling as a mode of transport, it has definitely affected the experience of cycling. In cities like Amsterdam, where the number of cyclists is huge, policies have yet to address the safety of an ever-growing population of cyclists.

The concept of this study reflects that the design of the street affects the perception of safety of the cyclists. The perception of safety is high for cyclists when they are separated from other traffic. The fietspad is therefore perceived as one of the safest form of street design for cyclists although new concepts of shared street and fietsstraat are gaining approval from citizens of Amsterdam. Two of my interviewees also mention that there is a direct connection between perception of safety and street designs, although the topic is not researched enough.