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Preparing for the future career: Implications of Psychological
Well-Being in Proactive Career Behavior within a student sample
Preparing for a future career: Implications of Psychological
Well-Being in Proactive Career Behaviour within a student sample
Stefan Armas
10860827
Bachelor’s Thesis Business Administration
Supervisor: Stefan Mol
2 Statement of originality
This document is written by Stefan Armas who declares to take full responsibility for the contents of this document.
I declare that the text and the work presented in this document is original and thus no sources other than the ones mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating it.
The Faculty of Economics and Business is responsible only for the supervision of completion of the work, but not for the contents.
3 ABSTRACT
Several studies in the field of positive psychology address the concept of psychological well-being and its outcomes. Few researchers however, have tackled the relationship between Psychological well-being and proactive career behaviour. This study examines the relationship between the two concepts by taking a look at the construct of psychological well-being via the PERMA framework, which is defined in terms of five dimensions: positive emotions, engagement, positive relationships, sense of meaning, and accomplishment. In this paper, it is argued that the PERMA dimensions will mediate the relationship between psychological well-being and proactive career behaviour. Moreover, it is tested whether the personality dimensions of extraversion and conscientiousness moderate these relationships. Data was collected from students of different nationalities, studying in different countries (N = 129). The findings reveal that there is no direct effect of psychological well-being on proactive career behaviour. Nevertheless, an indirect effect was identified through positive emotions, sense of meaning, and accomplishment. Moreover, neither extraversion nor conscientiousness seemed to have a moderating effect on this relationship. Altogether, this suggests that psychological well-being is partially related to proactive career behaviour.
4 Table of contents
1. Introduction………5
2. Theoretical framework………7
2.1 Psychological well-being and PERMA……….7
2.2 Mediating role of the PERMA components………..10
2.3 Moderated mediation (personality dimensions) ……….18
2.4 Psychological well-being and proactive career behaviour………..20
3. Method……….23
3.1 Research design………..23
3.2 Procedure and sampling………24
3.3 Measurements……….26
3.4 Analysis and predictions………28
4. Results ……….29
4.1 Descriptive statistics and correlations……….29
4.2 Hypotheses testing………..30
5. Discussion………..34
5.1 Hypotheses and unexpected results……….34
5.2 Theoretical and practical implications……….…36
5.3 Limitations and future research………..37
6. Conclusion……….39
References………40
Appendix A………47
5 1. Introduction
The contemporary education system is faced with the pressuring challenge of more adequately preparing future generations for entering the 21st century labour market (Ongardwanich, Kanjanawasee and Tuipae, 2015). In comparison to the previous century, the current labour market presents significantly increased demands in terms of balancing both job-related competencies, digital literacy, and soft skills (Jones and Flannigan, 2006; Salanova and Schaufeli, 2008). According to Trilling and Fadel (2009), there are clear signs that the challenge persists since young graduates are frequently showing deficiencies in basic skills, such as problem solving, critical thinking, communication, collaboration, leadership, and management. These gaps are extremely costly for businesses, as companies worldwide have to commit significant resources for Human Resource Management and Human Resource Development activities. The Training Industry Report (2016) shows that solely in the United States, organisations are facing expenditures of $70.65 billion a year for training their human assets.
In order to narrow the gap between graduate’s skills and labour market requirements there should be input from three stakeholders: educational institutions, business organisations, and the individuals involved in the forming process – the students. Scholars discuss that the input from the first two stakeholders have not shown effective results in regard to this issue, in spite of the fact that there are plenty of opportunities provided by schools, universities and business organisations (Frese and Fay, 2001; Ongardwanich et al., 2015). These opportunities come in the form of extracurricular team-projects, workshops, and volunteering activities, which contribute, to enhancing the required 21st century skills or internships and job-shadowing programs, which allow for experiential learning (McCarthy and McCarthy, 2006; Knous and Fontenot, 2008; Trilling and Fadel, 2009). Considering these facts, it is reasonable to assume that extra input from students is indispensable and might be complementary to the effort provided by both educational and business entities. This problem could be tackled from the student’s perspective by active engagement with employability in the form of
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manifesting proactive career behaviour (PCB) (Frese and Fay, 2001; Turban, Moake, Wu and Cheung, 2017). According to scholars, PCB entails exercising career planning and consultation, proactively developing skills that might not prove immediately justified, and building supportive networks. (Vos, De Clippeleer, Dewilde, 2009; Strauss, Griffin and Parker, 2012).
A lot of research has focused on the outcomes that PCB portrays later in career lives, the most notorious links that have been identified so far being: career success, organizational citizenship behaviour, and Psychological Well-Being (PWB) (Crant and Bateman, 2000; De Vos et al., 2009; Rahim and Siti-Rohaida, 2016). Prior studies on the antecedents of PCB have been solely conducted in organisational settings, where personality and work environment were identified as the main determinants of proactive behaviours (Bateman and Crant, 1993; Turban et al., 2017). A potential antecedent of PCB which also represents a rising concern for contemporary educational institutions is PWB (Ludban, 2015). Literature indicates that high levels of PWB lead to improvements in health, income and growing relationships. Nevertheless, research shows that these presumed causal relationships tend to be circular, meaning that the outcomes of PWB are consequently reinforcing its levels (Robertson and Cooper, 2011).
Given that there is insufficient research on what pushes individuals from a non-organisational context to manifest PCB, it is particularly interesting to investigate the antecedents of this type of behaviour within a student sample. Moreover, it would be compelling to determine whether the relationship between PWB and PCB will hold in a student sample. Hence, the purpose of this paper is to examine empirically the extent to which students showing high levels of PWB tend to engage in PCB.
In the next section, the theoretical framework is presented, which encompasses relevant theory on the key constructs of this paper and the links between them. Moreover, the derived hypotheses are explained in that section. Following this is the methodology section where the research design is presented. Subsequently, the results of this research and the outcome of the analyses is examined. The discussion section will entail a re-evaluation of the hypotheses, accompanied by the
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implications of the findings, the limitations of this paper and suggestions for future research. Finally, the conclusions of this study is drawn.
2. Theoretical Framework
2.1 Psychological Well-Being & PERMA
Over the past decades, the concept of human well-being is more frequently labelled as the crucial condition of a sound society and its successful path towards growth and affluence (Alatartseva and Barysheva, 2015). Diener (2000) proposed to include it as an index to parallel the national accounts of economy, represented by production, income, labour and market expenditure of a nation. Given that and despite the growing interest in the research fields of socio-politics, socio-economics, culture, and history, scholars have not unanimously agreed upon a definition nor upon a mean of evaluating well-being (Alatartseva and Barysheva, 2015).
An interpretation of this notion from a philosophical stance is represented in the Objective list theory which states that well-being is the outcome of a series of objective conditions which are not linked to an individual’s subjective preferences (Rice, 2013). The individual can attain well-being if all or most of the objective goods are constantly experienced. The goods that are commonly prioritised in objective list accounts are: liberty, achievement, friendship, growth, autonomy, wisdom, morality, and aesthetic experience (Brey, 2012). The field of welfare economics presents a different means of assessing well-being, namely the capability approach. In accordance with this approach, the individual needs to possess a range of capabilities which allow the pursuit of activities that promote well-being when exercised (Sen, 2004). Due to differences in conception of value the list of capabilities varies for each individual, nevertheless researchers claim that there is a consensus among people regarding a basic set of capabilities: practical reason, bodily health, affiliation, and control over one’s environment (Nussbaum, 2001).
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This paper will tackle the concept of well-being with an outlook taken from the field of positive psychology. As it will later be presented, this perspective includes elements from both the philosophical and welfare economics approaches (Brey, 2012). Moreover, another benefit of following this approach emerges from the fact that scholars from the field of positive psychology have primarily focused their effort on PWB, while attempting to make the concept more quantifiable for the purpose of empirical research (Diener, 1984). Within this field, the most influential approach towards well-being is given by the theory of authentic happiness, which describes a good life as a combination of experiencing positive emotions, following engaging activities, and enjoying a sense of meaning in life (Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). This theory was later expanded and the dimensions of having positive social relationships and having a sense of accomplishment were added, hence the PERMA framework was formed (Seligman, 2011).
The PERMA framework is regarded as an effective tool for examining PWB, given that it is a multidimensional approach which entails a broader scope towards this construct (Kern, Waters, Adler and White, 2015). Positive emotions (P) denotes one’s ability to direct positivity and optimism towards experiences from the past, present or future. This dimension is one of the most studied facets of PWB, because of its high face validity and its rather intuitive correspondence with PWB, which has its roots in the theory of Hedonism, where pleasure is the only thing that is good for an individual (Forgeard, Jayawickreme, Kern and Seligman, 2011). For this reason scholars classify positive affect as the hedonic facet of PWB also termed subjective well-being (Diener, 2000). Engagement (E) represents the psychological connection to activities or organisations, which generates a feeling of complete immersion referred to as flow that consequently contributes to growth and nurturing ones happiness (Forgeard et al., 2011). Following engaging activities requires a set of capabilities, termed as signature strengths that allow the individual to perform activities in an engaged manner (Brey, 2012). Positive relationships (R) depicts the feeling of being socially integrated, valued, supported and esteemed. Research has accepted this dimension as the most influential one in determining PWB for a wide range of individuals whose demographic characteristics, such as age or culture varied (Reis and Gable, 2003).
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Meaning (M) is a concept that has been recently revitalised by the branch of positive psychology and it is defined as the extent to which people comprehend and perceive significance in their lives, as well as the degree to which they believe to have an overarching purpose, which contributes to a greater good (McMahan and Renken, 2011). In contrast to positive emotions, meaning is the dimension that contributes to sustaining high levels of PWB. According to the hedonic treadmill theory, experiencing minor or major positive events does not lead to incremental gains in happiness as the marginal increase in happiness decreases over time or the effect of the positive experiences depletes completely (Robertson and Cooper, 2011). According to research this does not hold for the sense of meaning, which is a core element of the Eudaimonic facet of well-being also termed purposeful well-being (McMahan and Renken, 2011). The sense of meaning is linked to objectively valid needs, the realisation of which lead to self-actualisation and growth, these processes lie in accordance with the requirements of the human nature and aim beyond momentarily pleasures (Ryan and Deci, 2001). Lastly, accomplishment (A) is described as the ability of feeling competent while progressing towards achieving one’s predetermined goals. The relationship between accomplishment and PWB can be explained by the fact that a feeling of achievement promotes a sense of efficacy towards the individual’s internal and external environments (Forgeard et al., 2011). Comparable to the effects of meaning, the generated self-efficacy acts as a reinforcement for PWB and leads to sustaining its levels (Ryan, Huta and Deci, 2008).
The PERMA framework was previously tested within a student sample and has been shown to be a reliable measure for PWB across different cultures (Kern et al., 2015; D’raven and Pasha-Zaidi, 2016). Nevertheless, in this research the interest lies in whether PWB can be divided among the five dimensions of the PERMA framework to understand which component has the most significant impact on PCB.
10 2.2 Mediating role of the PERMA components
This subsection will expand on the mediating links between PWB and PCB represented by the five pillars of the PERMA framework. Since there is little research specifically on the link between the PERMA dimensions and PCB, the focus was on the academic literature that studies the general concept of proactive behaviour.
Positive Emotions
Firstly, the association between positive emotions and proactivity is widely supported throughout literature. Proactivity is generally characterised by high levels of self-initiative. In accordance with self-regulatory theory, positive emotions push the individual into a goal-oriented mind-set, this consequently generates a positive spiral of self-regulatory advantage that aids in maintaining states of high self-initiative and consequently stimulates proactive behaviours (Bindl, Parker, Totterdell and Hagger-Johnson, 2012). Besides that, positive affect is believed to facilitate approach behaviours, which incentivise individuals to actively engage with their environment. Given that the goal-oriented mind-set provides a range of physiological and psychological resources such as attention and energy it is reasonable to expect that the individuals will tend to engage with their environment via proactive behaviour affiliated with goals to alter the status quo (Fritz and Sonnentag, 2009). This argument is supported within the proactive motivation process model proposed by Parker, Bindl, and Strauss (2010) which is comprised of three motivational pathways. Based on the self-regulation and goal-setting theories, the scholars discovered a range of proactive motivational states which were labelled: “can do”, “reason to”, and “energized to”. The latter one is a “hot” (affect-related) motivational state which suggests that high-activated positive affect (e.g. feeling of enthusiasm) is directly associated with increased degrees of effort invested in a certain behaviour. This relationship takes place due to the fact that activated positive affect is a key source of physiological and psychological resources such as energy and attention, these being treated as elements which stimulate proactive action (Parker et al., 2010).
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In addition to that Foo, Uy and Baron (2009) claimed that positive emotions have been shown to encourage future-oriented thinking. Given that there is a cognitive facet of proactivity which is connected to envisioning and planning of future enactments, it is reasonable to deduce that positive affect will facilitate the individual’s ability to think ahead in order to better anticipate situations in which proactive behaviour is enacted (Foo et al., 2009).
Furthermore, an individual experiencing positive affect might find it easier to engage in future-oriented behaviour such as developing skills that will only be applicable later in the work environment (one of the PCB dimensions). This argument holds because individuals experiencing positive emotions show the ability of delayed gratification, which assumes that an individual is willing to forego smaller benefits in the moment in order to gain greater rewards in the future (De Neve, Diener, Tay, and Xuereb, 2013). Taking these arguments into consideration it is reasonable to assume that positive emotions are linked to proactive behaviour, hence the following hypothesis was developed:
H1.a: Positive emotions will mediate the relationship between PWB and PCB
Engagement
Secondly, the link between engagement and proactivity can be observed by taking a look at the dimensions of engagement: vigour, dedication, and absorption. Even though, some scholars argue that absorption is rather an outcome than a defining component of engagement, the other two represent core elements of this concept (Salanova and Schaufeli, 2008). Vigour is defined by high levels of energy and psychological resilience while performing an activity, which is complemented by the desire to invest effort and manifest persistence even while encountering challenging situations (Salanova, Llorens, Cifre, Martinez, and Schaufeli, 2003). Dedication refers to the strong psychological identification that one portrays towards a certain activity, which goes along with high levels of enthusiasm, pride and inspiration (Salanova et al. 2003). Given that engagement is driven by high levels of energy, persistence, identification, and goal-orientation – which consequently form the base for
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intrinsic motivation, “it can be assumed that higher levels of engagement result in increasing levels of proactive behaviour, in the sense of personal initiative.”(Salanova and Schaufeli, 2008, p.118).
Furthermore, the association between the two constructs was observed by adapting the Job Characteristics Theory, according to which critical psychological states such as sense of purpose or responsibility serve as mediators for the relationship between job characteristics (task variety, task identity etc.) and proactive behaviour (Oldham, Hackman, Smith, and Hitt, 2005). According to Salanova and Schaufeli (2008), engagement seems to play a comparable role to the critical psychological states mentioned above, hence engagement could also serve as a valid mediator in the Job Characteristic Model and show a positive direct relationship with proactive behaviour.
On the other hand, some scholars prefer to treat the concept of engagement as a positive affect rather than a state of mind, thus approaching the affective component of engagement rather than its cognitive one (Fredrickson, 2001). According to the broaden-and-build theory, experiencing positive affect such as is the case for engagement results in broadening one’s thought-action range and it increases the levels of enduring personal resources such as enthusiasm, pride, and inspiration (resources linked to dedication). Therefore, as the individual’s thinking and acting patterns become enriched with novel, various, and exploratory elements, while the individual is endowed with dedication related resources, the likelihood of displaying proactive behaviour becomes significantly higher (Salanova and Schaufeli, 2008). In accordance with these theories the following hypothesis was generated:
H1.b: Sense of engagement will mediate the relationship between PWB and PCB
Positive Relationships
Thirdly, the theoretical association between positive relationships and proactivity is frequently approached in studies undertaken in the organisational context. Nevertheless, prior research on proactivity is largely fragmented and has mostly focused on placing proactive behaviour or proactive personality as antecedents of positive relationship formation via network building (Hong, Liao, Raub,
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and Han, 2016). For instance individuals who are endowed with a proactive personality are inclined to enact their environments and organise it in a manner that is contributory to their own job success (Thompson, 2005). This is realised through the crucial political skill of network building, which entails the creation of advocating relationships with group members who are representatives of power and influence in their environments, and who will consequently support one’s personal initiatives (Ferris, Treadway, Kolodinsky, Hochwarter, Kacmar, Douglas, and Frink, 2004). A similar perspective is taken by Thomas, Whitman, and Viswesvaran (2010), who agreed upon the fact that individuals with proactive personalities show enhanced social networking skills and social capital building abilities. The underlying reason for this is that proactive display of personal initiative within a work environment promotes the employee’s reputation of an instrumental role player (Ashford and Black, 1996; Thomas et al., 2010).
On the other hand, scholars have also discussed the implications of owning a social network on consequential engagement in proactive behaviours. Network building facilitates the individual’s integration in the working environment and is indispensable for one’s development of social capital, which is a valuable asset characterised by the presence of strong interpersonal relationships among people (Bolino, Turnley, and Bloodgood, 2002). Social capital ultimately provides a strong basis of social support that might encourage the individual to engage in pursuing initiatives that go beyond one’s role expectations (Thompson, 2005). Besides the boost of self-confidence in their ability to be proactive, a social network also represents a valuable source of information and feedback within a work environment. As stated by Thomas et al. (2010), these elements contribute to the employees’ sense of belongingness which further empowers them to proactively challenge the current situation and express change initiatives more liberally.
Furthermore, the link between positive relationships and proactive behaviour can be deduced from the literature on intrinsic motivation. According to the Self-Determination Theory, individuals can display signs of proactivity or engagement as a result of showing higher degrees of intrinsic motivation,
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which is a natural process of self-motivation that serves as the most valid representation of the curious, active, and vital nature of the human being (Ryan and Deci, 2000). The scholars have explained that there are three basic intrinsic needs that form the base of intrinsic motivation, namely the need for competence, autonomy, and psychological relatedness. Following this logic it can be speculated that the idea of forming positive relationships which satisfies the need of psychological relatedness may consequently incentivise the self to initiate proactive behaviours (Ryan and Deci, 2000). Judging by these arguments the following hypothesis was formulated:
H1.c: Positive relationship will mediate the relationship between PWB and PCB
Meaning
Following this, the association between the individual’s sense of meaning and proactivity can be deducted by analysing the factors that impact meaningfulness in the working environment. According to Gilson, Harter, and May (2004) these factors are role features, work interactions, and task characteristics.
The first element deals with the relationship that individuals assume towards their role within the organisation. Their roles represent a core function in a social system, which depicts their expected behavioural patterns in that social unit (Robbins and Judge, 2013). Moreover a role might highlight the status, degree of influence, and power portrayed by an employee. To better understand how roles shape the willingness to engage in proactive behaviour, the second element from the model of proactive motivation process will be examined – namely the “reason to” motivational pathway (Parker et al., 2010). By definition, proactivity is self-initiated and autonomous, for this motive one of the most crucial “reason to” theories is the self-determination theory – which proposes that various types of autonomous motivation can drive proactive behaviour (Ryan and Deci, 2000; Parker et al., 2010). Moreover, self-determination theory suggests that there is a process by which an individual takes in a value or contingency, thus internalising it and subsequently converting that value into his own so that it becomes an integrated part of the self (Ryan and Deci, 2000). As indicated by the self-concordance
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model, individuals who are involved in activities which reflect their central values will tend to invest more energy and manifest more proactive behaviour in an effort to successfully complete those activities (Gagne and Deci, 2005). This is relevant while analysing individuals who portray flexible role orientation, who according to this concept might feel entitled to face a range of issues or goals that stretch beyond their formal tasks (Parker, Wall, and Jackson, 1997). Some scholars suggest that flexible role orientation can be perceived as an example of the internalisation and integration processes, because individuals take in values and responsibilities, thus broadening their role expectations and sensing greater accountability for activities beyond their core ones (Parker and Ohly, 2008). For this reason research has determined that individuals manifesting flexible role orientation tend to display higher levels of proactive behaviour (Parker et al., 2010). Following the same pattern are employees for whom their work roles became a form of calling. The role responsibilities of such employees are aligned with their core values, hence becoming inseparable from their lives (Gagne and Deci, 2005). They perceive the outcomes of their role tasks as socially valuable, thus the sense of fulfilment they accrue exceeds the value of extrinsic rewards such as financial gains or career advancement. Once again, the self-concordance model suggests that such consistency between one’s central values and activities might eventuate in higher levels of autonomous motivation which is associated with higher display of proactive behaviour (Gage and Deci, 2005; Parker et al. 2010).
The second factor affecting the sense of meaning is work interactions, which according to Berg, Dutton, and Wrzesniewski (2013), is a core aspect of the work environment that contributes to crafting a meaningful job. As it was previously mentioned positive relationships that serve as signs of respect, dignity, and appreciation provide a basis of assurance for the employee’s actions (Thompson, 2005). The theory of organisational justice, which represents fairness within the workplace as a function of procedural, distributive, and interactional justice, states that the latter element is concerned with the extent to which people perceive to be treated with consideration, dignity, and respect while having a feeling of being valued (Robbins and Judge, 2013). Research has shown that while these conditions are aligned and employees have a strong perception of interactional justice – they will tend to display acts
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of organisational civility, hence suggesting the link between work interactions and proactive behaviour (Colquitt, Conlon, Wesson, Porter, and Ng, 2001).
Lastly, sense of meaning is influenced by the task characteristics of one’s job. Drawing from the job characteristics theory, the sense of meaning generated by the range of tasks an employee needs to face at the workplace represents a psychological state that triggers a range of beneficial outcomes both for the individual: positive affect, self-efficacy; and the organisation: increased levels of job involvement and proactive behaviour (Oldham et al., 2005). Taking all this into account the following hypothesis was derived:
H1.d: Sense of meaning will mediate the relationship between PWB and PCB
Accomplishment
Finally, the relation between the sense of accomplishment and proactivity can be interpreted by examining the last “cold” (cognitive-related) element of the proactive motivation process model – specifically the “can do” motivational pathway (Parker et al., 2010).
The “can do” motivational state deals with individuals’ perception of their ability to perform a proactive action and it is defined by two key elements, which are self-efficacy judgments and control appraisals (Parker et al.,2010; Bindl et al., 2012; Hong et al., 2016). According to social cognitive theory, individuals who desire to pursue proactive behaviours will tend to examine the likelihood of potential outcomes before engaging in those. Hence, a confident belief that one can excel in a particular task or activity is extremely important for the involvement in proactive actions, especially since this might include a certain level of psychological risk to the individual (Parker et al., 2010). Such risk is represented by opposition or scepticism arising from others, which might in turn impose a detrimental effect on one’s ego, perceived image, reputation, and work relations. As it was previously mentioned these effects will consequently increase the likelihood of proactive behaviour disengagement (Colquitt et al., 2001). In addition, research has shown that perceived self-efficacy is positively related to taking charge and manifesting personal initiative, it also contributes to enhancing persistence and resilience
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while encountering challenging obstacles, both of which are believed to be indispensable for successful proactive action (Frese and Fay, 2001). In a similar manner, control appraisals have a significant impact on building resilience and securing high degrees of effort after setbacks. As stated by Parker et al. (2010), situations in which low perceived appraisal control persists may be signalling that a proposed goal is unattainable or that effort will lead to unsatisfying outcomes, this resulting in disengagement with proactive actions. Triangulating this is a longitudinal study which reveals that control appraisals led to higher display of personal initiative (Frese and Fay, 2001). Scholars believe that this relationship holds because the employees’ awareness of their impact on the organisational outcomes complemented by the feeling that they control the situation is associated with a desire to maintain a strong sense of responsibility and optimism, and to actively seek out new information and opportunities (Frese and Fay, 2001).
Referring back to the literature on role features, it was deduced that roles are indicative of one’s power and status within a certain environment. Research shows that these aspects and the high within-role performance emboldens one to engage in proactive behaviours. In this vein, Parker (1998) has developed a more narrowed-down concept of role-breadth self-efficacy, which is related to the feeling of confidence felt by employees who believe to be able to undertake a broader proactive role, beyond their formal task requirements. In subsequent research role-breadth self-efficacy has been shown to be associated with higher levels of personal initiative and a willingness to take charge in altering the status quo (Parker and Collins, 2010; Bindl et al., 2012). Ultimately, the self-transcendent efforts manifested by the employee contribute to subordinating one’s individual interests in favour of the organisational ones. This further results in exhibiting organisational citizenship behaviour which includes taking an authentic interest for the organisation’s mission and its activities and supporting those in a proactive manner (Bolino et al., 2002). Considering the facts presented in the literature on motivational states and self-efficacy, the following hypothesis was developed:
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PERMA
As stated by Butler and Kern (2016), PERMA is a framework used to quantify an individual’s level of PWB through the spectre of positive emotions, engagement, positive relationships, sense of meaning, and accomplishment. Given that PERMA accounts for these five dimensions which according to literature are associated with the concepts of PWB and PCB, it is reasonable to assume that PERMA’s average score will have a mediating role in the overarching relationship of this study, hence the following hypothesis was formulated:
H1.f: The average of the PERMA components will mediate the relationship between PWB and PCB
2.3 Moderated mediation (personality dimensions)
For some scholars, the idea that PWB is solely determined by personality dimensions is rather alarming, given that this would imply unalterable levels of PWB (Robertson and Cooper, 2011). Nevertheless, some of the Big Five personality factors indicate a strong connection with both the state of PWB and its determinant elements from the PERMA model (Alarcorn, Edwards, and Menke, 2011; Bindl et al., 2012). Furthermore in their research on PCB antecedents, Claes and Ruiz-Quintanilla (1998) suggested recommendations that further research on PCB should include the implication of particularly the personality traits extraversion and conscientiousness, since these personality dimensions are regarded as correlates of proactive personality in previous research.
While addressing the relationship between the PERMA components and conscientiousness, it was observed that most of the literature revolves around the links between this personality dimension, engagement and accomplishment (Thomas et al., 2010; Alacorn et al., 2011). This could be explained with the Conservation of Resources (COR) Theory, according to which conscientiousness is a dispositional resource that reflects the degree to which one is achievement-oriented, dependable, and responsible (traits linked to sense of accomplishment). It also represents a crucial resource that contributes to optimising one’s performance and identifying means of coping with stress (Alarcorn et al., 2011). Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that individuals scoring high on conscientiousness are
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better at managing resources dedicated to following engaging goal-oriented activities than people scoring low on this dimension (Halbesleben, Neveu, Paustian-Underdahl, and Westman, 2014). Moreover, conscientious individuals portray tendencies towards self-discipline and demonstration of competence, which implies the possibility of performing proactive enactments oriented at optimising the status quo (Thomas et al., 2010). Judging by these arguments it is rational to infer that an individual portraying high levels of conscientiousness will have a higher likelihood of experiencing a sense of engagement or accomplishment, which will consequently strengthen the indirect relationship between PWB and PCB. Therefore the following hypotheses were developed:
H2.a: The effect of PWB on PCB via sense of engagement will be stronger for individuals showing high levels of conscientiousness
H2.b: The effect of PWB on PCB via accomplishment will be stronger for individuals showing high levels of conscientiousness
Extraversion is another personality dimension that seemed to capture the attention of researchers studying the concepts of PWB and PCB. Comparable to conscientiousness, an individual scoring high on extraversion is believed to be goal-directed and achievement oriented (Turban et al., 2017). However, literature has mostly focused on the relationships between extraversion, positive emotions and positive relationships, which is plausible since the core elements defining this dimension are related to the extravert’s propensity to being warm, outgoing, energetic, and an active in the social domain (Vries, Wawoe, and Holtrop, 2015). Literature shows that extraverts have higher chances of seeking out positive stimuli, addressing events from a more positive perspective, this leads to experiencing high-activated positives affects (e.g. enthusiasm) which as previously discussed are associated with willingness to pursue proactive behaviours (Bindl et al., 2012; Turban et al., 2017). Furthermore, since extraverts are extensively invested in the social domain and they find it rather effortless to build up new relationships this could relate with proactive inclinations towards altering their environments via social avenues (Thomas et al., 2010). There is evidence suggesting that
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extraverts are more likely to accrue greater benefits from their social relationships in terms of information and knowledge than their fellow introverts. Turban et al. (2017) argued that this is due to the fact that they have an approach motivation towards learning opportunities and they are more predisposed towards developmental activities. Drawing from these arguments it is sensible to assume that individuals manifesting high levels of extraversion will engage in proactive activities which are central to the concept of PCB, namely future skill development and social networking (Strauss et al., 2012). Linking this to the previous discussion, it can be assumed that higher levels of extraversion will strengthen the relationship between PWB and PCB through positive emotions and positive relationships hence the following hypotheses were derived:
H3.a: The effect of PWB on PCB via positive emotions will be stronger for individuals showing high levels of extraversion
H3.b: The effect of PWB on PCB via positive relationships will be stronger for individuals showing high levels of extraversion
2.4 Psychological Well-Being and Proactive Career Behaviour
In this subsection the overarching relationship of this research will be discussed, followed by a graphic representation of the conceptual model.
The conservation of resources (COR) Theory offers a clear perspective on the relationship between PWB and PCB (Hobfoll, 2001). COR represents an extensive model of stress that encompasses a series of stress and motivational theories. The model expresses the idea that there is a range of resources categorised as tangible objects, personal characteristics and states, conditions, and energies which people attempt to acquire and protect (conserve) (Halbesleben et al., 2014). Hobfoll (2001) developed two defining principles and four corollaries for the processes of resource acquisition and conservation. The first principle deals with the primacy of resource loss, which entails the fact that losing resources brings about more significant psychological damage on the individual than the psychological boost obtained from regaining the lost resources. Research has pointed out that
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resource loss is generally linked to a higher likelihood of experiencing stress in the form of burnout and depression (Kessler, Turner, and House, 1988). Nevertheless, this reflects the presence of an incentivising element of this principle, which suggests that people will tend to follow behaviours that prevent resource losses, given that subsequent loss might impose a detrimental effect on one’s well-being (Halbesleben et al., 2014). This reasoning is extended in the second principle of the COR theory, which states that individuals will invest resources in order to prevent further resource losses, regain lost resources, or acquire new ones. The implications of this principle are often discovered in research related to coping mechanisms which are based on the belief that resource investment holds back future resource losses (Vinokur and Schul, 2002). Besides the COR principles, Hobfoll (2001) formulated four corollaries, two of which are relevant to the PWB and PCB association. The first one states that people with more resources have a better perspective on how to invest those, thus they are more likely to acquire new resources. On the other hand individuals experiencing a loss of resources will most probably follow a resources loss spiral, due to the presence of strain. According to the second corollary (number four in Hobfoll, 2001), depleting amounts of resources will trigger defensive efforts aimed at conserving the remainder of resources.
Firstly, by examining the first principle and the second corollary it is reasonable to assume that loss aversion will prevent individuals from investing resources for proactive career activities such as skill development, social networking, and career exploring. This can be motivated by expectancy theory, which claims that individuals will put effort and follow certain behaviour patterns if there is a strong expectation that a positive outcome will be achieved (Robbins and Judge, 2013). In this case, loss aversion weakens the individual’s belief that investment in proactive behaviour will lead to regaining resources at a further point in time. This is triangulated by the negative dominance effect, which describes that the fear of losing resources is in fact more detrimental for further resource investment than the loss itself (Bilgin, 2012). Furthermore, the aversion towards resource losses and uncertainty is due to the fact that the individual is endowed with a finite amount of resources which have to be rationally allocated. The scenario in which a resource loss or valueless allocation occurs
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can be perceived as a foregone opportunity and this is particularly daunting when an individual is short on resources (e.g. low levels of PWB) - which once again might serve as a paralysing factor for PCB (Halbesleben et al., 2014).
Secondly, by taking a look at the second principle and the first corollary, it is determined that the key for sustaining one’s levels of resources rests within the processes of resource investment and acquisition. This is particularly important given that resources vary in their degrees of degradability (Halbesleben et al., 2014). Such resources as social support, knowledge, and skills require
maintenance via frequent use and reciprocal resource investment, otherwise these face the risk of complete degradation as new resources are acquired (Bickerton, Miner, Dowson, and Griffin, 2014). Referring back to the link between PWB and the PERMA components it plausible to expect that individuals will desire to maintain high levels of resources which generate a sense of well-being, they will also be willing to commit to particular resource investments in order to secure resource turnover and successful resource acquisition in the long-run. A contextual example could resource investment in PCB, which in the long-run is believed to offer the individual greater employability opportunities, which would shelter one from the negative effects of strain, which could perpetuate the resource conservation (e.g. positive emotions). Following this line of thought the following hypothesis emerged:
H4: Individuals showing high degrees of PWB will tend to engage in PCB
After conducting an extensive literature review on the relationship between the constructs of PWB, PCB, the PERMA components and the moderating effects of Extraversion and
23 Figure 1. Conceptual Model
3. Method
This section entails the methodology of the study, which is presented in accordance with the steps presented in the research “onion” model (Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill, 2012). Firstly, the research design will be explained, supported by details regarding the nature of the research, the research strategy applied, the time horizon, and a brief reflection on the quality of the design. Secondly, the procedure of this investigation will be explained accompanied by a description of sample and the sampling technique. Finally, both the measurements and statistical techniques used for the analysis of data will be presented.
3.1 Research Design
In order to fulfil the purpose of this study and test the proposed hypotheses an empirical mono method quantitative research is used. A quantitative design allows the examination of
relationships among variables which are measured numerically. The quantitative data collected via a single data collection technique is exploited in a deductive manner, meaning that it is used to examine the hypotheses proposed in the previous section which are based on theory from academic
Psychological Well-Being Positive Emotions Accomplishment Meaning Positive Relations Engagement Proactive Career Behaviour Conscientiousness Extraversion
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literature (Saunders et al., 2012). The explanatory nature of this research is motivated by its purpose which represents an attempt to establish a link between PWB and PCB, and explain what conditions this relationship. This study applied a cross-sectional survey as a research strategy for collecting the data. This is due to the fact that the survey represents a research strategy exclusively connected to quantitative research design, while it also represents a cost-efficient way of collecting data (Saunders et al., 2012). Since the data was collected at particular point in time this research design follows a cross-sectional time horizon, which implies that it reflects a snapshot of the relationship between the variables.
Regarding the quality of the design, it is crucial to mention that this research has mostly used measures which show a high degree of reliability and internal validity. The conceptual model of this study contained constructs that were previously applied in research on PWB through the scope of the PERMA framework, and PCB (De Vos et al., 2009; Strauss et al., 2012). Moreover, the PERMA model was formerly tested in a university setting, which highlights the predictive and construct validity of its measures (Coffey, Wray-Lake, Mashek, and Branand, 2014). Furthermore, the generalisability of the results of this study is likely to be considerably high, given that the sample is significantly diverse in terms of the nationalities of the respondents. These are Romanian (24.8%), Moldovan (12.4%), Dutch (12.4%), French (7%), British (4.7%), Russian (3.7%), and New Zealander (3.7%).
3.2 Procedure and Sampling
For the data collection a questionnaire was distributed via e-mail and social media platforms. Next to the survey link an informative note was attached which indicated that participation in this research was conditioned by their occupation status. For this reason it is assumed that a combination of non-probability sampling techniques were used in this study. First of all purposive homogenous sampling, because the focus of this study lies on the particular group of students. Secondly, volunteer snowball sampling, since at the end of the survey the respondents were asked to share the survey
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link with other fellow students from their social network. According to Saunders et al. (2012), the fact that non-probability sampling techniques were used in a quantitative study might diminish the external validity of the results. In the questionnaire the students were asked to conduct a self-assessment on their levels of PWB triangulated by the elements of the PERMA framework, their degree of engagement with PCB, and their personality dimensions. They further filled out some demographics such as gender, age, nationality, the type of program they are enrolled in, and the year they have started their current program, some which were later used to develop control variables.
The sample consisted of 129 students (from a total registered 168 responses) and the response rate was 76.8%. Incomplete data of participants was cancelled out of the measure using listwise deletion. In terms of demographics: 52.7% of the participants were females which implies an approximately equal gender distribution. The average age was 21 (range = 18-29; SD = 1.848). Lastly, by making use of the data collected on the type of degree and year of commencement a new
variable was computed, which indicates the respondent’s study progress, such that 43.4% were planning to graduate this year, while 39.5% were still having one to three years until graduation (17.1% is missing data).
This research is in line with the deontological view, since Saunders et al. (2012) argued that adhering to this view is indicative of the researcher’s convincement, which reflects that the ends served by research can never justify the use of unethical practices. Hence, the methods used in collecting the data are consistent with the general ethical guidelines proposed by the American Psychological Association. In such a manner, it was ensured that the methods and purpose of this research were disclosed to the respondents, their consent was requested thereafter and they were guaranteed anonymity and confidentiality of the data use.
26 3.3 Measurements
Each of the measurements, excluding the mediator PERMA was self-reported by the students.
Dependent variable: Proactive Career Behaviours
To measure it the items from the questionnaire of Strauss et al. (2012) were used. The construct includes twelve items which are related to the dimensions of PCB, namely career planning, career consultation, skill development, and network building. An example of this item is: "I develop skills which may not be needed so much now, but in future positions". The items are rated on Likert-scale, ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. A high score indicates that the student is involved in proactive behaviour that will be helpful for his future career. The Cronbach’s alpha for PCB is high (α = .888)
Mediating variables: Positive Emotions, Engagement, Positive Relationships, Meaning and Accomplishment
These are the components of the PERMA framework from Seligman (2011). To measure them the items from the PERMA Profiler model of Butler and Kern (2016) were used. Each construct includes three items like: (P): "In general how often do you feel joyful? "; (E): "How often do you become absorbed in what you are doing? "; (R): "How satisfied are you with your personal relationships? "; (M): "In general to what extent do you feel that what you do in your life is valuable and worthwhile? "; (A): "How often do you achieve the important goals you have set for yourself? ". The items were rated on a Likert scale, ranging from (0) never/not at all to (10) always/completely. A high score indicates that the student is experiencing to a great extent the relevant dimension of the PERMA model. The Cronbach’s alpha was satisfying for most of the PERMA components: (P, α = .822); (R, α = .727); (M, α = .866); (A, α = .724). The construct of engagement (E) showed low reliability in terms of Cronbach’s alpha (α = .581), which could not have been modified by excluding the item with the lowest total-item correlation value. Nevertheless as stated by Briggs and Cheek (1986), this is an
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expected outcome in the cases where the scale is composed of less than ten items. In this scenario the scholars recommend to investigate the reliability of the scale using the mean inter-item correlation value. The optimal range for the inter-item correlation is between (.2 and .4), the value obtained from the construct of engagement is .316 which falls into the optimal range, thus
demonstrating the reliability of this scale.
Mediating variable: PERMA
This scale was computed by averaging the subscales from the PERMA dimensions and incorporating an extra element which is Happiness (Butler and Kern, 2016). A high score indicates that the student is experiencing a strong sense of PWB defined by positive emotions, engagement, positive
relationships, sense of meaning, and sense of accomplishment. The Cronbach’s alpha for PERMA was high (α = .907).
Moderating variables: Extraversion and Conscientiousness
To measure these personality dimensions the items from the Big Five Inventory (BFI) from John and Srivastava (1999) were used. Extraversion included eight items, while conscientiousness included nine. Some examples are: (Extr.): "I see myself as someone who is talkative."; (Consc.): "I see myself as someone who perseveres until the task is finished.". The items were rated on a Likert scale, ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. A high score indicated that the student is characterised by a high degree of the relevant personality dimension. Some of the items in the BFI represent the opposite spectrum of a relevant personality facet, for example: (Extr.): "I see myself as someone who is sometimes shy and inhibited."; (Consc.): "I see myself as someone who tends to be disorganised.". The purpose of these items is to enhance the construct validity of the personality scales. For the purpose of this research the values of these items were recoded. The Cronbach’s alpha for both constructs was high (Extr., α = .834); (Consc., α = .812).
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To measure it the items from the Satisfaction with life scale from Diener, Emmons, Larsen, and Griffin (1985) were used. The construct included five items designed to measure global cognitive
perceptions of one’s satisfaction with life. Some examples are: "So far I have gotten the important things I want in life.". The items were rated on a Likert scale, ranging from (1) Strongly disagree to (7) Strongly agree. A high score shows that the student is displaying high degrees of life satisfaction and PWB. This scale is obtained by summing up the values for the items, which will yield values ranging from (5 to 35). Diener et al. (1985) propose the following intervals as benchmarks for the score interpretation: (35 – 31: Extremely satisfied; 26 – 30: Satisfied; 21 – 25 Slightly satisfied; 20 – Neutral; 15 – 19: Slightly dissatisfied; 10 – 14: Dissatisfied; 5 – 9: Extremely dissatisfied). In order to make these scores more consistent with the scales of the mediating variables, PWB was standardised by dividing its’ scores by 3.5. The Cronbach’s alpha for PWB was satisfactory (α = .791).
3.4 Analysis and Predictions
Multiple regression analyses were conducted in order to establish the existence and strength of the relationships that were hypothesized in the theoretical framework. Since the conceptual model includes a case of parallel mediation and moderated mediation, the modelling tool PROCESS will be applied. PROCESS uses an ordinary least squares or logistic regression-based path analytical framework for determining direct and indirect effects in multiple mediator models, and conditional indirect effects in moderated mediation models with multiple mediators and moderators (Hayes, 2012). Therefore, two PROCESS models have been applied.
First of all, in order to test the indirect effect of PWB on PCB via the mediators from the PERMA framework, and the average PERMA score, PROCESS model 4 was used, which was run twice – first time with the PERMA components as mediators (Hypotheses 1.a to 1.f) and second time with the average PERMA score as a mediator (Hypothesis 4). From these models it is expected that of the mediated relationship between PWB on PCB will hold, which implies that individuals experiencing higher levels of PWB they will also experience higher degrees of positive emotions, sense of meaning,
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or they will show a higher PERMA score which will consequently lead to higher degrees of PCB engagement.
Secondly, in order to test the conditional indirect effect of PWB on PCB via the mediators from the PERMA framework while accounting for the effects of extraversion and conscientiousness (Hypotheses 2.a to 3.b), PROCESS model 16 was used. From this model it is expected that the conditional indirect effect of PWB on PCB will hold, meaning that as individuals experience higher levels of PWB they will also experience higher degrees of positive emotions, sense of
accomplishment etc., which will consequently lead to higher degrees of PCB engagement only if the individual scores high on extraversion or conscientiousness.
4. Results
4.1 Descriptive statistics and Correlations
The means, standard deviations, and correlations of the variables relevant to this study are displayed in table 1. As expected, all the PERMA dimensions and the average PERMA score were positively related to PCB, showing both strong to moderate and significant results, P:(r(129) = .339, p < 0.01); E: (r(129) = .426, p < 0.01); R: (r(129) = .331, p < 0.01); M: (r(129) = .581, p < 0.01); A: (r(129) = .505, p < 0.01); PERMA: (r(129) = .316, p < 0.01). This supports the idea that people experiencing high levels of the PERMA dimensions and a high overall sense of well-being tend to engage in PCB. Expectedly, PWB was positively related to PCB, showing a moderate strength of the relation which is significant, (r(129) = .337, p < 0.01). This again indicates that individuals manifesting high levels of PWB tend to engage in PCB. Furthermore, all of the PERMA components were positively related to PWB, showing both moderate to strong and significant results, P:(r(129) = .696, p < 0.01); E: (r(129) = .371, p < 0.01); R: (r(129) = .558, p < 0.01); M: (r(129) = .606, p < 0.01); A: (r(129) = .519, p < 0.01). This means that the PERMA dimensions are representative for the state of PWB, as individuals with high levels of PWB will tend to experience higher levels of the PERMA components.
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Table 1. Descriptive statistics and correlations among variables
4.2 Hypothesis testing
Model 1. In the first PROCESS model the indirect effect of PWB on PCB, via the PERMA components was tested. The results are presented in tables 2, 3 and 4. The effect of PWB on P(a1)= 1.188; E(a2)= .541; R(a3)= .967; M(a4)= 1.249; A(a5)= .825, means that two students that differ by one unit of PWB are estimated to differ by the respective amount of units on the PERMA dimensions. The sign of a1 to a5 is positive, meaning that those relatively higher on PWB experience higher levels of the PERMA dimensions. These effects were shown to be statistically significant (p<0.01). Regarding the effect of the PERMA dimensions on PCB, only three dimensions were significant results with (p< .05), namely P(b1)= -.116; M(b4)= .166; A(b5)= .103. These implies that two students that differ by one unit in either P,M or A are estimated to differ by their respective amount of units in PCB. The sign for P is negative, meaning that those relatively higher on P are expected to be lower in PCB. On the other hand the signs of M and A are positive, which reflects that those relatively higher on M or A are expected to be higher on PCB. The indirect effect of P(a1b1)= -.138; M(a4b4)= .207; A(a5b5)= .085 means that two students who differ by one unit in their reported PWB are estimated to differ by their respective values in their reported PCB, as a result of experiencing P,M and A, which in turn translates into greater engagement in PCB. The indirect effect is statistically different from zero as revealed by a 95% confidence interval (CI) (P:(-.240, -.057); M:(.114, .329); A:(.014, .178). The direct
Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1. Psychological well-being 4.932 1.008 1 2. Positive emotions 6.716 1.722 ,696** 1 3. Engagement 7.204 1.509 ,371** ,571** 1 4. Positive relationships 7.137 1.778 ,558** ,674** ,532** 1 5. Meaning 6.479 2.094 ,606** ,717** ,637** ,600** 1 6. Accomplishment 6.631 1.626 ,519** ,621** ,549** ,538** ,677** 1 7. PERMA 6.853 1.452 ,680** ,875** ,760** ,810** ,883** ,800** 1 8. Extraversion 3.319 .694 ,397** ,464** ,397** ,386** ,472** ,397** ,518** 1 9. Conscientiousness 3.465 .639 ,349** ,358** ,391** ,401** ,445** ,669** ,322** ,531** 1 10. Proactive career behaviour 3.582 .664 ,337** ,339** ,426** ,331** ,581** ,505** ,316** ,411** ,521** 1
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effect of PWB, c’1 = -.039 was also statistically insignificant (p = 0.571). These results signify that the mediation between PWB and PCB holds only in the cases of positive emotions, sense of meaning, and accomplishment, which implies that there is an indirect effect of PWB on PCB via P,M and A which matches the expectations from the hypotheses H1.a, H1.d, and H1.e. On the other hand there was no statistical evidence to support the indirect effect of PWB on PCB via engagement and positive
relationships, thus hypotheses H1.b and H1.c were not confirmed.
Table 2. First stage of the indirect mediation effect (ie mediator model)
Table 3. Second step of the indirect mediation effect and the direct effect (ie dependent variable model)
Consequent
P (a1) E (a2) R (a3) M (a4) A (a5)
Antecedent Coeff. SE Coeff. SE Coeff. SE Coeff. SE Coeff. SE PWB 1.188** .109 .541** .123 .967** .129 1.249** .147 .825** .123 constant .869 .551 4.549 0.619 2.368 .652 .299 .739 .256 .618 R2 = .485 R2 = .134 R2 = .308 R2 = .366 R2 = .265 F = 117.864** F = 19.384** F = 55.712** F = 72.247** F = 45.141** Note: N = 129; F(1, 125), **p < 0.01 Antecedents P (b1) E (b2) R (b3) M (b4) A (b5) PWB (c'1) constatant
Consequent Coeff. SE Coeff. SE Coeff. SE Coeff. SE Coeff. SE Coeff. SE Coeff. SE PCB -.166* .493 .050 .043 .002 .038 .166* .039 .103* .042 .039 .068 2.044 .305
R2 = .397
F = 13.190
32 Table 4. Direct, indirect and total effects
Effect SE LLCI ULCI
Model 1
Direct effect c'1 .039 .068 -.960 .173
Total effect c1 .222** .055 .112 .331
Indirect effect a1b1 .138 .048 .236 .051
a2b2 .027 .026 .017 .087 a3b3 .002 .029 .049 .065 a4b4 .207 .052 .115 .321 a5b5 .085 .043 .016 .185 Model 2 Direct effect c'2 -.025 .069 -.162 .111 Total effect c2 .219** .056 .109 .329
Indirect effect a6b6 .245 .048 .157 .343 Note: N = 129; **p < 0.01
Model 2. In the second PROCESS model both the direct and indirect effect of PWB on PCB, via the PERMA average score was tested. The results are presented in tables 4 and 5. The effect of PWB on PERMA a6 = .972 means that two students that differ by one unit on PWB are estimated to differ by .972 units in PERMA. The sign of a6 is positive, meaning that those relatively higher in PWB are estimated to have higher PERMA scores. This effect was shown to be statistically significant (p<0.01). The effect of PERMA on PCB b6 = .252 indicates that two students who experience the level of PWB but that differ by one unit in their PERMA score are estimated to differ by .252 units in PCB. The sign of b6 is positive which means that those relatively higher on PERMA scores are expected to be higher in PCB. The indirect effect of 0.245 means that two workers who differ by one unit in their reported PWB are estimated to differ by 0.245 units in their reported PCB as mediated by the PERMA score. This indirect effect is statistically different from zero, with a 95% CI (.161, .347). The direct effect of PWB, c’2 = -.255 was statistically insignificant (p = 0.712). According to these results, there is sufficient statistical evidence to support Hypothesis H1.f, which stated that PERMA will mediate the relation between PWB and PCB. Moreover, given that the indirect effect via PERMA is significant, hypothesis H4 is confirmed as well.
33 Table 5 Direct and indirect effects
Note: N = 129; **p < 0.01
Model 3. In the third PROCESS model the conditional indirect effect of PWB on PCB was tested. The results are presented in table 6. The results indicate the effect of PWB on PCB is not contingent on the personality dimension of Extraversion and Conscientiousness. The results of the interaction between the mediating variables (P,E,R and A) and the moderating variables were not statistically significant (PxExtraversion: p = 0.201; RxExtraversion: p = 0.696; ExConscientiousness: p = 0.291; AxConscientiousness: p = 0.069). This indicates that the moderation does not take place in any of these analyses, hence the hypotheses H2.a, H2.b, H3.a, H3.b were not confirmed by the data. Table 6. Moderated mediation
Consequent PCB Antecedent Coeff. SE P .261 .344 E .087 .263 R -.450 .238 A -.080 .295 Extr. .158 .414 Consc. -.586 .444 P x Extr. -.084 .066 R x Extr. .025 .063 E x Consc. -.080 .075 A x Consc. .129 .070 constant 3.561* 1.656 R2 = .468 F(18,107) = 5.240 Note: N = 129; *p < 0.05 Consequent
PERMA (a6) PCB (c'2) & (b6)
Antecedent Coeff. SE Coeff. SE
PWB .972** .094 -.025 .069
PERMA - - .252** .048
34 5. Discussion
In the present research, the relationship between PWB and PCB was studied. Specifically, it was tested whether the relationship between the two constructs is mediated by the dimensions of the PERMA model. Moreover, it was examined whether the effect of PWB on PCB via the P and R dimensions will be stronger in the presence of the moderator – extraversion, and whether the effect via E and A dimensions will be enhanced in the presence of the moderator – conscientiousness. Four hypotheses were proposed. The first hypothesis was partially supported, the mediation took place only in the cases of P, M, and A. The second and third hypothesis were not confirmed, which assumed the moderating effect of extroversion and conscientiousness. Lastly, the fourth hypothesis which implied that PWB is related to PCB was confirmed.
5.1 Hypotheses and unexpected results
One of the findings is linked to the relationship between PWB and PCB. Even though, a direct effect of this relationship is not found, an indirect effect is discovered via the PERMA average score, positive emotions, sense of meaning, and accomplishment. This contradicts some of the scholars’ assumptions regarding circular relationships which involve the construct of PWB (Robertson and Cooper, 2011). Nevertheless, the indirect effect via the PERMA average score, positive emotions, sense of meaning, and accomplishment was supported. This is in line with previous literature which was connecting high-activated affect, drive generated from one’s core values, and self-efficacy with proactive behaviours (Ryan and Deci, 2000; Parker et al., 2010; Bindl et al., 2012; De Neve et al., 2013).
The findings of this paper have triangulated the assumptions of Gilson et al. (2004) and Ryan and Deci (2000), who stated that achieving a sense of meaning in one’s environment of activity will have a stimulating effect on proactive behaviours, given that an individual is self-driven by intrinsic motivation. Similarly, this study has confirmed the findings of Parker et al. (2010) and Frese and Fay (2001), who claimed that accomplishments generate a range of valuable psychological resources like self-efficacy, confidence and resilience which are believed to reinforce proactive behaviour, thus
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suggesting a positive relationship between sense of accomplishment and PCB. Striking is the fact that P was negatively related to PCB, which counters the previous assumptions about this relationship (Parker et al. 2010). An explanation for this lies within the study of Bindl et al. (2012), in which the scholars stressed out the importance of differentiating between high-activated and low-activated positive affect. The findings of that study showed that only high-activated positive affect was
significantly related to proactive behaviours, while low-activated positive affect showed insignificant results. Disregarding this discrimination could have been the reason why positive emotions have shown a negative relation with PCB in this study.
On the other hand, neither the indirect effect via engagement nor the one through positive relationships was confirmed. Concerning engagement, one of the reasons why the mediation did not take may be because prior research has focused on examining the impact of engagement on
proactive behaviour in the work environment but not on how the construct might influence self-development in regards to employability (Salanova and Schaufeli, 2003). Moreover, Salanova and Schaufeli (2008) expressed some concerns regarding the generalisability of their cross-sectional study which only clarified that there is an association between engagement and proactivity. They
suggested that a longitudinal study could have yielded results indicative of the causal relationship between the constructs. The insignificant relationship between positive relationships and PCB could be explained by the fact that the literature review has mostly provided evidence for the relation between the positive relationships and building supportive networks. Thus, only one of the four defining elements of PCB was addressed. Furthermore, the propositions formulated by Bolino et al. (2002) which were not tested empirically, were aimed at the link between positive relationships and OCB, which once again is a form of proactive behaviour manifested solely in the organisational context.
Another interesting finding is that neither extraversion nor conscientiousness seemed to serve as conditions for the indirect effect of PWB on PCB, through P,E,R, and A. The primary
