University of Amsterdam Amsterdam Business School Master of Science Business Studies
Master Thesis
Supervisor: Dhr. Drs. A.C.C Gruijters Student:Stephanie Swart (5747503)
Leiden, Januari 19th 2013
B
UILDING
B
RIDGES ACROSS THE
K
NOWLEDGE
D
IVIDE
Building Bridges across the Knowledge Divide Divide
A qualitative study on the positive influence ICT can have on developing communities
This thesis is a report of the three different types of research that have been conducted; a literature review, a review of three cases and a case study. The review of the three cases and the case study focuses on communities in developing countries. In the case study the
researcher had specific access to a community in Cape Town, South Africa.
The goal of this thesis was to explore the theory with regards to ICT in developmental projects and subsequently compare this theory with practice. This was done to identify opportunities to optimize the usage of ICT in developmental projects. Besides this social need and perspective, this thesis also adds new perspective from a scientific point of view. First of all this case study and the group of respondents in this specific case have not been studied in this way before. This research and the new perspective from this group therefore contributes to the different case studies performed in this area of research. Second, the ‘inside out’ perspective in this case study is in line with the advice Gigler (2004) gives at the conclusion of his research: Evaluations of the impact of ICT programs should focus on an analysis from the vantage point of the people, rather than from the perspective of outside donors. This research takes this advice from Gigler into account and it evolved into this thesis.
In the conclusion the differences and similarities between the case study, the findings from literature review and the review of the three cases is reviewed. Furthermore, the reflection on the practical and academic contribution of this thesis is discussed.
Picture front page: Bridge in Cape Town that lies between the port and the waterfront
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This thesis would not have come to completion without the guidance and the help of several individuals who in one way or another contributed in the preparation and completion of this research.
Foremost, I would like to express my gratitude to my advisor Drs. A.C.C Gruijters for his guidance. Especially for his willingness to help me re-start my thesis and the patience and support that came with this. Besides my advisor, I would like to thank the Ladies of Mom2.0 and Marlon Parker for offering me the opportunity to join their project and their special community in Cape Town. This was, and still is, a place where I felt at home far away from home. The Ladies still are a true inspiration for me, especially for their true motivation to help other people. There are several other individuals who helped me or gave me the opportunity to write this thesis: Drs. A.W. Abcouwer, Mariska and Prof. R. Maes.
A very warm and special thanks goes out to my mom (for endless reasons and support), my brother (for setting the right example) and Roel (for his dear support in many ways).
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 6
2. RESEARCH CONTEXT 8
2.1DIGITAL DIVIDE AND KNOWLEDGE DIVIDE 8
3. RESEARCH DEFINITION 12
3.1NEED FOR THIS RESEARCH 12
3.2RESEARCH PROBLEM 14
4. LITERATURE REVIEW 16
4.1RESEARCH PERSPECTIVE 16
4.2EMPOWERMENT 18
4.3VIRTUAL COMMUNITY OF PRACTICE 20
4.4KNOWLEDGE SHARING 22
4.5KNOWLEDGE SHARING IN COMMUNITIES OF PRACTICE 23
4.6SUMMARY LITERATURE REVIEW 24
5.REVIEWOFTHREECASES 26
5.1 PARAMETERS OF ICT USAGE FOR DEVELOPMENT 26
5.2INDIA – INFORMATION VILLAGE PROJECT OF M.S.SWAMINATHAN RESEARCH FUND 28
5.3SOUTH AFRICA – THE DWESA PROJECT 30
5.4UGANDA – THE WOMEN’S INFORMATION RESOURCE ELEKTRONIC SERVICES (WIRES) 32
5.5SUMMARY REVIEW OF THREE CASES 34
6.CASESTUDY 36
6.1CONTEXT OF THE CASE:SOUTH AFRICA BACKGROUND 36
6.2THE CASE STUDY:MOM2.0 38
6.3METHODOLOGY 40
6.4CASE STUDY RESULTS 42
7. CONCLUSION 51
REFERENCES
1. INTRODUCTION
The South African project named Mom2.0 is the starting point of this thesis. The Mom2.0 project was initiated to help and stimulate a community in Bridgetown, a suburb of Cape Town, to optimize the usage of information and communication technology (ICT) in favor of their community. The project is named after the mothers that participated in the project and who are part of the community in Bridgetown. The goal of the project was to empower the women of the community by teaching them how to use ICT and offer them the facilities to do so. In the initial phase of the Mom2.0 project the author of this thesis had the opportunity to observe the project activities. This is where this thesis was originated and evolved into the case study which became part of the research for the thesis. The reason to conduct the research is to identify the opportunities for improvement to optimize the usage of ICT to empower and develop
individuals and their environment. This was done in the context of a county or area where people have limited access to ICT and/or do not use them to their full potential.
This thesis is a report of the three different types of research that have been conducted; a literature review, a review of three cases and the case study. The goal of this thesis is to explore the theory with regards to ICT in developmental projects and subsequently compare this theory with practice. This was done to identify opportunities to optimize the usage of ICT in
developmental projects. With these learnings the community of the case study might benefit in order to empower themselves. Besides this social need and perspective as described above, this thesis also adds new perspective from a scientific point of view. First of all this case study and the group of respondents in this specific case have not been studied in this way before. This research and the new perspective from this group therefore contributes to the different case studies performed in this area of research. Second, the ‘inside out’ perspective in this case study is in line with the advise Gigler (2004) gives at the conclusion of his research: Evaluations of the impact of ICT programs should focus on an analysis from the vantage point of the people, rather than from the perspective of outside donors. This research takes this advice from Gigler into account and it evolved into this thesis.
To give further guidance a short summary of the structure of thesis is described here. First the context in which this research has taken place is described. After that, the research definition is explained, in this part the research question is presented. The third part is the first out of the three types of research this thesis enhances. It is the in-depth literature review, where the research perspective is defined and the main definitions are described. Important definitions that were derived from preliminary research for this study are empowerment, knowledge sharing and virtual communities of practice. After the literature review, the fourth part of this thesis and the second type of research follows; the review of three cases. These cases are similar to the Mom2.0 case study and were conducted in other countries. In these cases three parameters, which are important to drive the usage of ICT in developmental projects, are identified; access to ICT, the capability to use ICT facilities and the development of a knowledge and information structure. The three different developmental projects that are studied are elaborated on and held against the parameters as mentioned above. The fifth part of the thesis is the case study which is focusing on the Mom2.0 project. The case study is also the third and last type of research in this thesis. For the case study semi-structured interviews were
conducted and analyzed based on the conclusions from the literature review and the review of the three cases. In the conclusion the differences and similarities between the case study, the findings from literature review and the review of the three cases is reviewed. Furthermore, the reflection on the practical and academic contribution of this thesis is discussed.
2. RESEARCH CONTEXT
In today’s globalized world borders seem to disappear and distances between countries, organizations and individuals seem to shorten. Globalization is associated with increasing economic openness, growing economic interdependence and a deepening economic integration in the world economy. China, India, Brazil and South Africa are seen as the new engines of growth behind these developments in globalization (Nayyar, United Nations
University, 2008).
Friedman (2004) identifies different drivers of globalization. One of the important drivers is the availability of information and communication technologies, in this thesis referred to as ICT. The definition of ICT used in this thesis is: “Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
encompass all those technologies that enable the handling of information and facilitate forms of communication among human actors, between human beings and electronic systems, and among electronic systems.” (Hamelink, 1997:3) This functional definition of ICT includes both
the ‘new’ (i.e. internet, e-mail) and ‘traditional’ (i.e. community-radio, TV) forms of ICT.
ICT has had an important influence on the development of countries like China, India, Brazil and South Africa, mentioned earlier as the new engines of growth. The impact of ICT is widespread and is felt in different areas of society such as education, research, government, business and entertainment (Arunachalam, 2002). However, not all levels of society benefit from this development equally. Arunachalam (2002) not only recognizes a gap between rich and poor nations driven further by the emergence of ICT, but also sees a divide within communities in these countries as well.
2.1 Digital divide and knowledge divide
Creating digital opportunities is not something that happens after addressing the “core” development challenges; it is a key component of addressing those challenges in the 21st century. (G-8 Creating Opportunities for All: Meeting the Challenge, 2001).
The digital divide which refers to the gap between people with effective access to information and communication technology and those with very limited or no access at all (wikipedia,
2009). In recent research there is a general assumption that there is a digital divide, however more recently different reports also showed the existence of a knowledge divide (Unesco, 2005). In research the two different terms are used to refer to the divide that has emerged between the people who do have access to ICT and the knowledge that comes with that and the people who do not. The two phenomenon’s’ are highly interlinked, but differ from each other essentially. In this paragraph the two definitions are explained.
Digital Divide
The discussion and debate about the concept of digital divide has been extensive (Chen and Wellman, 2004; Cooper, 2002; Dewan and Riggins, 2005; Norris, 2001). The term digital divide describes the fact that the world can be divided in people who do and people who do not have access to – and the capability to use- information and ICT systems, or modern technology, such as telephone, television or the Internet (Gurstein, 2003). According to OECD (2001) the term digital divide refers to "the gap between individuals, households, businesses and geographic areas at the different socio-economic levels with regard to their opportunities to access information and communication technology (ICT) and their use of Internet. It reflects differences among and within countries". Although this definition is about national and international level, the digital divide exists in variety of other levels such as sector level, community level, and individual level (Singh, 2009). Hanimann and Ruedin (2007) describe the term digital divide with three distinctive divides: a geographical digital divide (between regions and countries), a social digital divide (between social classes), and an upgraded digital divide (between technology and humans). This is in line with Norris (2001); and Branko (2005), who are stating that there are at least three major divides:
- A global divide between the developed and undeveloped worlds; - A social divide between the information rich and the information poor;
- A democratic divide between those who do and those who do not use the new technologies to further political participation.
These three different divides have one common characteristic: ICT makes the difference. Singh (2009) identified three remarks on the different divides within the digital divide. First, in the modern knowledge and information-based world, economic opportunities, such as
employability, depend on ICT access and skills. ICT also has a big influence on all social
relationships, ranging from political participation to connecting local communities, friends and the family. Second, in the global and culturally diversified world, ICT is also increasingly
important for access to cultural resources and expression. Third, it is clear that technology remains useless without knowledge and capabilities to use it.
Wright (2002) states that the digital divide is growing around the world, although countries and the groups within these countries are increasing their access to and use of ICT. Reason for this is the fact that the people who do have access to ICT make exponential steps of progress in their knowledge and usage of ICT. This means that the people who do not have this access or the knowledge to use the ICT are getting behind and are increasingly excluded of today’s society. Thanks to advances in ICT, knowledge has never been easier to process, share and to analyze (Khan, 2008). Marshall et all. (2009) states that developing economies are in danger of declining, as the digital divide becomes the knowledge divide.
Knowledge divide
The concept of a knowledge divide is used to describe the gap in living conditions between those who can find, manage and process information or knowledge, and those who are excluded from this (Marshall et all., 2009). The exclusion of knowledge in the society as we know it today is a big hurt for these excluded groups. The development of knowledge and ICT is rapidly increasing and impacting the day-to-day life in such a way that people who don not follow these developments are left behind. The effects of this are widespread and can for example be found in negative influences on education, government affairs, doing business and entertainment or culture (Arunachalam, 2002).
Castells (2001) notes that whereas the digital divide mostly refers to inequality of access to the Internet, there is also a knowledge gap in terms of the knowledge and skills required to
and capacity needed for action. Access to ICT is useless without the knowledge to understand the content, make sense of it and use it. When the users of ICT are not able to turn the contents of the web into economic and social value this becomes part of a knowledge divide (Chataway et all, 2003). This is then far more significant than the access issue where the digital divide refers to, in theory that could be overcome with investment and technology (Chataway et all, 2003). The ability to make sense of new knowledge, absorb it and act upon it, are key dimensions of the knowledge divide. This is also where the definition knowledge divide differs from the definition digital divide.
The consequences of the knowledge divide raise issues that are somewhat different from the digital divide. The issues that come with a gap in knowledge seem to face challenges that go over and above those associated with data and information. Data and information, related to the digital divide, may be digitized, but only those forms of knowledge that can be codified can similarly be digitized (Chataway et all, 2003). There are many forms of knowledge, from
knowing how to drive a car or play football, to knowing how to be an good listener, that are not easy to digitize. Whereas data and information can be made almost tangible and possible to transfer, many forms of knowledge are tacit and personal (Polanyi 1958). You can purchase a theoretical course on the traffic rules, or read about the rules of the football game, but you cannot buy the knowledge of how to drive the car or kick the ball. You will have to practice and learn for yourself. For many development thinkers today, local knowledge and the broad acceptance of new information and knowledge is essential in development practice (Chataway et all, 2003).
With the above thought about local knowledge and the acceptance of new information and knowledge in mind, the research definition is described in the next chapter. After establishing the context in which this research took place, the research definition spells out the aim of this research and its research question.
3. RESEARCH DEFINITION
After understanding the context in which this research took place, the research definition will be described in this chapter. First by explaining why this research is conducted for who this research was initiated. Then the problem definition, which will be analyzed in this research, comes forward.
This research is conducted to identify the opportunities for improvement in optimizing the usage of ICT to empower and develop individuals and their environment. Specifically in a county or area where people have limited access to ICT and/or do not use ICT to the full potential.
As described, this research was initiated because of the need that was identified in the community of the case study. However, the study of this project evolved into a broader research. This thesis is a report of this research, which divided in three research types: the literature review, the review of three cases and the case study. The research is conducted in line with the requirements for the Master Business Studies at the University of Amsterdam. Although this thesis is written to meet these requirements, the actual principal for whom this research is conducted, is the community of Bridgetown, the community in which the case study research took place. After conducting the research and deriving conclusions from this, a
suggestion to optimize the usage of ICT in the community of the case study is presented.
3.1 Need for this research
As mentioned before, the South African ICT project named Mom2.0 was the starting point of this research. The Mom2.0 project was initiated to help and stimulate a community in
Bridgetown, a developing community, to optimize the usage of ICT in favor of their community. The aim of this thesis is to explore the theory with regards to ICT in developmental projects and compare this theory with practice and potentially use these conclusions to identify
between the existing theory and the review of three cases similar to Mom2.0 is made. The conclusions form this comparison form the basis of the qualitative research that is conducted in the case study.
When used effectively, ICT offers a huge potential to empower people to improve their lives. Yet, as was just pointed out, the reality is that a knowledge divide exists. In the case of this research the emphasis lies on the need of the optimal usage of the ICT, since this is the area in which people can be empowered and where user knowledge can be shared.
This need can be recognized in the literature review, the review of three cases and in the case study of this thesis. These three studies for the review of cases where chosen because they matched the case study on four different areas: ICT involvement, focused on development, focused on emancipation and the small scale of the projects. In the case study the need for the support of ICT for development of the community was identified: women in the community wanted to empower themselves by learning how to use ICT more effectively. However, a lack of knowledge of how to use the ICT and a lack of structure in the usage of the ICT available was preventing them to benefit from the full potential of ICT.
Change can start at individual level; every individual in the community can learn about the usage of ICT and benefit on a personal level from this. When more individuals in the community learn about this and implement their new skills and knowledge, the community can benefit from the broader range of opportunities this brings. This is also recognized by Gigler (2004). Gigler (2004) states that ICT can, under certain conditions, significantly enhance the human and social capabilities of people, and thus empower them at the individual and
collective/community level. At the base of this empowerment process stands the notion that ICT can enhance peoples’ control over their own lives. Similarly to literacy, newly acquired ‘informational capabilities’ can act as an agent for change for individuals and communities.
Besides this social need and perspective as described above, this thesis also adds new perspective from a scientific point of view. First of all the case study and the group of respondents in this specific case have not been studied before. This research and the new perspective from this group therefore contributes to the different case studies performed in
this area of research. Second, the ‘inside out’ perspective in this case study is in line with the advise Gigler (2004) gives at the conclusion of his research: Evaluations of the impact of ICT programs should focus on an analysis from the vantage point of the people, rather than from the perspective of outside donors. This research takes this advice from Gigler into account.
3.2 Research Problem
The research problem originated from the first observations at the Mom2.0 project and from the interviews at the start of this research. From these initial observations and interviews three main challenges came forward that restrained the people in Bridgetown to use the scarcely available ICT to their full extent. These barriers are summarized below:
1 Access to internet and ICT facilities is limited;
2 Knowledge of how to use the available (internet) resources is minimal;
3 The (ICT) knowledge and information that is available is neither centralized nor structured
Next to these barriers it became clear that the respondents of the case study wanted to take this project further and wanted to use their knowledge and experience to contribute to their community and to have a positive impact on their environment. The Mom2.0 project can be seen as an opportunity for the women of Bridgetown to positively influence their community and be a role model for the people within this community. In these first encounters it became clear that the women felt a strong desire to share life experiences. For instance they would like to discuss how to deal with problems regarding the gang activity in the area, the drug abuse and parenting. They were also interested in sharing knowledge about education and health issues in general. However, a facilitating tool or place to unfold the opportunity to do this was not available.
There is a lot of knowledge available which could be useful to develop the community and also the willingness to share this knowledge is present. The women know a lot about their
community and ways to overcome local and personal problems. They have ideas how to improve their environment and bring up many ideas on starting their own businesses. On the
other hand there are no tools to share this knowledge with other people in the community. Besides sharing their own knowledge they are very eager to learn and to educate themselves and the children of the community. To be able to share and gain that knowledge and
information, the usage of ICT is the most beneficial option.
Based on the findings from the introductive interviews in the community of the case study, the research problem is: when access to ICT is limited, the knowledge of how to use these facilities is limited, and there is no centralized or structured way of using knowledge and information, ICT is not used to its full potential.
To find what is important in this field of research and which insights we can use as an advantage to optimize the usage of ICT in developing communities, different areas are
elaborated on in the literature study. The aim of conducing the literature study is to understand the framework in which this research is conducted and to formulate a clear understanding of the three important topics of this thesis, being empowerment, knowledge sharing and
communities of practice. The second part of the research analyzes the three case studies that are similar to the Mom2.0 case. As mentioned before these three studies were chosen because they match Mom2.0 project on four different areas: ICT involvement, focused on development, focused on emancipation and the small scale of the projects. This analysis was conducted to gain insights from other case research and to understand if general conclusions can be derived from these three cases. The goal was to combine the conclusions from the literature review with the analysis of the case research. In the case research the focus lies on the drives of successful ICT usage in developing communities. In the last part of this thesis, the case study is described. This analysis builds upon the conclusions that are derived from the literature review and the case analysis. The aim of the case study is to operationalize the literature and review of the three cases.
Next chapter the literature review will give perspective the most important definitions of this research.
4. LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter describes a review of the literature and is conducted to define the research perspective and the important definitions in this research; empowerment, knowledge sharing and virtual communities of practice. These definitions are further explored to understand how knowledge is shared and created in developmental communities and how ICT is used in this process. These specific topics are reviewed in dept because they are identified as being important factors in this research from the exploratory interviews that were held in the community of the case study.
The research perspective is defined by comparing different perspectives that are described by Gigler (2004). This is followed by an exploration of the definition empowerment. Empowerment plays an important role in optimizing the usage of ICT in developmental projects and therefore it is necessary to understand the content of this broadly used definition. Knowledge sharing is the next definition that is explored, it is an important factor in this research to understand to be able to advise on how to optimize it. Also the drivers of knowledge sharing are addressed, in order to understand why people share, or do not share, knowledge they poses. Next, the virtual communities of practice are elaborated on. These are defined by Chiu, Hsu and Wang (2006) as “online social networks in which people with common interests, goals or practices interact to share information and knowledge, and engage in social interactions”. The intention of
describing this and add the success factors of virtual communities of practice is to understand the background of these communities of practice as described in current literature.
4.1 Research perspective
The importance of access to knowledge can be analyzed from different views. Gigler (2004) identifies four different approaches to the potential impact ICT can have on the economic, social and political opportunities of developing countries. These approaches are the optimistic view, the pessimistic view, the contextualized view and the ‘people-centered’ approach. All of these views share one key factor in their thinking; they all focus on ICT as the main driver behind development, whether this is positive or negative.
social and political opportunities for developing countries (UNDP 2001, Pohjola, 2002, Braga, 1998). The pessimistic view on the other hand, sees that the usage of ICT will lead to a widening of the already existing gap between the economically and socially advantaged and
disadvantaged (Panos, 1998, Wade, 2002, Gumucio, 2001). The third approach Gigler (2004) describes is the contextualized approach. This emphasizes the importance of the
socio-economic and cultural context; this is seen as an important aspect of a better understanding of the potential effect of ICT on development and empowerment of poor communities (Avgerou, 2001, Walsham, 2001). In this research the contextual approach is followed. In the
developmental projects, the environment is highly important for the motivation to participate in a project at all. Although the general socio-economic and cultural background does not necessarily stimulate people from a developing community to take a leadership role, from the case study it seemed to be an intrinsic motivation of the people to take this role and build a future for their community. This interlinks directly with the fourth approach Gigler (2004) mentions, the people-centered approach. This more people-centered approach is often used in developmental projects. Where these projects used to have a technology based approach, nowadays these project any initialized from a more human perspective. Next to the
contextualized approach, this research will also follow this and approach the research from this human perspective. By doing so the aims was to integrate the information and communication technology available in order to contribute to developmental projects. The people centered approach underlines the capacity of people to define their own development priorities and goals. Meaning, that outside agents should not tell people what to do, but the people need to define their own needs and goals instead of being told what to do. This is also the approach taken in this research where empowerment is seen as a key factor. This ‘inside out’ perspective is in line with the advise Gigler (2004) gives: evaluations of the impact of ICT programs should focus on an analysis from the vantage point of the people, rather than from the perspective of outside donors. Besides the advice from Gigler, Sen (1999) also pleads for a people centered approach. Sen (1999) argues that human development should be viewed first as a process of people’s capabilities. Sen (1999) stresses the importance to focus on what people are capable of being or doing with the resources they have access to and refers to this as the capability
approach. Sen also underlines the importance of individual empowerment by arguing that: ‘greater freedom enhances the ability of people to help themselves and to influence the world, these matters are central to the process of development’.
4.2 Empowerment
Empowerment is an important definition in this research and in the approaches described in the previous paragraph. Different levels of empowerment can be distinguished (Gigler, 2004). Empowerment on the individual level, as already underlined by Sen (1999), focuses on people development on self-esteem and the expansion of their capabilities. The approach focuses on human agency and the ability to make strategic choices (Kabeer, 1999). The second level is based on the concept of community empowerment and has a collective view of power. It underlines the important role community-based organizations play in the empowerment process. The third level of empowerment is that on a society-wide level. This approach is based on the views of power as power over others and suggests a power struggle between
advantaged and disadvantaged groups. Empowerment of the disadvantaged is only possible if the current power is redistributed.
After establishing the different levels of empowerment, it is important to clarify what is implied by ‘empowerment’ in this thesis. The World Bank defines empowerment in line with the
definition of Narayan (2002) in a broad sense: “the expansion of freedom of choice and action”. Women empowerment has been identified as an essential commitment in the developmental goals of national governments and international agencies. Since the case study of this research also encompasses the subject of women empowerment, this specific level of empowerment is further described here. Malhotra (2005) brings forward that a distinction should be made between empowerment as applied for women and other disadvantaged groups. First, women are not just one group among various disempowered levels of society, such as the poor, ethnic minorities etc. They are a group of individuals that can overlap with all of these different levels of society. Second, the role household and interfamilial relations play in the disempowerment of women does not apply on other disadvantaged groups. Third, according to Malhotra (2005), empowerment in general requires institutional transformation, while women empowerment
requires systematic transformation. Not just of any institutions, but of this supporting patriarchal structures. Kabeer (2005), who reviews women empowerment as well, mentions the ability to make choices, where empowerment refers to the process by which those who have been denied the ability to make choices acquire such an ability. This definition is followed by two conditions, to clarify the sense in which Kabeer (2005) views the definition. The first is that there must be alternatives, in the way people have the ability to have chosen differently. Second, alternatives must not only exist, they must also be seen to exist.
Women empowerment
It seems fair to question why to focus on women when talking about empowerment. In the case study this became even more specific, here women empowerment is used for the development of a community. Nath (2001), brings forwards the reasons why to work with women in developmental projects. Women, because of their biological and social roles, are generally more rooted than men in their direct environment. They are therefore more aware than men of the social, economic and environmental needs of their own communities. Women are the traditional incubators and transfer media of knowledge relating to basic needs of existence (food, health etc). Such forms of knowledge are often contextual, rooted in
experience and experiments, but are non-codified. Therefore it is essential that any knowledge sharing mechanism or tool recognizes the value of this women specific knowledge and provides the possibility for the women to bring their knowledge in the global knowledge pool. Looking at another field of empowerment for development, namely empowerment through micro credits, interesting numbers come forward on the advantages of supporting women over men. In a report of the Special Unit on Microfinance of the UNCDF it is said that: “Women’s success benefits more than one person. Several institutions confirmed the well-documented fact that women are more likely than men to spend their profits on household and family needs. Assisting women therefore generates a multiplier effect that enlarges the impact of the institutions’ activities.” Another example in the field of microfinance is the Women’s
Entrepreneurship Development Trust Fund (WEDTF) in Zanzibar, Tanzania, which reports that “women’s increased income benefits their children, particularly in education, diet, health care,
and clothing.” Chant, a researcher at the London School of Economics, cites in her research on poverty in female lead households that a number of studies in Latin America the commonly held belief is that women spend a greater percentage of their income on their households than men do. To summarize, when women are empowered and benefit from this empowerment they share their gained benefits with their direct family and environment. Therefore more people benefit from women empowerment than just the women themselves.
4.3 Virtual communities of practice
Virtual communities are defined by Chiu, Hsu and Wang (2006) as “online social networks in which people with common interests, goals or practices interact to share information and knowledge, and engage in social interactions”. Since these virtual networks will be of
importance for the developing communities that use ICT, below they will be further explained.
Virtual communities of practice are mainly described in research on knowledge sharing within organizations (Ardichvili, Page and Wentling, 2003; Gourlay 2001; Vestal 2006; Wenger and Snyder, 2000; Lesser & Storck, 2001). However, when looking at the definitions, they could be applicable on other communities as well. Lave and Wenger (1991) already described
communities of practice as “an activity system about which participants share understandings concerning what they are doing and what it means in their lives and for their community”. They also state that less experienced members learn from experienced members. There are three competences that are defined by communities of practice. First, members are connected to each other because they together developed an understanding of what their community stands for and they are accountable to this sense of joint enterprise. Second, the community is build via interaction with one another. Norms and relationships of mutuality are established and reflect these engagements (Wenger, 2000). The last competence is the possession of a shared repertoire by the community of practice. For example specific language, sensibilities, stories, styles and routines. In order to be competent as an individual in the community of practice you have to gain these resources and use it properly (Wenger, 2000).
An important aspect in these definitions of communities of practice is the word ‘knowledge’. Davenport and Prusak (1998) said; “Knowledge is neither data nor information, though it is related to both, and the differences between these terms are often a matter of degree…” Syed and Shah (2006) illustrate the difference between data, information and knowledge with a hierarchy. They state that data is generally seen as simple facts that can be structured to become information. Information, in turn, becomes knowledge when it is interpreted, put into context, or when meaning is added to it. In the paragraph about knowledge sharing a more in-dept description of knowledge is described and more specifically why people would share their knowledge.
People have been forming groups that share cultural activities reflecting their collective learning for a very long time already. The forming of groups, like for example a community of engineers is important in the process learning. Moreover, it’s the basis of what makes people capable of meaningful learning (Wenger, 2000). Communities of practice are like social containers of competences and this makes them the important building blocks of a social learning system (Wenger, 2000). The reasons why communities exist are widespread. An example is a company that is reorganizing and wants to focus on a team-based structure. As a consequence employees with functional expertise may develop communities of practice as a way to maintain connected with their peers (Wenger & Snyder, 2000). Furthermore, Wenger and Snyder (2000) argued that communities of practise can exist completely within an organization unit, can reach across divisional boundaries or even with members from other countries. The difference of a community of practice and formal work groups, project team and an informal network is that its main purpose is to develop members’ capabilities; to build and exchange knowledge, while the other groups’ main purpose is to deliver a product, a
completion of a task or to collect and pass on business information (Wenger & Snyder, 2000).
Although the ideology behind communities of practice sounds very effective and it seems to be very useful for knowledge sharing within organization, there are some conditions where
communities of practice can also counteract the sharing of knowledge. For example, Wenger (2000) underlines the importance of the ‘level of learning energy’, this means that there has to
recognize the gaps in its knowledge and remain open to already existing directions and opportunities. Also social capital plays an important role in the success of communities of practice. People must know each other in that way that they know how they productively interact and who they must address when they need help. There has to be an certain level of trust within the community. In a way they can develop a climate where they can address problems comfortable together and speaking truthfully (Wenger, 2000). Lastly the amount of self-awareness is very important in making communities of practice work. When the
community is self-aware and is being reflective on its specific repertoire, the community can create an atmosphere where they can move forward and progress the new information (Wenger, 2000).
4.4 Knowledge Sharing
“The one resource that liberates people from poverty and empowers them is knowledge.
Possessing knowledge is empowering, while the lack of knowledge is debilitating” (Nath, 2001).
In order to understand what is meant by knowledge, first the definition of knowledge is important to understand. Knowledge is a fluid mix of framed experience, values, contextual information, and expert insight that provides a framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information (Davenport & Prusak, 1998). Different ways of transmitting
knowledge can be chosen (for example, e-mail, face to face, phone), this choice is influenced by the nature of the knowledge that is being transferred (Mudambi, 2002).
An important difference to understand is if the knowledge is tacit or explicit. Szulanski (1996), for example, points out that tacit, context-specific and ambiguous knowledge is most difficult to transfer. Explicit knowledge is easy articulated, coded and transferred (Nonaka, 1994). Tacit knowledge is far more difficult to articulate and is derived from individual experiences (Matusik and Hill, 1998). Both types are valuable to an organization, however tacit knowledge is more difficult to capture since it resides within an individual. The tacitness of knowledge is one of the most widely recognized barriers to transfer and replicate knowledge (Lippman & Rumelt, 1982; Polanyi, 1996; Zander & Kogut, 1995). People use face-to-face and “hands-on” methods to
convey their “know how” or tacit knowledge to others (Hansen, 1999). Throughout recorded history, some form of written language has been used to document their “know-what” or explicit knowledge. Communities of practice are regarded as a platform for sharing and internalizing tacit knowledge and as a key vehicle of learning (Brown& Duguid, 1991; Rucker, 1999; Wenger, McDermott & Snyder, 2002). The virtual communities of practice are organized around the common interests of community members, but are not working towards specific performance goals.
When looking at the background of knowledge sharing in an organizational context it shows that people are often reluctant towards sharing knowledge and resist doing this “knowledge is
power, why share it?” (Ciborra and Patriota, 1998). Nonetheless, people within organizations
are sharing knowledge every day. Scarbrough (2003) has identified four groups of reasons for knowledge sharing in organizations:
- knowledge sharing to establish connections with others in the organization; - sharing knowledge in the pursuit of status and career;
- sharing knowledge by following examples of leaders;
- sharing knowledge as a source of protection against external threats.
4.5 Knowledge sharing in communities of practice
McLure-Wasko and Faraj (2005) researched knowledge sharing in open-access online virtual communities and found that it is not immediately clear why individuals would want to help strangers in these virtual communities. There seems to be no direct benefit to the people contributing and ‘free riders are able to acquire the same knowledge as easy as everybody else’. Nevertheless, there are a lot of people that actively contribute to these virtual communities. McLure and Faraj (2000) have found several drivers for this:
- people feel a strong commitment to the community;
- it can be self-esteem boosting for people to share knowledge in a virtual community; - people do it from an altruistic consideration.
To fully understand the success drivers in a community of practice, it is also important to take the drivers for non-participation into consideration. Garfield (2006) grouped these drivers into four categories:
- people do not understand why knowledge sharing is important; - people do not know what the best ways of knowledge sharing are;
- people know the importance of knowledge sharing, but do not believe the virtual ways are effective;
- people are not motivated to share and do not see personal benefits of sharing.
The above drivers for participation and non-participation are all focused on the individual willingness to contribute to a virtual community of practice. An important remark is that for a community to be vibrant there should be an active participation on the demand side as well: numerous members should be visiting the virtual community. They should be posting questions when they search for advice or information (Cross, Bogatte and Parker, 2001). From this, one more requirement for a successful community of practice could be derived: People should be comfortable with participating in a computer and Internet based community, where very little face-to-face contact is involved. This will depend on different factors, including familiarity with and access to ICT (Ardichvili et al., 2003, Wenger et al., 2002).
Motivational factors leading to members’ active participation or lack of participation in virtual communities of practice are different. The active participation of a substantial part of the members of a community of practice is essential for successful functioning for knowledge sharing. For the community to be really vibrant, there should be participation in various knowledge exchange activities such as posting questions on online community boards, engage in live chats, participating in online and video conferencing discussions and providing answers and feedback in discussions (Ardichvili et al, 2003; Hayes and Walsham, 2000).
4.6 Summary literature review
Drawing upon the literature review, a short summary of the main conclusion is highlighted here before moving on to the next chapter. The main conclusion for the research perspective is that
all of the views share one key factor in their thinking; they all focus on ICT as the main driver behind the development, whether this is positive or negative. This conclusion will also be part of the review of the three cases and the case study, where ICT remains a key factor in the research. In the chapters to come the focus lies on the development on individual and
community level, where the goal is that empowerment on individual level will strengthen and empower the community. From the literature can be concluded that when women are
empowered and benefit from this empowerment they share their gained benefits with their direct family and environment. Therefore more people will benefit from women empowerment than just the women themselves. The case study has a focus on women in line which is in line with this conclusion. The most important aspect from the community of practice is the fact that members are connected to each other because they together developed an understanding of what their community stands for. Next to that also the fact that the community is build via interaction and that relationships of mutuality are established is important to build upon in the next chapters. The understanding of what knowledge is and especially why people are
motivated to share it, is key in order to better understand the case study and to be able to advise the community to improve their way of knowledge sharing. This in turn is important, as Nath (2001) described: “The one resource that liberates people from poverty and empowers them is knowledge. Possessing knowledge is empowering, while the lack of knowledge is debilitating”.
So far, the literature review with regards to the communities of practice and knowledge sharing was mainly derived from literature within the organizational context. In the next chapter, three cases are being reviewed that that bring these topics more in the light of developing
communities. The three cases that are reviewed in the next chapter focus on the developing communities and therefore take the literature review a step further and away from the organizational context towards the development context.
5. REVIEW OF THREE CASES
In the previous chapter the definitions empowerment, knowledge sharing and virtual communities of practice have been reviewed. In this chapter three already conducted case studies in this area of research are being discussed. By analyzing the cases, the conclusions from the literature review are taken one step further towards understanding how ICT can help to empower developing communities. After understanding what empowerment is, why people share -or do not share- knowledge and how a community of practice functions, the focus lies more on developing communities and the usage of ICT in this chapter. The cases are selected on their similarities with the case study of this thesis. These similarities are the involvement of ICT, focus on development and the emphasis on empowerment and the small scale of the projects. By reviewing the three cases, the aim was to understand what drives successful knowledge sharing by using ICT in developing communities. In reviewing the three cases, the similarities were derived and they are taken as key learnings for the next chapter, the case study of this thesis.
5.1 Parameters of ICT usage for development
As mentioned earlier the access to ICT and the ability to use these facilities is important to be able to participate in today’s digital society. The divide between people who do and do not have access to ICT and know how to use it, is getting broader as these different forms of communication, sources of information and connectivity to ‘the world’ are developing. Those who not use these facilities are left behind (bridges.org, 2005). In this paragraph the reason for the lack of access to ICT and/or the capability to use ICT are captured in three parameters. In the report for the symposium of ‘Information and Communication Technologies, Poverty and Development: Learning from Experience’ the three parameters that are restraining people from working with ICT are mentioned. These parameters are:
• Differences in access, in sustained and affordable form, to the range of ICT options from landline phones, radio and TV to the Internet, mobile phones etc.
• Different levels of capacity to use the applications enabled by ICT and the content it contains.
• Different levels of development of the underlying infrastructure that enables access to ICT.
These parameters were identified earlier in this thesis in a different form, namely as the drivers of the knowledge divide. Since the parameters are recognized in both references, the
assumption was made for this thesis that these three parameters could be used at the basis for further analysis. The parameters that are derived from the report for the symposium of
‘Information and Communication Technologies, Poverty and Development: Learning from Experience’ and the drivers of the knowledge divide were compiled in the three parameters below.
• Access to ICT – making accessible to all local people • Capability to use ICT facilities
• Development of a knowledge and information structure
First, the parameters are used in this chapter to analyze the three cases. For each case the three different parameters are reviewed and commented on in order to understand what best practice or learning can be derived from the case. Second, the parameters form the basis for the semi-structured interviews that are conducted for the case study.
With regards to reviewing earlier conducted case studies and experiments, Alberts (1999) already stated: “As scientists we need to study and learn from these experiments… with the technology moving so fast it is critical to “learn by doing” in this way, so that we can learn how to make the next wave of technology even more useful for productive and sustainable
economic development”. There are many successful and inspirational developmental ICT related projects around the world, such as projects in India, South America, Africa and Asia. The cases that are elaborated in below, are cases from India, South Africa and Uganda. For each case, first a short introduction of the case is described, after which the three parameters are
to ICT, the focus on development and the emphasis on empowerment and the small scale of the projects.
5.2 India – Information Village Project of M.S. Swaminathan Research Fund
In The Pondicherry area in the south of India, ten knowledge centers where set up. They were connected through a hybrid wired and wireless network, consisting of PCs, telephones, radio devices, email connectivity through dial-up telephone lines. These facilitated both voice and data transfer, and have enabled the villagers to get information they need and might use to develop themselves and their community. All the knowledge centers were open to all. In contradiction to many other places in India, there was no selection on the base of age, sex, religion, caste, and level of literacy and education. The Information Village Project is inspired by the holistic philosophy of Swaminathan, which emphasizes integrated pro-poor, pro-women, pro-nature orientation to development and community ownership of technological tools, and encourages collective action for spread of ICT (Aranchulam, 2002).
Access to ICT - The question that often raises in funding developmental areas is whether
the institutions and donors should invest the money in computer and communication devices if the money is better spend on food, health, shelter and education. Aranchulam (2002), writes in
“Reaching the Unreached: How can we use ICT to empower the rural poor in the developing world through enhanced access to relevant information” about the successful and
award-winning Information Village project of M.S. Swaminathan Reseach Foundation. Aranchulam states it should not be a choice between the both options, they can go hand in hand. By using the ICT in an intelligent and innovative way, they can form a integral component of
developmental projects. The actual presence of ICT is crucial then, followed by the way these ICT is used then. An important point that is stressed by Aranchulam (2002) is that the local people do not have to use the ICT because it is just there, but because there are actual genuine advantages in using ICT. In the Information Village project it has been shown that access to relevant information does make a difference in the life of the poor and rural people. For
example the fishermen in the Village use the weather and sea conditions of the US Navy to time their preparations and times to go out and fish. Above all, this information obtained from the
website of the US Navy is crucial for their safety and it “saves lives” according to one of the Indian respondents.
Capability to use ICT facilities – The Information Village Project was designed to provide
knowledge on demand to meet the local needs, by making use of ICT and Internet. Unique to the project was that most of the information is collected and sourced by the local community itself. The different centers were run by volunteers, which were mostly women. This started by going through a bottom-up process where volunteers mapped the wishes and questions of the local villagers. Key here was to find out what kind of knowledge the local people where in need of. Another important aspect of the project is that it was not a one-way process, but both the investors and the villages had to put effort in. To participate, each village had to provide a public room for the ICT systems (computers etc) and a salary for trained operators. The project would return a lot. By providing the computer, the knowledge and practical solutions like training programs for locals so that they could run the project themselves in the future and websites in the local language etc. In this way the continuity and local ownership of the project was secured. This was one of the success drivers of this project, the ICT facility was not forced on the local people, they had to make an effort to get them and where able to run the project themselves in the end. The last remarkable point was that the women in particular had clearly been empowered and they reacted enthusiastically on their sudden access to information about crops, weather, and government programs and how this had improved the life in the village (Alberts, 2001).
Development of a knowledge and information structure – The information provided in the
village knowledge centers was specific and referred to local interests and needs. The initiators of the project understood that they needed to develop content that met the community needs and in collaboration with the local people. Examples are agricultural information, weather forecasts, health care, cattle diseases and transport. By tunneling the information in these different areas of interest of the local people, the information was easier to access and to grasp. This was important in getting the attention and to show a clear example of the benefits
of the information. If the information was offered without any structure, it would have probably been unclear and inaccessible to local people.
5.3 South Africa – The Dwesa Project
Dwesa is situated in The Eastern Cape Province, along the Wildcoast, within the former Transkei area. This area has come into contact with the development project because of the
opportunities that the nature reserve and the coastal area offer and which makes it attractive for tourists and a possible asset for the community (Palmer et al, 2002). The aim of this project was to develop an open source/standard e-commerce/telecommunication platform to deploy within rural and semi-rural areas in South Africa (Pade et al, 2006). The ICT project aims to promote e-commerce in tourism and other rural development activities. The Dwesa Project is the central case study in the research “An Exploration of the critical success factors for the
sustainability of Rural ICT Projects”. In this research several critical success factors are
identified. These success factors can be divided over the three parameters identified in this research.
Access to ICT – The fact that the presence and availability of ICT is crucial and already
mentioned. Ideally, a community should support an ICT project by providing a building that is rent and maintenance free. Preferred requirements of a building to house the ICT facilitation included electricity, a telephone connection (if no wireless technology), security, and an appropriate location (visible and accessible) (Jacobs and Herselman 2005; Mphahlele and Maepa, 2003; The World Bank 2003). Another important remark in the access to ICT is that it needs to be accessible for the local people who will start to try and use it. The general remark here is to involve the local people, culture and language in the project. In the Dwesa project more specific lessons learned come forward: It is important to set simple and clear objectives for a project that represent the needs an wishes of the local people and therefore appeal to the local people and the stakeholders (Batchelor and Norrish 2002; Bridges 2006; Taljarkhan 2004; UNDP et al. 2001). Clear objectives are important and with this the approach needs to be holistic, and needs to focus on an enduring impact. To secure a holistic impact it is important to
apply the project to the community as a whole and relate ICT to the capability building of the entire community (Batchelor and Sugden 2003; Swalbe 2006). The ICT projects need to be anchored to local organizations and developmental activities where these are already in place. In this way results and impact of ICT and the project are easier to identify and more
recognizable for the local people (Batchelor and Sugden 2003; Fergunson and Ballantyne 2002). The project should be accessible to socially excluded groups (for example women) and involve them in establishing, implementation and evaluation of the project (Bridges2006; Ferguson and Ballantyne 2002, UNDP 2001).
Capability to use ICT facilities – The advice that can be derived from the Dwesa project is that
appropriate training and capacity building should be practiced. This needs to be adjusted to the community skill gaps and needs to consist content development, technical support and
business and activity training. (Batchelor and Sugden 2003; Bridges 2006b; Conradie et al. 2003; Ferguson and Ballantyne 2002; Jacobs and Herselman 2005; Stoll 2003; Talyarkhan 2004; UNDP et al. 2001).
Development of a knowledge and information structure – In accordance with the above, local
content should be facilitated. When the content is of local interest, people can be the producers of the content themselves. Local content should be locally relevant and
understandable, besides that, the information and knowledge needs to be applicable. By doing this, local context is taken into account as well and this stimulates the interactions between people and ensures that information can be understood and integrated (Batchelor and Sugden 2003; Bridges 2006; Keniston and Kumar 2003; Stoll 2003; Talyarkhan 2004; UNDP et al. 2001). The local content needs to be structured in a way this is recognized and understandable for the local people. An infrastructure should be in place for the people to select the right technology and information needed for the purpose the local people want to use it for. Choosing the right technology that works with and for the local people is important (Batchelor and Sugden 2003; Bridges 2006; Dymond and Oestman 2004; Ferguson and Ballantyne 2002; Talyarkhan 2004; TDG 2000; The World Bank 2003).
The lesson learned from the Dwesa project is the fact that there needs to be a focus on local/ demand driven needs. ICT needs to focus no the demand of the local area, not the available supply of knowledge. It needs to be in line with the assessed needs for information and with the request of local people ((Batchelor and Sugden 2003; Bridges 2006a; Conradie et al. 2003; Keniston and Kumar 2003; Jacobs and Herselman 2005; UNDP et al. 2001).
An opportunity that comes forward from different lessons learned from the Dwesa project is the encouragement of Local Ownership, this plays an important role in the local buy. Second, the focus on economic self-sustainability and entrepreneurship is important to stimulate creativity and economic stability. The motivation and incentives for ICT job placements in the community are important to built local skills and create an opportunity for economic
development. (Bridges 2006a, 2006b; Ferguson and Ballantyne 2002; Keniston and Kumar 2003; Mphahlele and Maepa 2003; UNDP et al. 2001; The World Bank 2003).
5.4 Uganda – The Women’s Information Resource Electronic Services (WIRES)
In the rural parts of Uganda, it is not easy for the women to live. They are not only responsible for running the household; they are most of the time responsible for running a business or are in charge of the work on the land. However, the women are not the ones with access to
financial resources, this is the role of the men. When a woman wants to start her own business for example, she must obtain credits through her husband. In Uganda there is a project that is aiming to empower small-scale entrepreneurs. The Women’s Information Resource Electronic Services was initially a pilot where several telecenters where opened. It developed to an
Information resource centre, where relevant business information is shared. This information is focused on several practical topics such as animal rearing, crop growing, trade and women’s issues. This information is divided in best practices, market prices and possibilities for support (IICD, bridges.org, 2002).
Access to ICT – In Uganda, the most people with access tot ICT live in urban areas. Internet is
only available for the ones who can afford it; Internet- access is really expensive. The WIRES project is establishing telecenters in rural parts of Uganda and is training women to use ICT to access information on starting and maintaining a business. What is important is that the access
to ICT is giving the women access to each other and they can share ideas and knowledge on starting a business and other topics.
Capability to use ICT facilities - In Uganda a needs assessment has been done before the project
had started. By identifying the women’s needs with regards to information and training, a program was designed according to these needs. In this way the right training could be put in place to help the women in Uganda to build the capability to use the ICT facilities. In this particular project it was not only necessary to train the women, but also to convince them of the added value of ICT and information. The initial reaction of some women was ‘give us money, not information or Internet’ (Bridges.org, 2002). By growing capability and showing the women how they could use the information to their (financial) advantage, these women became more enthusiastic. However, this stresses the importance of building capability of the local users of ICT, it is essential for the project to succeed. When ICT is not used in the right way because of the lack of training and misunderstanding, they are useless to local people and will never form a beneficial contribution.
Development of a knowledge and information structure – In the Ugandan WIRES project there is
not an explicit information structure available (yet). However, the project does have another structure in place, that of evaluation and reporting. By monitoring the project and reporting every six months a structure of self-correction is in place. For example, the feedback was that the information was not practical and relevant enough, by teaching the women how they could use the information more to their advantage; they could improve the effectiveness of their local businesses. Another example is that they started to organize the information meetings on times the women where able to attend, instead of during the day when they were busy with their businesses and/ or families.
In this WIRES project and in the case studies that were reviewed, the importance of the
involvement of the local people comes forward. Also in the WIRES project in Uganda this came forward, a quote: ‘You must also involve the people in their own destiny as it relates to
people must own the ideas, and in order for that to happen, you must explain and come to a level at which they can understand you. They cannot consider you as elite women from the city; they must see you as partner in the development processes.’ This remark is not only important
for the different projects, but also for the researcher. This will be referred to in the next chapter where the case study is discussed.
5.5 Summary review of three cases
As a summary for this review of the three cases, below the most important conclusions are mentioned. This is done according to the three parameters.
Access to ICT. In the different projects the accessibility of the ICT is mentioned. This ranges from
the simple fact of a suitable building to the affordability of ICT. Next to this the self-sustainability is brought forward in the case studies as important condition to set up a
successful and lasting development project. This self sustainability from an ‘access to ICT’ point of view focuses on the practical self sustainability (maintenance of for example buildings and computers; obtain electricity and tools needed).
Capability to use ICT facilities. Before starting a program, a needs assessment should be
performed. This starts with identifying the needs of the people and set up a project based on this. The involvement of the local people is thoroughly underlined. The lesson that can be derived from this is the fact that local people should be involved from the very start. During the set up and exploitation of the project with the locals and for the locals. Appropriate training and capacity building should be part of a successful project. The trainees should become trainers once they have the skills and capacities needed. In this way capability can be build, which is essential for a project to succeed on the long term.
Development of a knowledge and information structure. By sorting and tunneling the available
information of interest, the information is more attractive, easier to grasp and access. It is also easier to show the benefits of ICT to people this way. The information that is provided in a structure should be of interest to the local people. This enables and stimulates people to be the producers of content themselves. Choosing the right technology and the right structure that is
understandable and recognizable to the local people is important. In all projects a leader is mentioned as an important driver of motivation and structure. Another form of structure is self-assessment. Self-assessment contributes to a self-sustainable and self- optimizing system in a community. Therefore the advice is to build feedback rounds and self-assessment possibilities in the community.
In summary it is important to stimulate local buy in with regards to the usage of ICT and the possibility to share knowledge via ICT. The only way developmental projects seem to be sustainable is when local people are involved and when the local people see and feel the relevance of using the opportunity to improve their lives and communities by optimizing the usage of ICT. This conclusion corresponds with the literature review on virtual communities of practice and knowledge sharing where commitment and relevance for the participants plays an important role as well. With the conclusions from the literature review and the review of the cases taken into account, the case study is conducted. After reviewing literature and the three cases, the case study complements this thesis by applying these conclusions into practice. By doing so, the aim of putting theory into practice if to see if the conclusions from the literature are confirmed or many contradict. Next to that, it gives the opportunity to see how a project in which ICT is used to empower the people (women) of a community is executed.
