MASTER THESIS
It’s all about the medium: the effects of corporate social
re-sponsibility initiatives’ dissemination on corporate reputation,
organizational image, electronic word of mouth and
purchasing behaviour.
CORPORATE COMMUNICATIONS
Graduate School of Communication
Valeria Meluzio
10841911
Under the supervision of Professor Friederike Schultz
June 26, 2015
Acknowledgements
I wish to thank various people for their contribution to this project. I would like to ex-press my deep gratitude to Professor Friederike Schultz, my research supervisor, for her guid-ance, enthusiastic encouragement and useful critiques for this research project. My grateful thanks are also extended to my friends and family, for their help in participating in the data collection. But also for their moral support and encouragement throughout my last semester as
Abstract
The challenge of communicating corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives has forced professionals and researchers to discover new efficient ways to disseminate the mes-sage. With the rise in popularity of social networks a platform is provided for open communi-ty and connectedness among individuals. Even though it is innovative, it can also be a chal-lenge or a risk as CSR efforts can be disseminated quickly but also fall under critical scrutiny. In an experiment with 207 participants, the effects of CSR communication through press re-leases, Facebook and an App were explored. Using McLuhan’s concept of the ‘medium is the message’, the aim was to investigate how the interaction between consumers and tions through media types and CSR communication influence corporate reputation, organiza-tional image, electronic word of mouth and purchasing behavior. By observing the relation-ship between social media and CSR communication, the study filled a literature gap by iden-tifying new ways to interpret the specific interaction. Results showed that using an App led to the highest consumer response and the highest willingness to share the message of a CSR campaign, compared to the other two medium channels.
Introduction
Brands focus on building a connection and fostering a relationship with customers. That is why organizations are progressively using online platforms and social networks to directly influence the consumer-brand relationship. However, the communication has been transformed by the rise of mass communication, reaching a global population. Organizations presenting symbolic values to their customers and seeking visibility over social networks, try to create interaction and engagement with consumers via their online presence (Kelleher, 2009). So, it is critical to get employees as well as customers involved in what the brand actu-ally stands for. Media has acquired large power that can build or destroy a firm’s legitimacy (Castells, 2007). Forming a brand image and reputation starts from involving the employees, creating a sense of belonging and trust in the brand among customers (Cho & Hu, 2009).
Re-searchers have highlighted the dynamics of the relationship between consumers, brands and how society is changing via digital media (Schultz, Castello & Morsing, 2013). It has adopted dialogical, interactive and global properties that organizations can use to their advantage. With that perspective, Grunig (2009), described a two-way and symmetrical communication which “uses listening and dialogue to manage conflict and cultivate relationships” (p.3). Man-agers slowly adopt strategies that build a relationship based on consumers’ interactive brand perception using interactive experiences (Hollebeek et al., 2014).
Even though, corporate social responsibility (CSR) has already been studied exten-sively, an increasing number of companies are facing challenges while integrating social re-sponsible initiatives into their corporate strategies (Sen & Battacharya, 2001). It is therefore essential for managers to find innovative ways to manage and create a communication strate-gy that will increase the brand’s value and create an authentic image. However, managers need to be careful of whether they adopt a CSR strategy, which will have extrinsic or intrinsic effects. Extrinsic effects will present the CSR initiatives as a short-term component to in-crease profit, whereas intrinsic effects have a positive outcome as the company incorporates CSR in a genuine manner (Du, Battacharya & Sen, 2010). One way of doing so is for em-ployers to listen to their customers and find which level of communicative involvement will attract most attention (Brennan, 2013). It is not simply about free advertising anymore, but about finding the right medium with which consumers can best interact with the brand and build a dialogic relationship (Kent, 2010). This relationship can become stronger if there is a good corporate reputation and a strong communication interaction between the company and its shareholders.
The speed of acquiring information has become quicker and more interactive. Con-sumers have become the producers and creators of nowadays’ information. Especially, people who are active online can challenge the legitimacy of an organization. Today there is an in-stant, constantly changing, global community, which is created based on what consumers see,
hear or watch online. Organizations and their public have more contact and connections due to hyper-connectivity and social media (Castells, 2007). PR practitioners have been chal-lenged to find new ways to reach their audience. It has allowed to solve problems and engage with individuals’ real life issues (Kent, 2010). This interactivity made it possible to converse with their stakeholders directly, wherever they may be situated. However, this means that the repercussions can also be crucial. Customers today expect real time communication from online and social media platforms (Coyle & Thorson, 2013). Therefore organizations cannot rely anymore on passive exposure. Organizations should encourage dialogue to incentivize consumers returning on the corporate website or blogs (Kelleher, 2009). One of the key fac-tors in digital media is to gain positive relational outcomes described as the ‘contingency teractivity’ effect by Kelleher (2009). The idea is that communicative roles have become in-terchangeable where firms can stimulate the feelings of connectedness, involvement and ap-preciation. The high level of interactivity has therefore changed and influenced the relation-ship between organizations and their customers. Since the intensity of interaction increased and the form of the message has changed, researchers challenge its efficiency. Little is known how social media influences emotions and connections to brands. Especially, whether social media-based relationships lead to preferred outcomes such as positive corporate image, positive corporate reputation and positive word of mouth (Hudson et al., 2015).
This paper investigates whether customers who engage in high brand related media platforms such as an App or are active on social media have more favorable brand perceptions than those who engage in low brand related media. Based on the study by Schultz, Utz and Göritz (2011) it is argued that the medium is the message. What can be understood as the me-dium is any extension of a person’s self. By that, it explores how it is more important to look how individuals perceive, receive and send information, than the message itself. As the posi-tive effects of medium channels rather than the actual message are still understudied, the pre-sent paper will fill this gap, by attempting to answer the question: what are the combined
ef-fects of consumer involvement levels (medium: press releases, FB, App) and CSR communi-cation efforts (personal value, societal value) on consumer perception, consumer behavior and communication behavior.
Theoretical Background
CSR as a strategic tool to increase brand perception
Implementing CSR efforts is motivated by the idea that “no company can afford to act opposed to or in isolation from the issues in a society” (Moon, Crane & Matten, 2005). Three main perspectives have been developed to illustrate the role of CSR. First, the instrumental view describes a positive relationship between CSR and corporate financial performance. It is depicted as a tool that creates organizational value that can increase financial performance, improve reputation (Battacharya & Sen, 2004) and credibility amongst consumers, hence pur-chases (Battacharya & Sen, 2001). According to this perspective, CSR becomes an instrument to gain legitimacy. Combined with the digital media, the stakeholder engagement can be im-proved and reach a larger audience (Schultz, Morsing & Castelló, 2013).Second, the norma-tive view addresses companies as “politically responsible for setting, implementing and de-veloping the norms and values of contemporary society” (Schultz, Morsing & Castelló, 2013, p.683). This viewpoint argues that an organization needs to consciously operate and manage its procedures, while adopting a “moral reasoning” (as cited in Scherer and Palazzo 2007, p.683). With regards to communication, it is argued that there should be a dialogue with stakeholders, incorporating new media to gain legitimacy and facilitate conversations with consumers. Alternatively, a third understanding of CSR is based on a constructivist view. Communication is depicted as a “socially constitutive process by which through the use of language, knowledge, social structures and the contact of the organizations with the environ-ment are produced, reproduced or changed” (Schultz, Morsing & Castelló, 2013, p.684). Communication is not just transmitting meanings but it is a development in which reality can
be translated via symbols. CSR becomes a communicatively constructed concept, which is socially built, similarly as interpreted in the Communicative Constitution of Organizations’ (CCO) perspective. The present study emphasizes on this last perspective as a theoretical basis, since it incorporates the aspect of new media more compared to the instrumental and normative perspectives. This research develops on the idea that CSR is about communicative connectedness between organizations, media and stakeholder and that businesses have a re-sponsibility to respond to society’s needs and pressures.
The revolution of new information and communication technologies have led to socie-tal transformations that compel managers to be consistent between the message and the CSR actions. Online communication channels have become the dominant conduct for a company to engage with consumers. This creates dialogic communication channels where the customer can identify himself with the organization (Bhattacharya & Sen, 2004). Therefore, a company needs to find ways to disseminate CSR initiatives that consumers can relate to via official documents as for example press releases but also social media channels such as Facebook. Inviting customers to participate into the corporate CSR message can increase a positive iden-tification with the company (Morsing & Schultz, 2006). The positive ideniden-tification is based on the theory of stakeholder enabling, that describes “an increased focus on establishing and maintaining mutually beneficial dialogues where the organization license to operate can be established or negotiated” (Johansen & Nielsen, 2011). In combination with social media, CSR has become a forum for exchange where reality is being constructed through communi-cation via aspiring talks.
Social Value orientation. Some CSR initiatives address society in general and others are directed towards stakeholders aiming to create a strong connection between the company and its stakeholders (Maignan & Ferrell, 2004). This is particularly important as individuals have different social value orientations, which in turn will affect the effectiveness of the CSR campaign. Du et al., (2010) identified three distinct categories of social value orientation:
pro-social, individualistic and competitive. In the case of a pro-social behavior, the individual will most likely use public transports and actively support companies’ CSR efforts. However, skepticism towards CSR initiatives is current. It can harm reputational equity, decrease con-sumer resistance to negative information, and stimulate unfavorable electronic word of mouth (eWOM) (Skarmeas & Leonidou, 2013). The authors discovered that when consumers at-tributed a CSR campaign as egoistic or stakeholder driven, skepticism increased. Whilst, par-ticipants that perceived the CSR initiatives as values-driven, their skepticism was inhibited (Skarmeas & Leonidou, 2013). CSR with societal initiatives is perceived to combine activities that contribute to society’s well being (Maignan & Ferrell, 2004). They are aimed at enhanc-ing consumers’ impressions of the business’s image and reputation (Murray & Vogel, 1997) by pointing out the societal value the CSR initiatives contribute to. These initiatives may have a greater effect on a pro-social consumer, as he is intrinsically socially orientated. Whereas CSR with personal values are perceived to combine activities that contribute to an individu-al’s personal well being (Du et al., 2010). They are also aimed at increasing consumers’ or-ganizational perception, thus geared towards an individual benefit. These initiatives may be most effective on consumers that are considered as individualistic as they tend to “maximize their own outcomes with little or no regard for others’ outcomes” (Du et al., 2010, p. 17). Consumers’ corporate perceptions
Corporate reputation. Fombrum (1996) defines corporate reputation as “a perceptual representation of a company’s past actions and future prospects that describe the firm’s appeal to all of its key constituents” (p.165). A firm’s reputation can be formed through consumers’ direct and indirect interactions with a company (Coombs, 2007). Direct interactions represent the relationship between an organization and their stakeholder, while indirect interactions are formed by mediated information such as word of mouth (WOM) when experiencing the or-ganization. Opinions and personal views will more often be based on indirect experiences than direct experiences (Coombs, 2007). Therefore, reputation may be influenced by
infor-mation that stakeholders receive through first-hand interactions like word-of-mouth and social media (Coombs & Holladay, 2007). With regards to online media, companies make use of online communication strategies to help the company position itself, monitor and measure what it is said about it online (Dijkmans et al., 2015). Monitoring and aiming for a high online reputation is key for numerous reasons. First, consumers will be more willing to pay a higher price for the product. Second, it will ease the attraction of new customers to reach a wide group of stakeholders. However, while social media and online platforms provide benefits for the companies’ reputation, there are certain drawbacks (Dijkmans et al., 2015). For example, social media platforms are no longer only one-way channels for communication, but rather uncontrolled arenas for participation, which exposes the firms’ reputation at risk.
Still, companies are actively engaging with their online users. They form firm-specific social media communities such as Facebook fan pages, corporate Twitter channels, and YouTube channels, to drive interactivity. In this way, consumers can follow how companies are active in terms of CSR activities. Consumers develop a positive attitude towards organiza-tional CSR efforts when they perceive a high fit between the company and the cause. Even more so, when the cause is relatable. Unique CSR initiatives are crucial to start consumers’ attention, though the efforts cannot undermine the quality of the product (Battacharya & Sen, 2004). A brand that integrates CSR efforts in its corporate strategy will have certain ad-vantages such differentiation from competitors or attract and retain employees. Importantly, it will be perceived as more authentic if a company integrates CSR already at the start compared to adding it into the corporate strategy much later on as a way to gain benefits towards con-sumers. The key is to communicate CSR initiatives in an intrinsic way rather than extrinsical-ly, thus lowering consumer skepticism and enhancing brand loyalty and advocacy (Du, Bat-tacharya & Sen, 2007).
As well as being an addition to the brand value, CSR initiatives can be perceived as beneficial from a societal or personal point of view (Mohr, Weber & Harris, 2001). Morsing,
Schultz and Nielsen (2008) demonstrated the significance to include personal values into CSR communication to achieve a favorable reputation. Studies suggested that CSR with personal value has a stronger influence on customers’ reputation perception comparing to CSR mes-sage geared towards society (Liu, Wong, Shi, Chu and Brock, 2014).Therefore, the present study expects personal values in CSR messages via different media types to lead towards pos-itive corporate reputation.
H1a. CSR messages containing personal values will lead to a more positive reputation
than CSR messages with societal or no CSR message.
Corporate Image. Whilst, corporate reputation is considered to evolve over time cor-porate image can be formed faster through smart communication programs (Nguyen and Le-blanc, 2001). Developing corporate image can be a much faster process than building a corpo-rate reputation . It unites various physical and behavioral attributes of the firm, such as busi-ness name, variety of products/services and the consumers’ impression of quality (Nguyen and Leblanc, 2001). By adopting a social responsible identity through shared values with key stakeholders, the firm can reflect a socially responsible image. This outcome can enhance the firm’s strategic position through internal and external factors that differentiates them from competitors.
Organizational image has a functional and an emotional factor. The functional compo-nent is tangibly characterized, while the emotional factor is linked to intangible characteristics such as feelings and attitudes towards a firm. Importantly, an organization often does not pro-ject a unique image. But, it has various images, which differ according to different stakehold-er groups, each of whom has had diffstakehold-erent types of expstakehold-eriences and contacts with it (Nguyen and Leblanc, 2001). As mentioned, before the emotional factor also can play a decisive role in forming organizational image. In relation to CSR, the emotional appeal can be of strategic advantage. Especially, since CSR is considered a personal matter which is perceived differ-ently by everyone. For this matter, as corporate image differs according to different
stake-holder groups, a message presented with a personal value will more easily connect to the emotional factor of a consumer. Therefore, the present study expects that CSR messages with personal values via different media types will lead towards positive corporate image.
H1b. CSR messages containing personal values will lead to more positive image than
CSR messages with societal value or no CSR message. Consumer behavior
CSR can link the firm and its stakeholders with communication stimulating interac-tions both with and among stakeholders. The study looks at the impact of CSR on consumer behavior, which is based on why consumers make the choices they do. Specifically it will investigate the behaviors of purchase and sharing information with other consumers.
Purchasing behavior. Purchasing behavior relates to a “consumer's attitudes, prefer-ences, intentions and decisions regarding the behavior in the marketplace when purchasing a product or service” (Du, Battacharya & Sen, 2010, p. 14). It is a complex decision making pattern, which describes consumers’ needs and desires. It is suggested that it is influenced by factors such as consumers’ societal role, social and cultural environment. But it can also be influenced by emotions, attitudes and intentions (Chan & Lau, 2008). Consumers can decide to purchase a new product in a planned or impulsive manner. For example, a consumer will see something in a store and suddenly feel the need to purchase it. But in both cases, the emo-tional and cognitive reactions accompany the decision making (Piron, 1991). Nowadays, as concerns for environmental issues have increased, researchers try to better understand the various factors that determine the performance of responsible consumer acts, namely “green purchasing behavior” (Chan & Lau, 2008). The behavior is characterized by consumers who act ethically and find it personally important to purchase products from socially responsible organizations. CSR initiatives have positive effects on consumers when they can see the rela-tion between the company and the cause (Sen & Battacharya, 2004). One of the challenges a company has to surpass is the critical consumers’ eye. Consumers will most likely be more
critical over things that go wrong than when it goes well. For this reason, it is crucial that managers carefully communicate about the CSR efforts as CSR initiatives can distinguish the company towards which they will purchase the products from (Du & Battacharya, 2007). When an individual is aware of CSR efforts within the company’s corporate strategy, it may lead to greater purchasing behavior, ultimately to a higher brand loyalty and brand advocacy (Du, Battacharya & Sen, 2007). The stakeholder theory suggests that a company’s actions then appeal to the consumer not only as an economic entity but also as member of a family, community and country (Maignan, 2005). Therefore, a higher value attributed to a brand could be translated into the fact that CSR may affect the company by humanizing it. There-fore, customers who are aware of the CSR efforts may have a higher satisfaction from a prod-uct that is made by a socially responsible company.
This paper will explore which could be the most effective media format to promote the desired impacts on the purchase intention. Generally, consumers are positive toward business in general and toward socially responsible companies (Mohr & Webb, 2001). Results showed that individuals believe that at least some of the motivation for a company being socially re-sponsible is to help others, but they recognize that companies see CSR as being in their own self-interest as well. However, most respondents do not regularly use CSR as a purchasing criterion (Mohr & Webb, 2001). Studies showed that particular customers though purchase with the idea that it is not simply an activity undertaken for oneself or one’s family; instead, every purchase has implications for the larger society. Both in terms of the environmental impact and the reward or punishment of companies that are seen as more or less socially re-sponsible. Thus, the present study supposes societal values in CSR messages via different media types will lead towards an increase in purchase behavior.
H1c. CSR messages containing societal values will lead to higher intentions to
Electronic Word of Mouth. Traditional word of mouth no longer takes place in a face-to-face format, but has instead been mostly replaced by electronic word of mouth (eWOM). Individuals use social media and online platforms to support a product attribute, examine ethical behavior, condemn a firm’s failed products, or irresponsible social behavior (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2011). eWOM can be defined as a tool for viral marketing that a corpo-ration can use by “giving the right message to the right messengers in the right environment” (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2011). Through social networks, consumers are ingrained in the spread of information. Consumers have become storytellers and brand ambassadors (Enginkaya & Yılmaz, 2014). These informal information channels should not be underestimated as they are considered as credible information with a strong power of reach (Dawkins, 2004). More so that employees are a strong force in spreading information about their company acting re-sponsibly. The communicated message from employees often through social media platforms are considered as credible. For this matter, managers should also focus on their internal CSR communication strategy to employ them as the company’s advocates.
Online platforms and social media have become one of the main sources for consum-ers to search for reliable information. To gain competitive advantage, marketconsum-ers observe con-sumers’ conversations and investigate their purchasing motivations over social media. Moni-toring the purchasing motivations is crucial. Social media has allowed professionals effective-ly respond consumers back, but also offered a platform to listen the conversation between consumers (Enginkaya & Yılmaz, 2014). Especially, since consumers are attracted by eco-nomic incentives and the potential to improve their own self-worth when sharing a product online (Hennig-Thureau, Gwinner, Walsh, & Gremler, 2004). In relation to CSR efforts, Capriotti and Moreno (2007) found that while corporations articulate CSR programs on web-sites, they often fail to motivate consumers sharing them. This was explained due to an ab-sence of two-way reciprocal communication. Instead, many CSR corporate websites focused on “expositive information” that only presents the information, rather than use interactive
resources (Capriotti & Moreno, 2007). The lack of two-way reciprocal communication does not allow consumers to “talk back” to the corporation, which would enable an easier media distribution to transmit opinions about a corporate social responsibility campaign.
Nowadays, consumers are interested in companies’ CSR initiatives and philanthropy, pushing corporations to use a multitude of communication channels including social media to convey their messages and engage with an array of stakeholders. These initiatives stimulate eWOM (Capriotti & Moreno, 2007). With regards to CSR initiatives, strong CSR messages create a favorable context that positively boosts consumers’ evaluations of and attitude to-wards the firm (Sen & Battacharya, 2001). However, the medium used for promoting CSR efforts is crucial. Studies found that the less controlled the medium, the more credible the message is perceived. Therefore an independently perceived message may trigger less skepti-cism (Van Noort & Willemsen, 2011). The present study looks at different media types that are used to communicate CSR initiatives. It will explore whether different media types com-municating CSR initiatives will influence the level of eWOM. Studies demonstrated that self-oriented motives are important factors when looking at the consumer engagement. Consumers will more likely talk about the messages that correlate with their own interests (Kahn and Kunz, 2012). Therefore, the present study expects that CSR messages with personal value will lead to higher motivation to share the CSR initiatives via electronic means.
H1d. CSR messages containing personal values will lead to higher intentions to share
it than CSR messages with societal value and no CSR message.
Involving consumers via different media types while communicating CSR initiatives There are various communication channels that can be used to disseminate a compa-ny’s CSR activities. An organization can communicate its CSR efforts via official documents such as annual reports or press releases, but it can also issue information on social media sites such as Twitter and Facebook. One of the main features of social media is the facilitation of socialization (Wang, Yu & Wei, 2012). For example, blogs and social networking websites
such as Facebook make the socialization process easy through the interaction but also enable consumers to communicate with each other to get advice, with regards to consumption deci-sions (Van Noort & Willemsen, 2012). The creation and exchange of user-generated content can have positive effects on a firm’s reputation, yet difficult to manage with hard-to-control online conversations (Dijkmans, Kerkhof & Beukeboom, 2015). Companies have generally embraced social media thanks to its potential of engaging and collaborating with consumers. Professionals can quickly gain useful, unmediated consumer insights, and foster loyalty through social networks (Hudson et al., 2015). Furthermore, the most prevalent motives for companies to use online sources of information and social media particularly, is to enhance trustworthiness and customer commitment to ultimately achieve a high online reputation (Van Noort & Willemsen, 2011). Multiple online channels are available. By allowing the company to use multiple voices to communicate online, the message can be directed more efficiently and effectively. In particular with social media, corporate identity no longer only remains under the influence of corporations, but also under the stakeholders. Stakeholders gain in power where today’s online communication has enabled to participate, engage, and transform the corporate brand.
In spite of successful efforts in developing CSR programs via traditional media, firms are more empowered for disseminating their message using social media. Managers however have to pay attention to a possible trade-off between the controllability and credibility of their CSR communication (Du, Battacharya & Sen, 2010). The more neutral the source of the mes-sage appears, the more credible consumers will perceive the communication, as they will not think of a self-interested promotion from the company’s point of view. The paper will explore the concept of determining whether the medium itself, as opposed to message content, affects communication outcomes. The particular media types the study will look at are press releases, Facebook and an application (App). First, press releases require the lowest involvement from the consumer’s point of view and are viewed as a one-way communication type. These
offi-cial documents provided from the company are considered as one-way communication chan-nels. Press releases are considered as the most controllable medium but the one that requires the less consumer involvement, therefore having the least effect on (a) consumer perception, (b) consumer behavior and (c) communication behavior.
Secondly, Facebook requires a medium involvement from consumers and is a dialogic communication channel. The social media platform is an additional medium that companies can consider as a more informal channel of communication. It is a social media channel where eWOM has a strong consumer reach (Kelleher, 2009). It is seen as a dialogic communication that potentially builds relationships with the consumers quickly. It may be a beneficial plat-form for companies where eWOM enables consumers to become loyal brand advocates, lead-ing to higher engagement with consumers. Facebook has the potential for real-time interac-tions and reduced anonymity. The success of a company’s involvement on Facebook critically depends on how users perceive information on the corporate Facebook page. Effectively maintaining a corporate Facebook page can enhance a firm’s reputation and profitability. The study predicts that Facebook messages will have a medium effect on (a) consumer perception, (b) consumer behavior and (c) communication behavior.
Thirdly, the App is the media type requiring the highest involvement by the consumers and is considered as a pro-active interaction communication channel. It is a communication channel, which could stimulate the highest connectedness, involvement and meaningfulness from all three levels of involvements. As consumers have to actively engage in the App and engage with the brand, the study predicts that the App will have a high effect on (a) consumer perception, (b) consumer behavior and (c) communication behavior. It may show a crucial new path for companies to find techniques to personalize organizational public interactions.
The different level of involvement will be particularly crucial when trying to influence consumers’ perception about the brand’s reputation and image. Schultz, Utz and Göritz (2011), attempted to analyze the effects of traditional and social-media strategies on the
recip-ients’ perceptions of reputation. The results indicated that the medium matters more than the message. This suggests that effects of communication strategies are especially strong with the consumer when the media involvement is higher. Thus, the present study expects to see the highest interaction effect with the CSR campaign on corporate reputation via an App.
H2a. An App will lead to higher corporate reputation than communication via social
media or press releases.
Next to this, previous research (Schultz, Goritz & Utz, 2011) shows that higher in-volvement gives consumers a feeling of connectedness with the brand and a feeling of partici-pating in the brand’s images. Therefore increased loyalty towards the company and a stronger customer relationship by actively participating with an App, may raise the levels of trust (Nguyen and Leblanc, 2001) . Therefore, the paper hypothesizes that:
H2b. An App will lead to more positive corporate image than communication via
so-cial media or press releases.
The high involvement has partly been triggered by the fact that consumers have gained control and have a more dominant opinionated voice through the advantages of social media. Consumers’ engagement reflects the willingness to develop an individual’s focal interactive experience with a particular objective or agent (Hollebeek et al., 2014). This engagement be-tween a consumer and the brand can be moderated by theconsumer’s intensity of social me-dia use (Dijkmans et al., 2015).
H2c. An App will lead to higher purchasing behavior than communication via social
media or press releases.
Additionally, researchers have argued that a positive purchasing experience (e.g., per-ceiving the working conditions fair and experiencing product satisfaction) may contribute to spreading the word and willingness to give positive reactions (Gebauer, Füller & Pezzei, 2012). Customers have shifted their information seeking behavior with regard to products and
services from offline sources to online sources such as eWOM. Online sources like Facebook are a major component of the available eWOM. As a result, companies have changed their communication approach. Through online sources, companies increasingly include in their communication strategy an effort to get consumers engaged in online discussions (Dijkmans, 2013).
H2d. An App will lead to higher eWOM than communication via social media or
press release.
Interaction between medium and CSR Communication. Past results suggested that the medium has a bigger influence on stakeholders than the content of the message (Schultz et al., 2011). Also, the effects of social media and new social platform advertising techniques have proven to be efficient on consumers. However, only recently, organizations use Apps for stra-tegic, communication: stakeholders should therefore perceive the App as a authentic concern for the cause rather than a untrustworthy strategic communication. Therefore, it is expected that the effects of the medium will be stronger than the effects of CSR communication.
H3a-d. The effects of the medium on a) corporate reputation b) organizational image
c) eWOM and d) purchasing behavior are stronger than the effects of CSR Communication.
Moderators
Brand Loyalty. According to Jacoby and Kyner (1973), brand loyalty encompasses the re-peated purchases of a product but also what the underlying reasons for such behavior are. Corporations attempt to set a bond with their stakeholders, therefore communication can be a vital tool to transmit information, increase the bond, and promote credibility, integrity, and brand loyalty (Jacoby & Kyner, 1973). The strength of the relationship can also be influenced by the emotional attachment that consumers develop via social media interaction. This relates to previous findings suggesting that if marketers wish to build strong brand relationships, high levels of emotional content need to be incorporated in their marketing communications
(Eggers et al., 2013), though the content should be used subtlety. The emotional bond is a tool to build loyalty and creating advocacy. With today’s trend towards decreasing prices and quality parity, one of the most effective ways to differentiate the business from competitors, is to engage with customers emotionally through a unique brand experience. Therefore, the study expects that brand loyalty will moderate the relationship between CSR communication and the four dependent variables.
H4a-d. The effects of media types on a) corporate reputation b) corporate image c)
purchasing behavior d) eWOM will be moderated by brand loyalty.
CSR awareness. Studies showed that consumer awareness regarding CSR is hard to find cause it is such a complex topic. It is considered that knowledge about CSR is fairly low be-cause it is hard to acquire knowledge about the products bought (Mohr, Webb & Harris, 2001). According to Sen et al. (2006), it can be expected that messages, which present a so-cietal value can be more effective for the company’s CSR efforts, when participants are aware of CSR initiatives. Stakeholders aware of a company’s CSR activities lead to increase in pur-chasing its products, more positive perceptions about the company’s employment practices and investment behaviors (Sen et al., 2006). However, lack of awareness is likely then to be a major inhibitor of consumer responsiveness to CSR. The more they know, the more consistent they will be with their beliefs and purchasing behavior.
H5a-d. The effects of CSR Communication on a) corporate reputation b) corporate
image c) purchasing behavior d) eWOM will be moderated CSR Awareness.
Social Media affinity. It is expected that the combined effect of the media involve-ment with the company’s CSR communication effort will be moderated by the affinity to-wards social media, age and gender. It will influence the way individuals perceive the compa-nies in the respective CSR communication efforts
H6a-d. The effects of media types on a) corporate reputation b) corporate image c)
While the first line of hypotheses looks at communication strategies that mainly ignore the conditions of consumer involvement (i.e., media), the second line focuses too much on the medium. These key differences lead to two possible opposing lines of argument. On one hand, it could be argued that the effects of the communication strategy are stronger if social media rather than more traditional media are used. This should be especially the case for the App and Facebook because the customer is required to be pro-active. On the other hand, it could be argued that the effects of the communication strategy are weaker if social media ra-ther than more traditional media are used. An organization that uses these new media to quickly react to a CSR campaign might be perceived as more truthful. Therefore the impres-sions and reactions might be based more on the medium than the actual message. These two lines of argument lead to opposing predictions. Therefore, we formulate an open research question:
RQ1. What are the interaction effects of CSR communication and media on (a)
reputa-tion, (b) image c) purchasing behavior and (c) eWOM?
Methods Participants and Design
A qualitative design was used, including an experiment to examine the effects of CSR through 3 different media types on consumer behavior, consumer perception, purchasing be-havior and communicative bebe-havior. The experiment had a 3 (medium: press releases, FB, App) x 3 design (no CSR message, CSR with personal value and CSR with societal value) design. Participants were recruited via an online panel invited to participate in a short study. Overall 293 individuals started participating and 201 completed the experiment. The mean age of the participants was M=28 years (SD=0.16). 201 consumers read one of the conditions differing in media sources and CSR message to evaluate their CSR level attitude towards a specific sports fashion brand; ‘Adidas’. 57% completed or were enrolled in a Master Program,
25% completed or were enrolled in a Bachelor Program and 5% completed a Doctorate or PhD. Facebook daily use was 79%, and 9% uses it several times a week. 50% participants indicated they use corporate Apps daily and 17% use Apps several times a week.
Procedure
Participants received an invitation email with a link to the online experiment. Different focus groups were tested to observe people’s attitudes towards the influence of specific media types on reputation, image, purchasing behavior and the willingness to share a message.
After a short online instruction, participants viewed the screenshot of a fictive corpo-rate social responsibility scenario from the sports company ‘Adidas’. Depending on the exper-imental condition, respondents were randomly presented with one of the CSR conditions via one of the three media. Some subjects read the press release, which encouraged the least in-volvement to think about the CSR efforts. Other subjects read the Facebook message, which encouraged a medium involvement to think about the CSR efforts. Finally some subjects read a scenario on the App, which encouraged the highest involvement to engage in CSR efforts. Precedent to the fictive scenario, participants were asked about their values towards CSR ef-forts. Then, respondents answered some questions on consumer perception and behavior communication. On the next pages, demographics and manipulation check were assessed. On the last page, participants were thanked and debriefed. It was explained that the scenario was fictional and had solely been created for the purpose of the experiment.
Independent Variables. Participants were randomly assigned to different conditions viewing either a screenshot of a press release, a Facebook message or a message on an App, all presenting a new shoe from the sports company ‘Adidas’. The message could be based on 1) no CSR 2) personal CSR value or 3) societal CSR value, resulting in 9 different conditions. With regards to the App, the focus was geared towards the possibility of 1) tracking a person-al performance while running with regards to performance (‘rubber outsoles are featured on
cause (‘track with this App your running performance and every 50KM you run, 10$ will be
donated to the local production’) or 3) improving your personal health with a social
respon-sible produced product (‘track your running performance and improving your health while
having contributed making this world a better place’) depending on the different CSR
com-munication conditions.
Dependent Variables. Modifying some of Fombrun and Gardberg’s (2000) reputation quotient measures, participants rated on a five-point Likert scale (ranging from strongly disa-gree to strongly adisa-gree) to what dedisa-gree 1) Adidas stood behind products and services 2) Adidas developed innovative products and services 3) Adidas supported good causes 4) Adidas was environmentally responsible and 5) Adidas maintained high standards in the way it treated people (α = .754).
To test corporate image participants had to rate on a five-point Likert scale (ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree) to what extend 1) Adidas had a beautiful color scheme 2) they would feel happy wearing the product 3) they would feel satisfied with Adid-as’ products and 4) they would feel connected to the brand (α = .831) (Cho, Fiore & Russell, 2015).
To test consumers’ purchasing behavior participants followed a five-item instrument. On a five-point Likert scale (ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree), the informants had to rate whether (1) they would pay a premium price for socially responsible goods (2) they consider ethical reputation of business when I shop (3) they have experience in boycott-ing firms because of labor abuses (4) they have experience in researchboycott-ing a company’s poli-cies on social responsibility prior to making purchasing decisions (α = .733) (Maignan, 2001; Kozar & Hiller Connell, 2010).
A word-of-mouth communication scale was used to assess the extent to which the re-spondent engages in providing information to friends and acquaintances for use in making a purchase evaluation and decision. Participants indicated their agreement with the statements
on a five-point Likert scale (ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree). Three indica-tors of eWOM were measured. Respondents were asked how likely they were (1) to share the message with other people, (2) to tell their friends about the CSR initiatives, and (3) to leave a comment or reaction (α = .840) (Kelleher, 2009).
Moderators. The moderators CSR awareness, social media affinity and brand loyalty were evaluated in order to measure if these variables affect the strength of the relationship between dependent and independent variables.
CSR awareness. To measure CSR awareness, participants were asked on a
seven-point Likert scale (strongly disagree to strongly agree) to answer questions about familiarity, credibility and caring factors of CSR. The credibility scale assessed the degree of trust the company inspires people by asking (1) I usually believe what this company says (2) From what I know, this company lives up to its promises (3) This is a company I can trust (4) This company stands behind its products and services (Dickinson, 1999).
Social media affinity. Participants were asked on a five-point scale (ranging from
never to daily) to rate how often they 1) use Facebook, 2) use corporate Apps 3) read corpo-rate press releases
Brand loyalty. Participants were asked on a five-point Likert scale (strongly
disagree-strongly agree) (1) how likely they would shop a product from the brand (2) how likely they would return to this brand when they need a piece of clothing (3) how likely they consider themselves loyal to this brand (Foux, 2006).
Control Variables and manipulation check. To explain possible influences on the experiment’s outcome, participants were asked to what extent they are environmentally con-scious, demographic information and personal values towards CSR. First, participants were asked to what extent it is important to them to 1) improve their health or the health of their family 2) purchase a quality product 3) support pro-environmental companies 4) increase their peace of mind (Dickinson, 1999). Secondly, values were tested by measuring on a five point
Likert scale (ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree) whether 1) they thought of themselves as someone who is concerned about ethical issues 2) they are a socially responsi-ble consumer (Dickinson, 1999). Additionally, participants were asked if they believed busi-nesses must 1) maximize profit 2) be responsible 3) help public interest 4) care about its em-ployees 5) be open about its practices (Maignan, 2001). Finally, participants were asked to what extent they thought of themselves as someone 1) environmentally friendly consumer 2) aware of social responsible initiatives of companies 3) concerned about environmental issues.
Data analysis
The quantitative data collected by means of the online questionnaires was analyzed us-ing IBM SPSS 22. To indicate the level of internal consistency of the scale, Cronbach’s α was performed on each relevant variable. An ANOVA was applied to measure the effects of the independent variables on the dependent variables and an ANCOVA was applied to measure the effects of the moderators on these relationships.
Results Manipulation checks
85.6% participants remembered correctly which medium was presented to them during the experiment R2=.098, F(8.71)=.191, p<0.001. Thus, the manipulation was successful.
Hypotheses testing
First, results for corporate reputation are reported. A 3 (medium: Press release, Face-book, App) x 3 (CSR Communication: No CSR, CSR personal value, CSR societal value) ANOVA with corporate reputation as dependent variable showed a main effect of CSR com-munication F(2.197) = 4.231 , p = 0.016. Post-hoc tests indicated that communicating a CSR message with a personal value was rated higher (M=.26, SD=.09) than with a societal value (M=.24, SD=.08) or no CSR (M=.02, SD=.05). Thus, H1a got supported. However, no main effect was shown for Media Type F(2.197) = 3.119 , p > 0.01. Thus H2a was not supported.
Nor any significant interaction effect, F(4.197)=2.02, p=.093, η² =.039 was found, thus H3a was rejected.
Secondly, a 3 (medium: Press release, Facebook, App) x 3 (CSR Communication: No CSR, CSR personal value, CSR societal value) ANOVA with corporate image as dependent variable did not show a main effect of CSR communication F(2.197)=.556, p > 0.01, H1b was rejected. No main effect for Media type F(2.197)=.70, p > 0.01, was found, therefore H2b were rejected, nor did a significant interaction effect emerge F(4.197)=1.20, p=.314, η² =.024. Therefore, H3b was rejected.
Thirdly, a 3 (medium: Press release, Facebook, App) x 3 (CSR Communication: No CSR, CSR personal value, CSR societal value) ANOVA with purchasing behavior as depend-ent variable did not show a main effect of CSR communication F(2.198)=.352, p > 0.1, H1c was rejected, nor for Media Type F(2.198)=.851, p > 0.01. Therefore H2c was rejected. Addi-tionally, no interaction effect emerged F(4.198)=.83, p=.511, η² =.016. Thus H3c was reject-ed.
With regards to eWOM as a dependent variable, the following results could be found: A 3 (medium: Press release, Facebook, App) x 3 (CSR Communication: No CSR, CSR per-sonal value, CSR societal value) ANOVA with eWOM as a dependent variable showed no main effect for CSR communication F(2.198)=1.84, p>0.01. Thus, H1d was not supported. However, results show a main effect for the medium F(2.198)=11.90, p < 0.01. Post-hoc tests indicated that communicating via an App was rated highest (M=.67, SD=.14) than via a press release (M=.22, SD=.13) or Facebook (M=-.22, SD=.13). Therefore, H2d was supported. Ad-ditionally a significant interaction effect was shown F(4.198)=2.85, p=.025, η² =.054. Post-hoc tests indicated that communicating a CSR message with a societal value via an App were rated higher (M=2.9, SD=.85) than via a press release (M=2.4, SD=.78) or Facebook (M=2.21, SD=.86), thus H3d was supported.
Additionally, to test whether brand loyalty moderated the dependent variables, a 3(CSR Communication) x 2(Brand Loyalty) ANCOVA with corporate reputation as depend-ent variable was conducted. These analyzes showed a main effect on corporate reputation
F(1.190)=14.72, p < 0.001, on image F(1.188)=37.9, p < 0.001 and on eWOM
F(1.186)=2.32, p < 0.001 but not on purchasing behavior F(1.175)=.080, p=.923. No
interac-tion effect was found on corporate reputainterac-tion F(2.190)=.75, p=.474, η² =.008, nor for image
F(2.188)=.827, p=.439, η² =.009, eWOM F(2.186)=.434, p=.648, η² =.005 or purchasing
be-havior F(2.175)=.080, p=.923, η² =.001. Therefore, H4a-d were not supported.
With regards to CSR awareness as a moderator, a 3 (CSR Communication) x 2(CSR awareness) ANCOVA with corporate reputation as dependent variable was tested. These ana-lyzes showed a main effect on corporate reputation F(1.190)=26.16, p < 0.001, on image
F(1.188)=2.54, p < 0.001 and on eWOM F(1.186)=14.85, p < 0.001 but not on purchasing
behavior F(1.175)=.89, p=.347. No interaction effect was found on corporate reputation
F(2.190)=.28, p=.760, η² =.003, nor on corporate image F(2.188)=2.54, p=.082, η² =.026,
eWOM F(2.190)=.40, p=.668, η² =.004 and purchasing behavior F(2.176)=.135, p=.874, η² =.002. Thus, H5a-d were rejected.
Finally, a 3 (Media Type) x 2 (Social Media Affinity) ANCOVA with corporate repu-tation as a dependent variable was conducted to test the moderating effect of social media affinity on the 4 dependent variables. These analyzes showed no main effect on corporate reputation F(1.190)=1.25, p=.266, nor on image F(1.187)=.19, p= .667, eWOM
F(1.186)=.69, p=.407 and purchasing behavior F(1.175)=.421, p=.517. Additionally, the
re-sults did not show any significant interaction effect F(2.190)=.275, p=..760, η² =.003 nor on eWOM F(2.186)=.461, p=.632, η² =.005 and purchasing behavior F(2.175)=.427, p=.653, η² =.005. However, almost a significant effect was found for corporate image F(2.188)=2.54,
a personal value with a high CSR awareness rated corporate image higher (M=3.82, SD=.69) than a low CSR awareness (M=2.87, SD=.66). But, H6a-d were not supported.
Discussion
As outlined previously, the purpose of this research question was to examine the in-teraction effects of CSR communication and media on (a) reputation, (b) image c) purchasing behavior and (c) eWOM. The results were not able to support the premise that the medium matters more than the message, excluding eWOM. For all three other dependent measures – reputation, image, purchasing behavior – interaction effects of medium and CSR communica-tion did not occur. The first line of hypotheses quescommunica-tioned the effect of CSR communicacommunica-tion on the four dependent variables. First, H1a hypothesized that CSR messages containing per-sonal values will lead to a more positive reputation than other CSR messages. Second, H1b hypothesized that CSR messages containing personal values will lead to more positive image than societal CSR or no CSR messages. Thirdly, H1c hypothesized that CSR messages con-taining societal values will lead to higher intentions to purchase. And fourthly, H1d hypothe-sized that CSR messages containing personal values will lead to higher intentions to share it than societal CSR messages or no CSR message. The second line of hypotheses questioned the effect of media types on the four dependent variables. First, H2a hypothesized that an App will lead to higher corporate reputation than communication via social media or press releas-es. Second, H2b hypothesized that an App will lead to more positive corporate image than via the two other channels. Thirdly, H2c hypothesized that an App will lead to higher purchasing behavior than communication via social media or press releases. And fourthly, H1d hypothe-sized that an App will lead to higher eWOM. Finally to test the moderating effect on the vari-ous interactive relationships, H4a-d hypothesized that the effects of media types on a) corpo-rate reputation b) corpocorpo-rate image c) purchasing behavior d) eWOM will be modecorpo-rated by brand loyalty. H5a-d hypothesized that the effects of CSR Communication on the four de-pendent variable will be moderated by CSR Awareness. Finally, H6a-d hypothesized that the
effects of media types on a) corporate reputation b) corporate image c) purchasing behavior d) eWOM will be moderated by social media affinity.
Despite the fact that most of the propositions could not be confirmed, the results have relevant implications for organizations that actively want to engage in online interactions with their customers regarding CSR efforts. Even though results showed that CSR awareness is low among consumers, the study further elaborates the work introduced by Schultz, Utz and Göring (2011), focusing on the importance of the medium instead of the message. The find-ings revealed that people are more willing to share messages from a high interactive medium, the App than from press releases or social media. It also showed that this effect is based on the high interactivity of the medium required from the consumers agreeing with the study by Schultz, Utz and Göring (2011).
Even though research has highlighted the dynamics of the relationship between con-sumers and brands (Hollebeek, Glynn & Brody, 2014), the present findings do not provide any substantial evidence that brands will benefit from corporate outcomes if involving the consumer in a high manner. First, while consumers seek information about CSR practices, little substance is provided to them regarding pro-social commitments (Pommering & John-son, 2009). This is critical as stakeholders might be in search for information, which is not fully given to them. Therefore, faced with the information barrier and the overly positive CSR and non-economic claims, the audience becomes sceptic. When scepticism is arising, the dis-semination of CSR initiatives becomes more difficult. Regarding the literature, Capriotti and Moreno (2007) found that while corporations articulate CSR programs on websites, they often failed to motivate consumers to sharing them. This was due to an absence of two-way recip-rocal communication. Instead, many CSR corporate websites focused on “expositive infor-mation” that only presents the information, rather than use interactive resources (Capriotti & Moreno, 2007). The present results support that as consumers showed the willingness to share the message when using an App. Consumers could identify themselves with a campaign
where the underlying prospect of helping society, had a positive effect. With that perspective, individuals were more likely to share CSR initiatives. Regarding the present study, consumers felt they could be proud donating to a local community abroad by tracking their performance on an ‘Adidas’ shoe App for example. The societal motivation suggests that by giving an in-centive for consumers to participate in the well being of society, by actively participating through their dynamic behavior, it will push them to spread the idea, hence the significant interaction effect between CSR communication, the App and eWOM.
Interestingly an interaction effect was almost significant when corporate image was the dependent variable while moderated by CSR awareness. Individuals reading a CSR mes-sage containing a personal value with a high CSR awareness rated corporate image higher than those with a low CSR awareness. As mentioned before, corporate image has a an emo-tional factor associated with intangible characteristics such as feelings and attitudes towards a firm (Nguyen and Leblanc, 2001). Importantly, an organization often has various images, which differ according to different stakeholder groups, each of whom has had different types of experiences and contacts with it (Nguyen and Leblanc, 2001). Combining a high awareness and addressing the emotional factor of a consumer can therefore explain the findings. Howev-er, the results were not fully significant, maybe due to the perception bias. Even though a fic-tive new product by ‘Adidas’ was presented to the consumer, the brand is well known, espe-cially since 47.5% participants, recon that they are sometimes consuming this brand.
Similarly for the other line of hypotheses, no significant interaction effect on cor-porate reputation and purchasing behavior was found. With regards to corcor-porate repu-tation, the credibility of an organization’s reputation is difficult to address. Therefore, having used established scales, no significant interaction effects of CSR communication and media on corporate reputation were found. Research showed that brand perception will more often be based on indirect experiences than direct experiences (Coombs, 2007). Therefore, organizational reputation is suggested to be influenced by information
that stakeholders receive through first-hand interactions like eWOM. Here the findings disagree with the suggestion that CSR with personal value has a stronger influence on customers’ reputation perception comparing to CSR message geared towards society (Liu, Wong, Shi, Chu and Brock, 2014). Because, as mentioned before, the reputation’s perception will mostly be influenced by information, stakeholders receive through first-hand interactions, news, word of mouth and social media (Schultz, Utz & Göritz, 2011). In large, consumers’ purchasing behavior can be affected by information related to CSR efforts, as successful companies such as ‘Ben & Jerry’s’ or ‘The Body Shop’ demonstrate. In such cases, consumers are willing to support companies that want to do good. How-ever, the challenge is to convince consumers that what is communicated is also genuine. Especially, as scepticism is present and influences brand evaluations. One of the chal-lenges a company has to surpass is the critical consumers’ eye. Consumers will most likely be more critical over things that go wrong than when it goes well. For this reason, it is crucial that managers carefully communicate about the CSR efforts as CSR initiatives can distinguish the company towards which they will purchase the products from (Du & Battacharya, 2007). With regards to the insignificant results, consumers might find it problematic to humanize a company as Maignan (2005) argued. Consumers can proba-bly better relate to an organization such as ‘Adidas’ when they can see the relation be-tween the cause and the company. However, the present experiment may not have been clear enough as it was a fictitious setting. Therefore, participants did not see the rela-tional fit, particularly as consumers do have a critical eye towards the company. Partici-pants were not explicitly involved in the experiment and may have felt distrust towards big corporations promoting CSR efforts. Thus they do not feel compelled towards pur-chasing such products, which often sell for a premium price. Another possible explana-tion for the insignificant results, might be influenced by the work of Mohr and Webb (2001), focusing on consumer behavior regarding purchasing behavior. The fact that
even though 55% of the participants agreed they are environmentally friendly consum-ers and 49% strongly agree that a business must be responsible, consumconsum-ers’ beliefs about CSR (that company should be socially responsible) are often inconsistent with their behaviors. As CSR initiatives and campaigns are not fully known yet to the con-sumers, they may not have the habit of supporting companies with a sustainable pro-gram. Therefore, even though the belief towards CSR campaigns may be present and high medium involvement is combined, the effect on consumer behavior is weak.
Conclusion
This study has contributed to the literature gap by identifying new ways to interpret how CSR communication is affecting consumer behavior. Even though some findings were unexpected and differentiate themselves from other studies’ findings, they show that custom-ers who engage in high brand related media platforms have a different perception of an organ-ization than those who engage in low brand related media.
Limitations
Although interesting findings were revealed, there were some limitations that may have influenced the outcomes of this study. First, while testing for manipulation checks, one key detail was neglected. Only manipulation checks were conducted media type (press re-lease, Facebook or App). However, no manipulation check was done to see whether the par-ticipants remembered the nature of the CSR communication message (no CSR, personal value or societal value). The fact of insignificant results regarding the message could therefore be explained by to the lack of recognition from the participants and the unclear distinction be-tween the three conditions.
Thirdly, with regards to the methodology, the experimental data may have suffered from a social desirability response bias. With regards to CSR communication, respondents may want to appear thoughtful and concerned regarding their values and beliefs towards what
a business must be or do (Maignan, 2001). However, when actually being faced with an ex-perimental condition, participants may not recognize what is required from them, explaining the insignificant results regarding the interaction effects on three of the dependent variables.
Furthermore, the sample (N=207) was relatively small for the research. Therefore it could cause the effect of no substantial interaction between the combined CSR communica-tion, media type and the dependent variables. In addicommunica-tion, most of the respondents (79.8%) were between 16 and 29 years old, including different nationalities but a significant part of the participants were Dutch. Future research should not only find a larger sample, but also inves-tigate if the findings can be generalized among samples with varied age groups and nationali-ties.
Another limitation could be the perception bias towards ‘Adidas’. As briefly men-tioned before, nearly 50% of the participants have been consumers at ‘Adidas’. This could influence the perception of the CSR communication, as already existing thoughts about the company’s reputation and willingness to share the message may be present. A different ap-proach could incorporate a less identifiable brand or provide more extensive information about the organization in the experiment.
Moreover, one of the moderators tested was CSR awareness, which in general is diffi-cult to measure, as it is unusual for consumers to know a lot about CSR initiatives (Mohr & Webb, 2001). In the present study, it was speculated that the knowledge among participants would be medium. Therefore, CSR awareness could have become a critical inhibitor as no pre-analysis was conducted to study how accurate consumers know about CSR initiatives. Additionally, one of the conditions was to test CSR communication via a mobile App. Even though 79% of the participants used corporate Apps, the effect of this medium on corporate reputation, image, eWOM and purchasing behavior has not been tested before. Therefore the condition could not be based on previous findings and built upon possible limitations.
Finally, both dependent variables corporate reputation and corporate image have not been studied elaborately within the literature as two distinct notions. Instead, corporate repu-tation and corporate image are often regrouped into one similar concept. Therefore, though the scales were valid, a significant effect on those two concepts was probably inhibited by this lack of distinction.
Further research
This is one of the first study that experimentally addressed the role of such high in-volvement regarding the media type, including an App on consumer behavior such as pur-chase intentions and eWOM. Therefore, additional research should further analyze the im-portance attributed to the medium and the message communicated. Moreover, further research should incorporate different types of media and test their effects on consumers’ perception regarding for example eWOM and corporate reputation, but also the relationship between brand loyalty and CSR, as it remains an understudied topic.
Furthermore, the Internet has become one of the most reliable references for news and is the initial information source for most individuals. According to the ‘Attribution Theory’ (Brown, Broderick & Lee, 2007), customers will evaluate the news if the message seems ac-curate. However, if the news representation lacks of credibility, the message will be discount-ed and not persuasive. Therefore, future research could explore how a company can dissemi-nate its message regarding its CSR, while critically evaluating its credibility.
Finally, the present study used the well-known sports company ‘Adidas’ as an experi-mental example. However, CSR in the sports industry has not been studied extensively yet, especially using corporate reputation as an outcome. Even though, no significant effects have been found regarding corporate reputation in the present study, it is one of the most important intangible assets (Hall, 1992) worth extending empirical research on.
Managerial implications. The study brought an organizational value to the existing literature, to suggest how organizations may gear towards a more pro-active communication
strategy rather than just one-directional. Especially since the positive effects of medium chan-nels rather than the actual message are still understudied. Based on the results of the current research, several implications for practitioners emerge. First, managers should pay attention on consumers’ ability to accurately assess CSR programs. CSR initiatives can be a powerful tool to build organizational reputation. However, the response to such initiatives will be de-pendent on consumers having information about the program (Mohr & Webb, 2005). Con-sumers will remain skeptic as long as there is a lack of credibility. As research has shown, communication professionals need to maintain a pro-social agenda to differentiate themselves from their competitors, as well as keep their message credible. Given the present findings regarding eWOM, CSR initiatives can be an advantageous opportunity to form a positive non-product communication spread among consumers. Firms often provide information regarding CSR initiatives by means of press releases, annual reports or social media. Therefore, the sources can often be interpreted as biased or as a form of advertising. Some campaigns have also been criticized for risking a ‘consumer backlash’ if the validity of their claims are ques-tioned (Walker & Kent, 2009). Therefore, regarding the present study, the App could be con-sidered as one of the most appropriate and trusted way of information. From a managerial point of view, it is a considerable finding, to avoid diminishing returns from consumers.
To conclude, even though the findings did not indicate that CSR has a significant in-fluence on purchasing behavior and corporate reputation, it remains an important strategic tool to differentiate a company from competitors. CSR activities can be viewed as a way for managers to come across the ostensibly competing concerns of social responsibility. If man-aged efficiently, as an integral part of the corporate mission and communicated widely, CSR can boost the organization’s stakeholders’ perception and interactive relationship.
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