ter defaults, we used a limited set of meta-features and mathematical operators from which to compose the defaults. Given these design choices, we were un-able to find suitun-able symbolic defaults for several algorithms and did not signif-icantly outperform tuned constant defaults for them. Further research should include more dataset properties, though it is not immediately obvious which these should be. It also remains an open question if for all hyperparameters there even exists a symbolic default that uses only meta-features which can be computed efficiently.
There are also limitations imposed by the state of the software. The OpenML platform, and by extension openml-python, OpenML benchmarking suites, and the AutoML benchmark, offers only limited support for settings outside of i.i.d.
classification and regression, such as clustering or time series prediction. GAMA allows for modular configuration and isolated development for search algorithms and post-processing, though it does not yet offer the same flexibility in other parts of the AutoML pipeline design. For example, the data sanitation step is fixed and the search space design assumes scikit-learn compatible workflows.
None of these limitations are inherent to the respective designs and can be overcome with additional engineering effort.
7.3 Future Work
As outlined in the last section, we can overcome some limitations through ad-ditional engineering effort. In this section, we focus on interesting future work which can not be overcome by engineering alone.
7.3.1 Meta-learning for AutoML
In Chapter 6 we presented a method to use meta-learning to find symbolic hyperparameter defaults. How to incorporate these symbolic hyperparameter defaults in AutoML tools is an interesting open research question. Possible applications include transforming the search space, shrinking the search space to speed up the search, or using symbolic hyperparameter defaults to evaluate ML pipeline architecture design. We hope to find symbolic hyperparameter defaults for more algorithms and hyperparameters by extending the set of meta-features and the formulas which may be considered. Moreover, we aim to extend the notion of defaults into sets of defaults, which can serve as complementary starting points for hyperparameter optimization.
134 Conclusion and Future Work
Many other approaches to include meta-learning in AutoML methods have already been proposed [82, 88, 144, 149, 279]. Unfortunately, it is unclear how to evaluate AutoML methods which use meta-learning on benchmarking suites in a practical manner. The task on which a method is evaluated should not be included in learning the meta-model used by the method. While some meta-learning methods, such as nearest-neighbor dataset lookups [88], allow for the easy exclusion of specific tasks from the meta-model, this is not the case for meta-models in general. A clean evaluation would then involve training as many meta-models as there are (chosen subsets of) tasks in the benchmarking suite, which may become prohibitively expensive for more complex meta-models.
Additionally, it is not always easy to identify which task is being used in the evaluation. While the specific dataset may be easily identified, all variants derived from the dataset should also be accounted for and excluded from the meta-model. More research is required to address these issues and allow for the correct evaluation of AutoML systems that use meta-learning.
7.3.2 Benchmark Design
While the tools presented with the introduction of OpenML benchmarking suites allow for some automated curation of tasks, the proposed benchmarking suites are still mostly designed by humans. The design process may lead to unneces-sarily large benchmarking suites, which is undesirable not only because it wastes resources, but also because the increased computational demand will prohibit some people from using the proposed suites. Some post-hoc analysis methods of benchmarking suites exist [47], but we hope additional techniques will be developed and in particular for them to already be applicable during the design process.
It remains an open question if and when methods may start to overfit to a static benchmarking suite. For this reason, and to keep the benchmarking suites reflective of modern challenges, we propose to periodically update the benchmarking suites (e.g., as done for computer vision research [201]) and invite the community to partake in this process. Developing new methods to analyze whether overfitting on benchmark suites occurs, and how many or which tasks would need to be replaced to alleviate the issue, is interesting future work.
7.3. FUTURE WORK 135
7.3.3 Trust in AutoML
Interpretable [171] and explainable [240] ML has gained attention recently, in part because of new legislature that requires explainability [21], e.g., GDPR2. As this pertains to the final model produced, AutoML can directly benefit from ideas and techniques for general interpretability and explainability in ML, such as training interpretable models to mimic complex ones found by AutoML [3, 133] or post-hoc model-agnostic explanation methods such as LIME [205]. How-ever, AutoML may also be used to generate interpretable models, by using existing AutoML frameworks with an altered search space that produces in-terpretable models [91], or by using autocompboost [58], which is specifically developed to build interpretable models.
In AutoML not only the final model but also how it was found, is important for a user’s trust [69, 220]. To this end, Moosbauer et al. [173] propose to use adapted partial dependence plots to visualize what the surrogate model learned about the search space. Providing the users with generated code that builds the final model also increases trust in the system, because it helps them understand the model that is used and to verify if specific changes affect the results as expected [266].
In certain settings it is important that the model follows some notion of fair-ness [13], e.g., when the model affects humans, it shouldn’t discriminate. This can be expressed through metrics that make a distinction between a protected and unprotected group. Examples include demographic parity [42], which stip-ulates the average predictions for the two groups should be equal, and equalized odds [113], which dictate the false negative and positive rates should be equal between the groups. However, it should be noted that while different notions of fairness exist, they may not all be satisfied simultaneously [57, 134]. While this is also true for performance metrics, the choice of fairness metric has a significant effect on how the model treats the protected group.
To allow AutoML to find fairer models, it has been treated as a multi-objective optimization problem, optimizing a fairness metric and a performance metric together (e.g., [60, 214, 215]). However, this approach ignores the de-velopment of fairness specific preprocessing, in-processing, and post-processing algorithms (e.g., [44], [19], and [113], respectively), which seems like it would lead to sub-optimal pipelines3.
Still, only changing the optimization objective, or even the search space,
2https://gdpr-info.eu/
3To the best of my knowledge, there is no AutoML system which includes these algorithms in its search space, so there is no evidence that excluding them leads to worse solutions.
136 Conclusion and Future Work
largely ignores the problems present in other parts of the model creation. Blind optimization without regard for other aspects, such as the data and its collection process or the users ultimately using the model, may only lead to perceived progress [11]. On the one hand, AutoML may exacerbate that problem. If, at times, even ML experts fail to identify biases in their models [96], how will the novice AutoML user pick up on these errors? On the other hand, AutoML may alleviate some of these issues by allowing the domain experts themselves to build models. With a much better understanding of the data, the relevant performance metrics, and the ability to assess model predictions, domain experts using AutoML may be able to deploy better models than an ML expert could.
These two scenarios are not mutually exclusive, and both user groups would benefit from support for fair learning and interpretability in both the AutoML procedure and the model it produces.
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