The Glottalic Consonants of Hausa
by
Andrew Haruna
Thesis subm itted to the U n iversity of London (School of O riental and African Studies, D epartm en t
of Phonetics and Linguistics) for the degree of D octor of Philosophy
April 1990
ProQuest Number: 10673209
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Abstract
This thesis is concerned with the examination of the glottalic consonants of Hausa, a Chadic language spoken in northern Nigeria, Niger, Cameroon, Togo and Ghana. The glottalic consonants constitute a set of phonemes in the language whose historical and phonetic properties merit further investigation.
The study is laid out in three parts. Part one (Chapters 1, 2 and 3) is the historical section. Here, a general overview of the Hausa language is given. Also discussed are several specific points made by pioneers of the genetic classification of Chadic within Afroasiatic and the reconstruction of glottalic consonants in both Chadic and Afroasiatic. The discussion here is not new but presents a summary of the literature. Hausa native words that have glottalic consonants are compared with possible cognates from other related Chadic languages from West, Central and East branches of Chadic and also from other Afroasiatic languages.
Part two (Chapters 4 and 5) of the study concerns the investigation of phonation types in general. Chapter 4 gives a short account of the larynx, the mechanism of the vocal fold vibration and classification of phonation types.
Chapter 5 is devoted to a review of instrumental techniques used in voice measurement.
Part three (Chapter 6, the instrumental section) presents and discusses the results of a detailed electro- laryngographic analysis of the activity of the behaviour of the vocal folds in the production of the glottalic consonants and their non-glottalic counterparts as observed in the speech of educated native speakers of the language.
The chapter begins with a review of the literature reporting early instrumental and non-instrumental studies of the segmental phonemes of the language. This is followed by a description of the techniques used to record, display and annotate both speech pressure and laryngographic waveforms. Both qualitative and quantitative analysis of the waveforms are presented. The most important parameter in the quantitative analysis is estimated open quotient (OQ) derived from the Lx waveforms measurements of Fundamental Frequency, duration and Voice Onset Time are also given. The chapter concludes by presenting the results of the experiment:
1 OQ increases in anticipation of plain voiceless consonants, and is relatively high at the consonantal release?
2 OQ decreases in anticipation of laryngealized consonants including the glottal stop (for most speakers) and less sharply for the ejectives;
3 OQ remains approximately at the speaker's modal value for the plain voiced consonants;
4 The laryngealized segments tend to lower pitch at the left of the consonant; and
5 They also tend to be longer than their plain counterparts.
3
Table of C ontents
Title P a g e ... 1
Abstract ... 2
Table of C o n t e n t s ... 4
List of T a b l e s ... 5
List of F i g u r e s ... 11
List of M a p s ... 29
D e d i c a t i o n 3 0 Acknowledgements ... 31
Notes and T r a n s c r i p t i o n s ... 35
List of C h a p t e r s ... 39
A p p e n d i c e s ... 590
R e f e r e n c e s ... 594
List of Tables
1.1: H a u s a C o n s o n a n t s : Classification in Terms of Place and Manner of
Articulation... 60 1.2: Hausa Vowel Phonemes... 61 1.3: Inventory of Hausa Glottalic
C o n s o n a n t s ... 62 2.1: N/M's (1966) Proto-Chadic
Consonants... 7 6 2.2: NM's (1977b) Proto-Chadic
Phonemes... 78 2.3: JS's (1981) Proto-Chadic
P h o n e m e s ... 8 6 3.1: Phonological Correspondences
in Semito-Hamitic (AA)
Languages... 14 6 3.2: Main Phonetic Correspondences
in Semito-Hamitic (AA)... 147 5.6.1: Measurements of broad surface
contact during vocal fold
vibration... 256 5.6.2: Measurements of maximal
height of the larynx... 256 5.6.3: Measurements of the level of
the upper edge of P. vocalis
during vowel phonation... 2 56 5.7.1: Comparison between open
quotient from glottograms and
high speed motion pictures. . . . 263 5.7.2: Distribution of stops and
fricatives with respect to g l o t t a l o p e n i n g and
continuity of pulsing... 2 68 5
5.7.3: Combinations of conditions of glottal opening and pulsing
for stops and fricatives... 2 68 5.7.4: Average time intervals of
glottal events for /p/, /ph/,
/b/, /bh/... 271 5.9.1: Phonation types - Ratios... 310 5.10.1: Time intervals for PCA
activity in relation to stop
closure and release... 328 5.11.1: Illustrations of tonal
contrast in Hmong... 351 5.11.2: Measures of glottal activity
in Burmese tones... 358 5.12.1: Air-flow measurements for
breathy vowels in Gujarati. . . . 364 5.12.2: Air-flow measurements for
Korean stops... 366 5.12.3: Mean values of peak sub- and
supra-glottal pressure measurements for Sindhi
s y l l a b l e - i n i t i a l
implosives/explosives... 374 5.12.4: Duration of voicing of Sindhi
implosives/explosives... 376 5.12.5: Mean and standard deviation
of reaction times for various
stop closures in English... 379 5.13.1: Duration of vowels in
monosyllables and disyllables
in Gujerati... 388 5.13.2: F u n d a m e n t a l f r e q u e n c y
measurements for Gujerati
vowels... 388 5.13.3: Average differences in
amplitude between murmured and clear vowels in
Gujerati... 388 5.13.4: Difference between amplitudes
of first and second harmonics for breathy and clear vowels
in iXoo... 390 5.13.5: Relative amplitudes of first
and second harmonics for breathy and normal vowels in
Gujerati... 391 5.13.6: Voice onset time measurements
for Korean stops... 4 00 5.13.7: Onset values of fundamental
frequency following a stop
consonant in K o r e a n ... 401 5.13.8: Vowel onset time measurements
for Korean stops... 4 03 5.13.9: Duration of the first full
glottal cycle of vowel following plosive release for
Korean stops... 403 5.13.10: Acoustic Characteristics of
Hindi stops... 407 5.14.1: Table of languages and
techniques used in voice
measurement... 427 6.1: Word list used in the
experiment... 475 6.2: List of the Informants... 478 6.3: Breakdown of variation
according to speaker and between speakers for / b 1/ and
/d'/... 500 6.4: Breakdown of variation
according to speaker and between speakers for /'y/ and
/ V
... 504 6.5: Breakdown of variation7
according to speaker and between speakers for velar
ejective /k'/... 516 6.6: Breakdown of variation
according to speaker and between speakers for alveolar
ejective /ts/... 523 6.7: AVOQ, mean OQ at pre, and
standard deviation for OQ at pre for all speakers pronouncing the word
yaayaa... 531 6.8: Means and standard deviations
for NQ1 for the various
consonant types... 536 6.9: First ANOVA table for NQ at
Cl... 538 6.10: R e s u l t s of p l a n n e d
c o m p a r i s o n s ... 538 6.11: Second ANOVA table for NQ at
C l ... 539 6.12: Results of Scheffe multiple
comparison... 539 6.13: Mean and standard deviation
for NQ2 for the various
consonant types... 54 0 6.14: First ANOVA table for NQ at
C2... 541 6.15: Second ANOVA table for NQ at
C2... 542 6.16: Results of the Scheffe
multiple comparison... 542 6.17: Mean and standard deviation
for the ratio of FRAT1... 542 6.18: ANOVA table for FRAT at Cl. . . . 545 6.19: Results of the Scheffe
multiple comparison... 546
6.20: Mean and standard deviation
for FRAT2... 546 6.21: ANOVA table for FRAT at C 2 . . . . 547 6.22: Results of the Scheffe
multiple comparison... 548 6.23: Means and standard deviations
for NQ1 for the single and geminate consonants for speakers who recorded both
singles and geminates... 553 6.24: ANOVA table between single
and geminate consonants for
NQ at C l ... 554 6.25: Results of the Scheffe
multiple comparisons... 554 6.26: Mean NQ values and the
standard deviation at position C2 for the various
consonant types... 555 6.27: ANOVA table between single
and geminate consonants for
NQ at 02 ... 556 6.28: Results of the comparisons. . . . 556 6.29: Means and standard deviations
for the ratio FRAT1... 557 6.30: ANOVA table between single
and geminate consonants for
FRAT at Cl ... 558 6.31: Results of the Scheffe
multiple comparisons... 558 6.32: Means and standard deviations
for the ratio FRAT2... 559 6.33: ANOVA table between single
and geminate consonants for
FRAT at C2 ... 559 6.34: Results of the Scheffe
multiple comparisons... 559
9
6.35: Comparison of mean values for geminate consonants with mean values for single consonants
for the variables NQ1,NQ2,
FRAT1 and FRAT2 ... 560 6.36: Means and standard deviations
for NQ1 for individual consonants and consonant
groupings. ... 563 6.37: ANOVA Table: NQ1 by consonant
type and speaker (single
consonants)... 564 6.38: Durations, mean durations and
duration ratios for the
bilabial stops... 567 6.39: Durations, mean durations and
duration ratios for the
alveolar stops... 568 6.40: Durations, mean, mean VOT,
and duration ratios for the alveolar affricate ejective, voiceless stop and voiceless
fricative... 57 0 6.41: Durations, mean, mean VOT and
duration ratios for the velar
ejective... 572 6.42: Durations, mean durations and
duration ratios for the laryngealized palatal, plain palatal glide and glottal
stop... 575
List of Figures
1.1: Tree diagram of Chadic showing Hausa and its main
dialects... 54 2.1: C h a d i c C l a s s i f i c a t i o n
According to Greenberg... 74 2.2: C h a d i c C l a s s i f i c a t i o n
According to Newman and M a ... 75 2.3: C h a d i c C l a s s i f i c a t i o n
According to Newman... 77 3.1: Diagram of the AA family
(including Omotic)... 13 0 4.1: Schematic diagram of the
principal cartilages... 164 4.2: The cartilages as they are
normally joined... 165 4.3: The larynx and the fibrous
bands (ligaments) and
membranes of the larynx... 166 4.4: Photographs of the vocal
folds during voice and
voiceless phonation... 169 4.5: Schematic cross-section of
the vocal folds during
vibration... 169 4.6: Schematic diagram of airflow
through a the glottis... 170 4.7: The laryngeal muscles... 171 4.8: Action and location of the
laryngeal muscles... 172 4.9: Schematic diagram showing the
relationship between the laryngeal cartilages and the
forces acting on them... 177 11
4.10: The vocal folds during creaky
voice... 183 4.11: The vocal folds during
breathy voice... 191 5.2.1: Subject in position for
laryngeal photography and experimenter prepared to
photograph... 207 5.4.1: Schematic presentation of a
system for ultra high speed
photography... 216 5.4.2: Graphic illustration of a
single cycle of vibration... 2 22 5.4.3: Vocal fold vibration: low
intensity and low pitch... 223 5.4.4: Vocal fold vibration: medium
intensity and medium pitch. . . . 223 5.4.5: Vocal fold vibration: high
intensity and high pitch... 22 3 5.4.6: Position of points marked on
the vocal fold images... 224 5.4.7: Glottal area and excursion of
measured points... 225 5.5.1: I n t r o d u c t i o n of the
fiberscope into the nasal
cavity... 227 5.5.2: An Olympus laryngeal
fiberscope NPF type and VF
type 4A2... 228 5.5.3: Normal vibratory patterns of
the vocal folds in a 51 year-
old male... 230 5.5.4: Time courses of the glottal
width for representative utterance samples of the three types of Korean velar
stops... 231
5.5.5: Time courses of the glottal width for representative utterances samples of the three bilabial Korean stops in absolute word-initial
position... 234 5.5.6: Typical examples of the
glottal time curves for Japanese syllable-final applosives at the end of s e n t e n c e f o r t h r e e
subjects... 235 5.5.7: Typical examples of glottal
time curves for the sequences o f t h e J a p a n e s e syllable-final applosives followed by weak and strong
velar stops for speaker M ... 23 6 5.5.8: Typical examples of the
glottal curves for the sequence of Japanese syllable-final applosives followed by fricatives for
speaker M ... 236 5.5.9: Typical contours of glottal
width for Hindi bilabial
stops... 238 5.5.10: Selected frames of the
glottal view for an Japanese
utterance /ke:ke:/... 240 5.5.11: Opening and closing process
of the glottis for Japanese
voiceless consonants... 241 5.5.12: Averaged time course of the
glottal opening and closing process for Japanese
voiceless consonants... 241
13
5.5.13:
5.5.14:
5.6.1:
5.6.2:
5.6.3:
5.6.4:
5.6.5:
5.6.6:
5.6.7:
5.6.8:
Maximum glottal aperture for d i f f e r e n t J a p a n e s e
consonants... 242 Relationship between the
maximum glottal width and peak value of averaged PCA activity for word-initial and w o r d - m e d i a l J a p a n e s e
voiceless consonants... 243 I l l u s t r a t i o n o f
C i n e f l u o r o g r a p h i c
equipment... 245 Electrolaryngographic display
of changing neck impedance a n d c o r r e s p o n d o n g a n t e r o - p o s t e r i o r
radiographs... 250 Tracing of a laminograph of
the vocal folds... 252 S c a t t e r p l o t s o f
cross-sectional area measures
by frequency... 252 Mean of area measurements for
four subjects... 253 Illustrative series of
stoboscopic laminograms showing vibratory action of vocal folds in coronal
cross-section... 253 Variation in vocal fold
thickness as a function of
fundamental frequency... 2 54 Mean of vocal fold thickness
measures... 254
5.6.9: Frontal cineradiographic observation of different configurations of the
larynx... 258 5.6.10: Frame by frame tracings of a
frontal cineradiographic examination of the utterance
/ta/... 2 58 5.7.1: Photoelectric method of
studying the vibratory movements of the vocal
folds... 24? 9 5.7.2: Plot of glottal area function
and photoglottogram... 2 64 5.7.3: Plot of glottal area function
and photoglottogram... 2 65 5.7.4: Plot of glottal area function
and photoglottogram. ... 2 65 5.7.5: Glottogram of an English
sentence... 266 5.7.6: Oscillographic traces for
audio signals and the
photo-electric glottograms. . . . 269 5.7.7: Superimposed glottal area
curves comparing temporal
course of glottal dynamics. . . . 272 5.8.1: Example of an ultrasonic
signal received through the
vocal folds... 276 5.8.2: Block diagram illustrating
the principle of the
Ultrasound Glottograph... 277 5.8.3: Velocity and vocal fold
displacement curves with
corresponding glottogram... 279
15
5.8.4: Relative vocal fold velocity and relative displacement
patterns during phonation... 280 5.8.5: Comparison of actual and
calculated vocal fold
motion... 281 5.8.6: Principal diagram of the
TM-recording method... 282 5.8.7: Block diagram of especially
constructed reflectroscope
for echoglottography... 283 5.8.8: An investigation at nine
points on the neck around the
level of the vocal fold... 284 5.8.9: Simultaneous recording of
vocal fold vibrations with ultrasound transmission and
photoglottographic methods. . . . 284 5.9.1: T h e l a r y n g o g r a p h
electrodes... 286 5.9.2: Typical Lx waveform (modal
voice)... 287 5.9.3: Comparison of laryngograph
output with the glottal area
and stroboscopic pictures... 293 5.9.4: Electroglottographic signal
and stroboscopic pictures of
the vocal folds... 294 5.9.5: Definition of the areas for
obtaining a glottographic
signal... 295 5.9.6: Signal classification for
different glottograms... 296 5.9.7: Glottogram of a normal
subject pronouncing different
vowels... 296 5.9.8: Idealized vocal fold contact
area waveform during modal
phonation. . . . ... 297 5.9.9: Glottal air flow and vocal
fold contact area during /se/
in the syllable /bse/... 297 5.9.10: Idealized modal of vocal fold
contact area... 301 5.9.11: Synchronized speech, EGG and
glottal area waveforms for
normal subjects... 302 5.9.12: Flash X-ray radiograms... 303 5.9.13: Speech pressure and Lx
waveforms for various
phonation types... 3 05 5.9.14: Basic Lxwaveform with four
phases... 307 5.9.15: Representative Lx waveforms
and ratios... 309 5.9.16: Lx waveform for modal voice
at various frequencies... 310 5.9.17: Lx waveforms for whispery
v o i c e a t v a r i o u s
frequencies... 311 5.9.18: Lx waveforms for extremely
whispery voice/breathy voice
at various frequencies... 311 5.9.19: Lx waveforms for harsh voice
at various frequencies... 312 5.9.20: Lx waveforms for ventricular
v o i c e a t v a r i o u s
f r equenc ies... 312 5.9.21: Lx waveforms for creaky voice
at various frequencies... 313 5.9.22: Lx waveforms for falsetto at
various frequencies... 313 5.9.23: Lx waveforms of [i] of please
for four speakers... 314
17
5.9.24: Speech pressure waveforms and Lx compared for three Korean utterances beginning with
velars... 315 5.9.25: Sp and Lx waveforms for
vowels spoken by a female
Javanese speaker... 317 5.9.26: Abnormal waveforms obtained
from patients with vocal
pathology... 318 5.9.27: Lx traces pre-operative... 320 5.9.28: Lx Traces post-operative... 320 5.9.29: Synchronized speech and EGG
waveforms for subjects with
a vocal disorder... 321 5.10.1: Insertion of the electrodes
into the different laryngeal
muscles... 322 5.10.2: Averaged EMG curves of VOC
and CT ... 331 5.10.3: Averaged EMG curves of LCA. . . . 331 5.10.4: Average EMG curves for
various stops... 334 5.10.5: Averaged EMG curves for five
i n t r i n s i c l a r y n g e a l
muscles... 336 5.10.6: Degree of suppression of
averaged EMG activity of four
different muscles... 338 5.11.1: Circumferentially vented
pneumotachograph mask... 342 5.11.2: Vocal fold waves obtained
from male speaker for the sound [ae] at different
pitches... 347 5.11.3: Typical vocal fold area waves
as a function of time... 347
5.11.4: Glottal air flow and vocal fold contact area during /se/
in the syllable /bse/... 347 5.11.5: Inverse-filtered glottal
volume velocity waveforms... 349 5.11.6: Inverse-filtered glottal
volume velocity waveforms for
different phonations... 350 5.11.7: S a m p l e g l o t t a l flo w
waveforms... 352 5.11.8: Waveform marking... 353 5.11.9: Duration of vowels (means and
standard deviations)... 3 53 5.11.10: Duration of vowels (means and
standard deviations)... 3 53 5.11.11: Slope ratios (means and
standard deviations)... 354 5.11.12 : Sketches of glottal waveforms
of clear and breathy vowels
in 1X66... 355 5.11.13: Measurement points on each
cycle of the inverse filtered
waveforms. ... 357 5.11.14 : Pitch and duration of Burmese
tones... 359 5.12.1: Diagram of experimental
apparatus... 362 5 .12.2: Waveform and air flow traces
for Korean stops... 3 67 5.12.3: Oscillomink traces of oral
air pressure and flow during the production of two different Korean word
pairs... 369 5.12.4: Pressure and flow of weak and
strong stops of ten speakers
for Korean word pairs... 370
19
5.12.
5.12.
5.12.
5.12.
5.12.
5.13 5.13 5.13 5.13
5.13
5.13
5.13
5.13
5.13
5.13
5.13
5: Subject positioned for
aerodynamic recording... 372 6: Mingogram of Sindhi [barO]
' burden1... 375 7: Mingogram of Sindhi [b'arO]
'a child1... 375 8a: Average air flow traces for
[ak] and [a?]... 378 8b: Averaged airflow traces for
[ap] and [a?]... 378 1: A dual beam oscilloscope... 381 2: The principle of tape
recording... 381 ,3: The sound spectrograph... 3 84 , 4: Wideband and narrowband
spectrograms of the sound
[ba]... 385 , 5: Wideband and narrowband
spectrograms of !Xoe clear
and breathy vowels... 389 ,6: Waveforms and spectra of
Gujerati clear and breathy
vowels... 391 ,7: Wideband spectrograms of
Jolapa Mazetec creaky, modal
and breathy vowels... 393 .8: Waveforms of Jolapa Mazetec
creaky, modal and breathy
vowels... 394 .9: Spectra of Jolapa Mazetec
creaky, modal and breathy
vowels... 395 .10: R e l a t i o n s h i p of the
fundamental to the first formant in Jolapa in Mazetec
vowels... 397 .11: W i d e b a n d s p e c t r o g r a m s
illustrating differences among three stop types in
Korean... 398 5.13.12: Oscillograms of three Korean
words showing qualitative
differences in waveforms... 404 5.13.13: Spectrograms illustrating
breathy aspirated plosives
in Hindi and Oweri Igbo... 408 5.13.14: Spectrograms illustrating the
contrast between voiced and breathy (murmured vowels) in
Marathi... 409 5.13.15: Spectrograms illustrating the
contrast between voiced and breathy (murmured vowels) in
Gujerati... 410 5.13.16: Spectrograms illustrating
contrasting bilabial stops in Javanese, breathy and
voiced... 411 5.13.17: Pitch contours measured at
various points for Hmong
phonation types... 414 5.13.18: Spectrum of voiced, breathy
and laryngealized vowels in
! Xoo... 415 5.13.19: Parts of the waveforms near
the midpoints of the vowels
in the IXoo /aa/ and /iao/. . . . 416 5.13.20: Spectra and waveforms of
intervocalic bilabial in Bumo
and Hausa... 418 5.13.21: Spectrograms illustrating
Hausa, Kalahari and Sindhi
implosives... 419 5.13.22: W a v e f o r m of G i t k s a n
21
ejective... 424 5.13.23: Amplitude of release burst
for Gitksan and Chipewyan
ejectives... 425 5.13.24: Period by period frequency
changes in vowel onset for
Gitksan glottalized stops... 425 6.1: Kymograms of the Hausa
phrases sun ^ab'b'azge itace 'they peeled the bark of a tree many times ’ and sun babba shi 'they gave him many
times1... 446 6.2: Airflow traces and speech
waveforms for Hausa /b/... 448 6.3: Airflow traces and speech
waveforms for Hausa /d/ and
/d'/... 449 6.4: Spectrograms of intervocalic
Hausa /d'/ and /d/... 44 9 6.5: Airflow traces and speech
waveforms for intervocalic Hausa /s/ and /ts/;
spectrograms of /t/ and
/ts/... 450 6.6 Airflow traces and speech
waveforms for /y/ and /'y/;
spectrograms of /y/ and
/'y/... 451 6.7: Waveforms and electro-
glottograph recordings of
Hausa /b/ and / b 1/ ... 452 6.8: Waveforms and electrog-
lottograph recordings of
Hausa /d/ and / d 1/ ... 453
6.9: Examples and electro-
laryngograph recording of
Hausa /k/ and / k '/... 453 6.10: Electrolaryngraph recordings
of Hausa /s/ and /ts/... 454 6.11: Waveform recordings of Hausa
/yA Ay/ and /!/... 454
6.12: A wide-band spectrogram
illustrating Hausa [s']... 456 6.13: Example of a waveform showing
irregular vibrations of the vocal folds during an intervocalic laryngealized
palatal Hausa /'y/... 457 6.14: Waveforms of intervocalic
velar ejectives in Hausa and
Navaho... 459 6.15: Waveforms of an implosive
/ b 1/ showing the points measured and an intervocalic
plosive /b/ in Degema... 4 61 6.16: Mean end-to-middle amplitude
ratios of labial and alveolar implosives in Okrika (Ok) , Kalahari (Ka), Bumo (Bu) ,
Degema (De) and Hausa (Ha). . . . 462 6.17: Mean closure durations of
l a b i a l and a l v e o l a r implosives in Hausa (Ha), Okrika (Ok), Kalahari (Ka) ,
Degema (De) and Bumo (Bu)... 4 62 6.18: Spectrum and waveform of an
intervocalic implosive in
Bumo... 4 63 6.19: Spectrum and waveform of
bilabial implosive in
Hausa... 4 63 6.20: Waveform of the laryngealized
palatal /'y/ in Hausa... 464
23
6
.
2 1:
6
.
2 2:
6.23:
6. 24 :
6.25:
6.26:
6.27:
6.28:
6. 29:
6.30:
6.31:
The recording equipment...
Schematic representation of the sections analyzed for
each utterance...
(Lx Type 1) The waveform of an intervocalic /b/ produced by speaker M2, saabaa a,d intervocalic /d/ produced by
speaker M4, faada...
(Lx Type 2) The waveform of an intervocalic / b 1/ produced
by speaker M10, gaab'aa...
(Lx Type 3) The waveform of an intervocalic /?/ produced
by speaker M4, ta?adi±...
(Lx Type 4) The waveform of an intervocalic / 1 y/ produced
by speaker M2, 'Yaa'yaa. . . . Intervocalic /b/ produced by
speaker M2, saabaa, /d/
produced by speaker M 4 , faada and /bb/ produced by speaker
M7, d'eebabbee...
Typical Lx waveforms of type 2, produced by speaker M7, 'yaa'yaa, speaker M10, 'yaa'yaa and gaab'aa produced
by speaker M10...
Typical Lx waveforms for type 3, produced by speaker M 4 , ta?adii, speaker M10, ba£aa
and speaker Mil, huud'aa...
Typical Lx waveforms for type 4, produced by speaker M l ,
•yaa'yaa and speaker M2,
1yaa•yaa...
llustrations of a mixture of
471
481
486
486
487
487
488
490
492
493
Lx types 2-4, produced by speaker M4, fad'aa, speaker M 6, gaab'do and speaker M10,
fad'aa... 495 6.32: Illustration of the plain
bilabial stop /b/ and the glottalic bilabial stop / b '/, produced by speakers M 7 , baabaa and M10, gaab'aa, the plain alveolar stop /d/ and the glottalic alveolar stop /d'/ produced by speaker M4,
tsaadaa and fad'aa... 497 6.33: Speech and laryngograph
waveforms at the end of the vowel in eight, with
cycle-by-cycle O Q ... 501 6.34: Speech and laryngograph
waveforms for Hausa /'y/ with
O Q ... 501 6.35: Lx and Sp waveforms for / 'y/
produced by speaker M 7 ,
1yaa'yaa...
6.36: Lx and Sp waveforms for /?/
produced by speaker M 8 ,
ta?adii...
6.37: Lx and Sp waveforms for /y/
produced by speaker M10,
yaayaa... 503 6.38: Illustrations of Sp waveform
type 1, produced by speaker FI, hak'aa, speaker M13, hak'aa and speaker M 1 4 ,
shaak'aa... 506 6.39: Illustration of Sp waveforms
of /k/ and /tt/ between two vowels /a/, produced by
503
503
25
speaker M8, kaakaa, speaker M9, dakaa, speaker M14r kaakaa and speaker M15,
tattaaraa...
Illustrations of the Sp waveforms of the ejective affricate /ts/ between two vowels /a/ produced by speaker M7, tsaatsaa, speaker M 7, tsattsaaraa and speaker
M 9 , daatsaa...
Illustrations of the intervocalic /s/, produced by speaker M7, laasaa and
speaker M8, taasaa...
Illustrations of Sp and Lx waveforms for the glottalic stop /k'/ produced by speaker M10, shaak'aa, and FI,
hak * a a ...
Illustrations of the single velar stop produced by speakers M 9 , dakaa and M14,
kaakaa...
Examples of intervocalic /k'k1/ and /kk/ produced by speakers M10, sajk* ak1 k'ee, M15, sajk'ak'k'ee, M8 andM15,
cikakkee...
Examples of waveforms for /ts/ and/tts/: M7, tsaatsaa, M 9, daatsaa and M 7 , tsattsaaraa, for /s/, /ss/
and /tt/: M7, laasaa, M7,
masassabii, M15, tattaaraa. . . . Illustrative cases which were
eliminated...
6.47: Illustrative cases of Lx waveforms suspected but
included in the analysis... 528 6.48: Mean OQ at pre plus and minus
1 standard deviation... 531 6.49: Mean NQ for each speaker at
the intervocalic consonantal positions pre, Cl, C2 and
post for /'y/... 533 6.50: Mean NQ for each speaker at
the intervocalic consonantal positions pre, Cl, C2 and
post for /b'/ and /d'/... 534 6.51: Mean NQ for each speaker at
the intervocalic consonantal positions pre, Cl, C2 and
post for /k/ and /s/... 534 6.52: Mean NQ across speakers for
all glottalic consonants and for glottalic / b 1/ and
/d'/... 535 6.53: Mean NQ values across
speakers for all plain voiced
consonant plus geminates... 53 5 6.54: Mean NQ values across
speakers for all plain voiceless consonants plus
geminate... 536 6.55 Mean NQ at Cl plus and minus
1 standard deviation for all
the consonant types... 537 6.56: Mean NQ at C2 plus and minus
1 standard deviation... 54 0 6.57: Mean ratio for FRAT1... 543 6.58: Plot of NQ1 vs FRAT1 for the
laryngealized consonants
following low tone vowels... 545
27
6.59: Plot of NQ1 vs FRAT1 for the laryngealized consonants
following high tone vowels. . . . 545 6.60: Mean ratio of FRAT2... 547 6.61: Mean NQ by consonant position
for the geminates /b'b1/ and /d'd'/ plus and minus one
standard deviation... 550 6.62: Mean NQ by consonant position
for the geminates /tts/ and /k'k'/ plus and minus one
standard deviation... 551 6.63: Mean NQ by consonant position
for the geminates /bb/ and /dd/ plus and minus one
standard deviation... 551 6.64: Mean NQ by consonant position
for the geminates /kk/, /ss/
and /tt/ plus and minus one
standard deviation... 552 6.65: Mean ratios of Fo at Cl to
maximum Fo between pre and
Cl... 552 6.66: Mean ratios of Fo at C2 to
maximum Fo between C2 and
post... 553 6.67: Ratios of single glottalic to
plain consonant duration... 576
List of M aps
1.1: The major dialects of Hausa... 65 2.1: Location of some Chadic
languages... 96
29
Dedication
This Thesis is dedicated to Asabe, Saratu, Na'omi
and Yahaya.
A cknow ledgem ents
For setting me firmly on the path to my dissertation, my supervisors Dr. K. Hayward and Dr. P.J. Jaggar must be the first to be thanked. They studied the initial sketchy plans with enthusiasm and helped the investigations to take off. They read my scripts time and time again as the research progressed and their observations helped me towards a more lucid presentation of my ideas. Their constant attention to the details of my work and suggestions for further research and support (academic, financial and emotional) were vital to the completion of this thesis. Furthermore, they taught me to recognize criticism as positive input rather than an unfriendly gesture. Without the moral support and constructive criticism from these shrewd, meticulous and sympathetic advisers this work would not have reached its present state. It has been a long, difficult road and I express my profound gratitude, knowing full well that my debt to them is irredeemable.
I should also like to record my gratitude for the stimulating discussions I have had with Prof. A. Fourcin, Dr. G. Lindsey, Dr. D.M. Howard, Dr. E. Abberton and Dr. M Huckvale (all of the University College London) concerning the issues dealing with the electrolaryngograph.
Dr. Lindsey provided enthusiasm and encouragement. He became involved at the very beginning of my research and introduced me to the electrolaryngograph and the Masscomp computer. At UCL Phonetics laboratory Dr. Lindsey spent many hours a day for several months orientating me in the various capabilities of this equipment. He also helped me analyse endless laryngograms carefully and went over the
31
wording of phonetic descriptions of my findings. I wouldn't have survived the laboratory at all without the care and attention he gave me. Words cannot express my appreciation to him.
This work would not have been possible without the technical assistance I have received from laboratory technicians and research fellows at the phonetic laboratories where I have worked (SOAS, UCL and The Voice Clinic, Ferens Institute of Otolaryngology), including M. Baptista, J. Latif, Geoff Williams and Steve Halliday (SOAS) and S.P. Nevard, P. Davies, A. Breen (UCL). To them I say "thank you".
I am also grateful to Mr. R.A. Williams (The Director) , Mr. D. Garfield Davies FRCS, Consultant ENT Surgeon, Mr. R. Dhillon FRCS, Senior Registrar in ENT, and Mr. R. Allen, Scientific Officer, The Voice Clinic, Ferens Institute of Otolaryngology, The Middlesex Hospital, London, for their kind cooperation and the use of their equipment.
The favourable response from students and lecturers alike has sustained me thoughout the research. My gratitude goes to Prof. J. Carnochan, Prof. R.H. Robins, Prof. T. Bynon, Dr. R.J. Hayward, Dr. D. Bennett, Dr. J. Harris, Dr. A.
Barry, research students of the Linguistic Departments at UCL and SOAS, and all staff members of the Africa Department, SOAS. Furthermore, there are a number of people whose support and friendship have been invaluable to me during the writing of this thesis. My deepest thanks go to my close colleague Mohammed M. Munkaila who has been my friend for so many years. His consistent interest and attention to my work, encouragement (emotional and moral), help in conducting the research, advice on various aspects of Hausa phonetics and his voluntary contribution as an informant are all highly appreciated. Others that I would
like to thank are Rev. Dr. Fr. Matthew H. Kukah, Bature Ali, G.I.Bello, Y. Mukhtar, I.A. Welye, P.S. Amaza, N. Akello, S. Determeyer, Dr. M. Kidda, Dr. &
Mrs. S.O. Peters, J. Essien, Mr. and Mrs. R.B. Mshelia, Mr. & Mrs. D. Banks, and all staff of the BBC Hausa Section. I also owe special thanks to my informants Dr.
S.A. B'ab'ura, Dr. H.A. Birnuwa, I. Hassan, B.A. Hassan, B.A. B'ab'ura, Dr. L.T. Zaria, S. Halilu, M. Baba, Dr. I.A. Tsiga, Dr. A. Bayero, Dr. J. Mohammed, Dr. K. Ahmed, H.I. Kankiya and H. Ibrahim.
Many thanks are due to John Adebisi and E. Abimbola for their support. My friends in the Lighthouse Church deserve my special thanks for their love, friendship, support and unceasing encouragement to me during the execution of this project. I thank Deborah O'Brien and Oi Fee Reid for their husbands' late hours helping me, and for their hospitality.
I am also grateful to N. Reid, Erik and Susan Pattison, A.
Debska and S. Coxson for checking my English. I have had the great benefit of editorial guidance from Mr. G. O'Brien BDS. Despite his busy schedule he spent long hours at night and at weekends editing the thesis. He type-set everything and still remained pleasant. He always tells me, "Andrew, don't worry. This is 'no skin off mv nose'".
To him I owe many thanks; also to Mr E Seal BDS MSc LDS DDPH RCS for the use of computer equipment.
My study in the U.K was financed in full by my employers, University of Maiduguri, Nigeria, without whose support this project would not have been realized. To them I say a big thank you.
I have reserved until the end the expression of my gratitude to those who always pay the highest price for a very long period of study abroad - one's family. I want to thank my parents Mallam Haruna Sh. Buri and Mante H. Buri,
33
Mr. and Mrs. P.J. Dogo, Mr & Mrs W.C. Waru, and all my brothers and sisters for the confidence and support they have given me. Above all, to my wife - Asabe, and our children - Saratu, Na'omi and Yahaya - who are as proud and relieved as I at the completion of this thesis.
A . Haruna,
London, February 1990.
© •' Notes and Transcription
1 Some of the terms/labels in the text have to be abbreviated to save space. Many of the abbreviations are self-evident, but in the event that an abbreviation is unclear, its expansion can be found here.
2 On the transcription of the data I have not adhered strictly to the transciption of each author for ease of typing. The glottalized consonants in Hausa are written as /b'/, /d'/, /ts/, /k'/ and /'y/ even in quotations. See below for alternative symbols for the data transcribed from other languages and non-glottalized segments in Hausa.
3 Tone is not marked on proper nouns and in chapters 1-3 on data which the original authors did not mark it.
4 A grave accent (‘ ) above a vowel indicates that it has a low tone, e.g. mace 'woman'. The accent is marked on the first vowel of the double vowel. A circumflex accent (*) above a vowel indicates that it has falling tone, e.g. mai 'oil'. High tones are left unmarked.
5 ( ) with a segment enclosed, e.g. (h), means that the segment is not yet well established; without a segment enclosed means that there is a missing segment.
6 /sh/ is used in Hausa even in quotation to mean palato-alveolar voiceless fricative.
7 /?/ means correspondence is questionable.
8 * indicates protoform.
9 ** indicates protoforms for Chadic West-A in Lax (1986).
10 C? indicates any consonant plus glottal stop, e.g.
/d2 / voiced alveolar stop plus glottal stop.
11 /aa/ = long vowel.
35
12 /a/ = short vowel.
13 C = any consonant.
14 / h 1/ means /6/ = glottalized bilabial stop.
15 /d'/ means /£ / - glottalized aveolar stop.
16 /ts/ = alveolar ejective affricate.
17 / t 1/ = dental voiceless ejective.
18 /c'/ - palatal voiceless ejective.
19 / k 1/ means /Jc/ = velar ejective.
20 /'y/ means glottalized palatal glide.
21 /'w/ means glottalized labial glide.
22 /?/ - glottal stop.
23 / 1J/ = palato-alveolar ejective.
24 E = / S / = schewa
25 E = / £ / front, half-open unrounded vowel.
26 /e/ retracted front, half-open unrounded vowel.
27 /a/ = voiceless front open unrounded vowel.
28 /e/ = slightly raised front, half-close unrounded, vowel.
29 /a/ - centralized open unrounded back vowel
3 0 /ti/ - non-syllabic overshort close back unrounded vowel.
31 /p'?/ means /p?/ questionable bilabial ejective.
32 /0/ means / o / - half-open back rounded vowel.
3 3 /3/ means /^ /. The hieroglyph depicting the Egyptian vulture.
3 4 /a/ = nasalized vowel.
35 /$/ = voiceless bilabial fricative.
3 6 /ai/ = diphthongs.
37 / o e / = half-open, front, rounded vowel.
38 /r/ = rolled r.
39 /r/ = tap.
40 / f / means retroflex.
41 L means /V,/ = lateral approximant.
42 /X/ means /jf/ = voiced non-emphatic uvular fricative.
43 C" means glottalized consonant.
44 /fo / = close back rounded vowel.
45 /lz/ means / £ / = hlateral (lateral fricative).
1 1 . 46 /lz / means /Jf. / = hlateral (lateral fricative) . 47 /lz2/ means /■fc1/ = hlateral (lateral fricative) . 48 /1Z/ means /Ij/ = hlateral (lateral fricative) . 49 /ky/ means /£/ = palatalized voiceless velar stop.
50 /kw/ means /£/ = labialized voiceless velar stop.
51 /gy/ means /cf/ = palatalized voiced velar stop.
52 /gw/ means / $ / - labialized voiced velar stop.
53 /xy/ means /$./ = palatalized velar fricative.
54 /xw/ means /^/ = labialized velar fricative.
55 Y = front vowel in Lax (1986).
56 W = back vowel in Lax (1986).
57 V = unspecified vowel in Lax (1986).
58 -V unspecified final vowel of verbs in Lax (1986).
59 /NC/ = prenasalized consonant.
60 /0/: this symbol is not a phoneme, but is a symbol used to represent the phonetic onset of word-initial vowels.
61 /@/ means [•[] close central unrounded vowel.
62 /I/ „ close central unrounded vowel.
63 /£/ = voiceless non-emphatic lateralized affricate.
64 / 9/ = voiceless palatal fricative.
65 /C/ = Alveolar palatal affricate.
66 /%/ = retracted voiceless emphatic dental stop.
67 /b./r _= long voiced bilabial stop.
68 / y = voiceless emphatic1 dental stop.
69 /<?/ voiced emphatic dental stop.
70 /s/ = emphatic dental affricate.
71 / v = emphatic velar stop.
72 /Z/ as alveolar voiced emphatic affricate.
73 /2/ = alveopalatal voiced fricative.
74 /?/ = emphatic velar voiceless fricative.
75 /s/ = alveolar voiceless sibilant fricative.
76 /S/ = voiceless non-emphatic lateralized affricate.
77 /*/ = alveopalatal voiceless affricate.
78 /?/ = emphatic alveopalatal affricate.
79 /q/ — Arabic voiceless uvular plosive.
80 /*/ = Arabic voiced uvular plosive
37
81 /g/ = emphatic velar plosive.
82 /h/ emphatic (uvular fricative) epiglottal.
83 /h/ voiceless non-emphatic, uvular fricative.
84 /^/ = velar nasal.
85 /§/ = post-alveolar, voiceless-fficative.
86 VI = voiceless.
87 Vd = voiced.
88 PI «** plosive.
89 / / = phonemic slashes.
90 [ ] = phonetic brackets.
91 /q/ > /k/ = fqj becomes /k/.
92 /k/ < /q/ = comes from /q/.
93 b_ = bilabial implosive.
94 d' = alveolar implosive.
95 g' = velar implosive.
96 tj = alveolar affricate.
97 /ph/ = aspirated, voiceless, bilabial stop.
98 /bh/ = aspirated voiced, bilabial stop.
99 /£/ = pharyngealized fricative.
1 The term "emphatic" is the conventional name of consonants with a dot under them and their etymological counterparts. In the languages of the AA family the "emphatics" are realized as glottalized, uvularized, pharyngealized, retroflex or aspirated
(cf. Dolgopolsky (1977). It is not always clear which of the terms some of the authors cited in this work used.
2 Sound with a zero under or over it (e.g. [§]) indicates voicelessness (in other words it is devoiced).
List of Chapters
PART ONE: HISTORICAL
Chapter 1: Some Background Information
on Hausa... 51 1.1 General Introduction... 52 1.2 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n a n d
Geographical Spread... 54 1.3 Dialects... 57 1.4 Phonological Preliminaries... 60 1.4.1 Consonantal Chart... 60 1.4.2 Vowel Phonemes... 61 1.4.3 Syllable Structure... 61 1.4.4 Tone... 62 1.4.5 The Glottalized Consonants... 62 1.4.6 The Geminates... 63
Chapter 2: Glottalic Consonants in
Chadic... 67
2.1 Introduction... 68 2.2 Problems of Reconstruction
within the Chadic Family... 7 0 2.3 Basis of Comparing the Hausa
Glottalic Phonemes... 71 2.3.1 Notes on Conventions Used... 71 2.4 A p p r o a c h e s t o t h e
Classification of Chadic... 73 2.5 The Implosives /b'/ and
/d'/... 79
2.6 The Ejectives /ts/ and
/k'/... 80 39
2.7 The Glottalized Palatal
/ ' y / ... 90 2.7.1 C o r r e s p o n d e n c e s f o r
Glottalized /'w/... 91 2.7.2 C o r r e s p o n d e n c e s f o r
Glottalized /'y/... 92 2.8 Summary... 93 2.9 Table of Languages: Numbering
S y s t e m and L a n g u a g e
Abbreviations... 95 2.9.1 Sources of Data for
Comparative List... 97 2.10 Hausa and Chadic Lexicon... 98 2.11 Comparative Wordlist for
/b'/... 99 2.12 Comparative Wordlist for
/d'/... 101 2.13 Comparative Wordlist for
/k'/... 105 2.13.1 Dialect Variation... 109 2.13.2 Borrowing: Arabic /q/ > Hausa
/k * : k/... 109 2.14 Comparative Wordlist for
/ts/... Ill 2.14.1 Dialect Variation... 113 2.14.2 Borrowing from Arabic to
Hausa... 114 2.14.3 Correspondences Between Hausa
/ts/ and Guruntum /b'/... 116 2.15 Summary... 117 2.16 N o t e s ... 119
Chapter 3: Hausa (Chadic) Glottalic C o r r e s p o n d e n c e s i n
Afroasiatic... 122 3.1 Introduction... 123 3.2 Notes on the Data and
Abbreviations... 124 3.3 A p p r o a c h e s t o t h e
C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f Afroasiatic: Membership and
Criteria for Membership... 126 3.4. N o t e s ... 157
41
PART TWO: THE LARYNX AND VOICE MEASUREMENT
Chapter 4: The Framework of the Larynx:
Classification and Definition
of Phonation Types... 161
4.1 The Structure of the
Larynx... 163 4.1.1 Introduction... 163 4.1.2 The Laryngeal Cartilages... 164 4.1.3 The Thyroid Cartilage... 165 4.1.4 The Cricoid Cartilage... 166 4.1.5 The Arytenoid Cartilages... 166 4.2 The Structure of the Vocal
Folds... 167 4.2.1 Introduction... 167 4.2.2 Vocal Fold Adjustments... 168
4.2.2.1 The Vocal Folds During
Phonation... 168 4.2.2.2 Subglottal Air Pressure... 168 4. 2.2. 3 The Bernoulli Principle... 170 4 . 3 The Major Intrinsic Laryngeal
Muscles... 171 4.3.1 The Cricothyroid Muscles
(CT)... 173 4.3.2 The Posterior Cricoarytenoid
M u s c l e s ( P C A - O p e n i n g
Muscles)... 17 3 4.3.3 Lateral Cricoarytenoid Muscle
(LCA - Closing Muscles)... 174 4.3.4 Thyroarytenoid Muscle (TA). . . . 174 4.3.5 I n t e r a r y t e n o i d M u s c l e
(INT)... 174 4.3.6 Summary... 176 4.4 Classification and definition
of Phonation Types... 178 4.4.1 Introduction... 178
4.4.2 Modal Voice... 179 4.4.3 Creaky Voice... 181
4 .4. 3 .1 Linguistic Function of Creaky
Voice... 187 4.4.4 Breathy Voice... 190
4.4.4.1 Linguistic Function of
Breathy Voice... 196 4.4.5 Summary... 198 4.5 N o t e s ... 199 Chapter 5: Review of Techniques for
Voice Measurement... 2 01 5.1 Introduction... 205 5.2 Laryngoscopy... 207 5.2.1 Principles and A p p a r a t u s ... 207 5.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
of the Technique... 209 5.2.3 Some Applications of the
T e c h n i q u e in S p e e c h
Research... 210 5.3 Stroboscopy... 212 5.3.1 Principles and Apparatus... 212 5.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
of the Technique... 213 5.3.3 Comparisons With Other
Techniques... 214 5.4 Ultra High Speed Photography
(UHSP)... 215 5.4.1 Principles and Apparatus... 215 5.4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
of the Technique... 217 5.4.3 Comparisons With Other
Techniques... 217 5.4.4 Some Applications of the
T e c h n i q u e in S p e e c h
Research... 220
43
5.5 Fibreoptics... 227 5.5.1 Principles and Apparatus... 227 5.5.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
of the Technique... 229 5.5.3 Some Applications of the
T e c h n i q u e in S p e e c h
Research... 230 5.6 X-Ray... 244 5.6.1 Principles and Apparatus... 244 5.6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
of the Technique... 248 5.6.3 Comparison With Other
Techniques... 249 5.6.4 Some Applications of the
T e c h n i q u e in S p e e c h
Research... 251 5.7 Photo-Electric Glottography
(Transillumination of the
Larynx)... 259 5.7.1 Principles and Apparatus... 259 5.7.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
of the Technique... 2 60 5.7.3 Comparisons with other
Techniques... 261 5.7.4 Some Applications of the
T e c h n i q u e in S p e e c h
Research... 265 5.8 Ultra Sound Glottography
( U l t r a s o n o g l o t t o g r a p h y ,
Echoglottography)... 275 5.8.1 Principles and Apparatus... 275 5.8.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
of the Technique... 277 5.8.3 Comparisons with other
Techniques... 278 5.9 E 1 e c t r o 1 a r y n g o g r a p h y
(Electroglottography)... 285
5.9.1 Principles and Apparatus... 285 5.9.1.1 Fourcin's Laryngograph... 286 5.9.1.2 The Lx Waveform and
Quantification of Results . . . . 287 5.9.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
of the Technique... 290 5.9.3 Comparison with other
Techniques... 292 5.9.4 Characterising Phonation
Types... 305 5.9.5 Some Applications of the
T e c h n i q u e in S p e e c h
Research... 314 5.9.6 Clinical Investigations... 317 5.10 Electromyography... 322 5.10.1 Principles and Apparatus... 322 5.10.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
of the Technique... 324 5.10.3 Some Applications of the
T e c h n i q u e in S p e e c h
Research... 325 5.10.4 Summary: Studies of Laryngeal
Muscle Activity... 338 5.11 Inverse Filtering... 341 5.11.1 Principles and Apparatus... 341 5.11.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
of the Technique... 343 5.11.3 Comparisons with Other
Techniques... 345 5.12.4 Some Applications of the
T e c h n i q u e in S p e e c h
Research... 348 5.12 Aer omet ry... 361 5.12.1 Principles and Apparatus... 361 5.12.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
of the Technique... 3 62
45
5.12.3 Some Applications of the T e c h n i q u e in S p e e c h
Research... 3 63 5.13 Acoustic Analysis... 380 5.13.1 Principles and Apparatus... 380 5.13.2 Spectrography... 382
5.13.2.1 T h e T r a d i t i o n a l
Spectrograph... 382 5.13.2.2 Computer-implemented Digital
Techniques... 385 5.13.3 Some Applications of the
T e c h n i q u e in S p e e c h
Research... 386 5.13.3.1 Studies of Contrastive
Phonation Types... 387 5.13.3.2 Studies of Sounds Produced
with Glottalic Airstream
Mechanism... 417 5.14 Summary... 427
PART THREE: THE EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS, SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Chapter 6: Description of Hausa
Consonants... 434 6.1 Introduction... 437 6.2 N o n - I n s t r u m e n t a l
Investigations... 438 6.3 E a r l y I n s t r u m e n t a l
Investigations... 445 6.3.1 Summary: Review of Previous
Studies... 465 6.4 The Problems... 467 6.5 The Present Study... 469 6.6 T h e E x p e r i m e n t :
Methodology... 470 6.6.1 I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n a n d
Recording... 470 6.6.2 The Laryngograph... 471 6.6.3 The Material... 473 6.6.4 The Informants... 477 6.6.5 Editing Procedure and
Segmentation... 479 6.6.6 Labelling Notations... 480 6.6.7 Parameters Assessed... 482 6.7 Qualitative Classification of
Lx Waveforms: Plain Voiced Stops, Palatal Glide, Laryngealized Stops, Glottal Stop and Laryngealized
Glide... 485 6.8 Qualitative Analysis: Results
and Discussion... 496 6.8.1 Introduction... 496 6.8.2 /fo1/ and /d'/ vs /b/ and
/d/... 496
47
6.8.2 • 1 Description of Lx and Sp
waveforms... 496 6.8.3 /'Y/f /!/ and /y/... 500
6.8.3.1 Description of the Lx
waveforms... 501 6.9 Qualitative Classification of
Sp Waveforms: Ejectives and
Voiceless stops... 505 6.9.1 /k'/ and /k/... 512
6.9.1.1 Description of Lx and Sp
Waveforms... 512 6.9.2 /ts/ and /s/... 517
6.9.2.1 Description of Lx and Sp
Waveforms... 517 6.10 Quantitative Analysis: Open
Quotient (OQ) and Fundamental
Frequency (Fo)... 524 6.10.1 Introduction... 524 6.10.2 Balance Between Speakers
Within the Data Base... 524 6.10.3 Elimination of Outliers... 52 5 6.10.4 Statistical Procedures... 52 9 6.10.5 Open Quotient... 53 0 6.10.6 Fundamental Frequency... 532 6.11 Single Consonants... 53 3
6.11.1 NQ at Cl ... 533 6.11.2 NQ at C2 ... 540 6.11.3 Fo at C l ... 542 6.11.4 Fo at C2 ... 546 6.11.5 Single Consonants: Summary. . . . 548 6.12 S i n g l e v s G e m i n a t e
Consonants... 550 6.12.1 Introduction... 550 6.12.2 NQ at Cl ... 553 6.12.3 NQ at C2... 555 6.12.4 Fo at Cl ... 556 6.12.5 Fo at C2 ... 558
6.12.6 S i n g l e vs G e m i n a t e
Consonants: Summary... 559 6.13 Other Sources of Variation in
the Data... 563 6.14 Measurement of Duration... 565 6.14.1 Introduction... 565 6.14.2 /b'/f /<*'/# / W and /d/ ... 565 6.14.3 /ts/ and / & /... 569 6.14.3.1 VOT ... 569 6.14.4 /k'/ and /k/... 571 6.14.4.1 VOT... 573 6.14.5 /'y/, /y/ and /?/... 574 6.14.6 S u m m a r y : D u r a t i o n
Measurements... 575 6.15 Summary and Conclusion... 577 6.16 Notes... 587 Appendix 1 ... 590 Appendix 2 ... 593 R e f e r e n c e s ... 594
49
PART O N E:
H IS T O R IC A L
Chapter One
Some Background Information on Hausa.
1.1 General Introduction... 52 1.2 Classification and Geographical
Spread... 54 1.3 Dialects... 57 1.4 Phonological Preliminaries... 60 1.4.1 Consonantal Chart... 60 1.4.2 Vowel Phonemes... 61 1.4.3 Syllable Structure... 61 1.4.4 Tone... 62 1.4.5 The Glottalized Consonants... 62 1.4.6 The Geminates... 63
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1.1 General Introduction
This is a study of the glottalic consonants of Hausa a Chadic language spoken in northern Nigeria, Niger, Cameroon, Togo and northern Ghana. The glottalic consonants are chosen because they constitute a set of phonemes in the language whose phonetic properties and historical origin merit further investigation.
Chapter 1 is a general introduction and provides a brief sketch of the Hausa language, its geographical distribution, status in Nigeria, and phonology. The remainder of the study is divided into three parts.
Chapters 2 and 3 constitute the historical part, providing a comprehensive overview of the genetic classification of Chadic within Afroasiatic and the reconstruction of glottalic consonants in Chadic and their counterparts in Afroasiatic. Correspondences between the glottalic consonants of Chadic and related Afroasiatic languages are given. No new theories are put forward, but critical comments on the plausibility of earlier treatments are made.
The second part of the thesis concerns the investigation of phonation types in general. Chapter 4 gives a brief account of the larynx and the mechanism of vocal fold vibration, with some consideration of the classification of phonation types. Chapter 5 provides an overview of
instrumental techniques used in voice measurement.
Part three concerns the investigation of phonation types in Hausa. Chapter 6, the experimental chapter in the thesis, describes and presents the results of an instrumental investigation of the Hausa glottalic consonants. The main technique used was the electrolaryngography. Subjects were sixteen Hausa speakers, 15 males and 1 female, representing both East Hausa and West Hausa dialect areas. The last
section of chapter 6, is the general conclusion.
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1.2 Classification and Geographical Spread.
Hausa is a member of the Chadic family of languages in the Afroasiatic phylum that includes as its other branches, Berber, Semitic, Cushitic, Omotic and Ancient Egyptian.
Fig. 1.1 is a tree diagram of the Chadic family including Hausa and its major dialects (cf. also map 1.1). For a detailed family tree of Chadic see Chapter 2 (section 2.4).
West East
Bauchi/Guddiri Sokoto
Katsina Had’eja
O aura/G obir Kano Zaria
Central
Hausa Group
East CHADIC
Figure 1.1: Tree diagram of Chadic showing Hausa and its main dialects.
Within Chadic there are over 140 languages (cf. Fleming 1983:19) of which Hausa is the most widely spoken. In some of the northern states of Nigeria Hausa is spoken as a first language. It is estimated that there are between 2 5 and 30 million people living in northern Nigeria, Ghana, Cameroon and southern Niger who speak the language as their mother tongue. A further 20 million may speak it as their
second language (cf. Furniss and Jaggar 1988).
In some of the northern states of Nigeria, Hausa is used as a lingua franca. In diaspora, Hausa is spoken in several neighbouring countries. For example, on the eastern border
of Nigeria, Hausa is spoken in northern Cameroon. On the northern border of Nigeria, Hausa is spoken in Niger Republic and West-Central Chad, and to the west in the Republic of Benin, northern Togo, and northern Ghana. Hausa is also spoken in communities of settlers in urban centres in Senegal, Libya, Sudan, Ivory Coast and Zaire.
Within the Chadic family Hausa is the language which is best documented. In the last 100 years, the language has been the subject of serious linguistic study (cf. Hair 1967 for a comprehensive list of early studies on Hausa). The first grammar of the language appeared in 1862 and a dictionary in 1876, both by Schon. Since then the study of the language has been developing rapidly. It would be beyond the scope of this work to list all works on the subject. For an extensive bibliography of writings on Hausa linguistics and literature covering the earliest times of the language study to 1977 see Baldi (1977), and for the period covering 1976-86 (see Awde 1988) (this list includes a number of items not found in Baldi 1977).
As a language, Hausa has a recognised importance. It is taught in universities in Africa (mainly in universities of northern Nigeria and Niger Republic). It is also taught in universities in Europe and North America. Hausa is broadcast and transmitted on local and national radio and television stations both within Nigeria and Niger.
Internationally, it has a slot in a number of established foreign radio stations. Programmes in Hausa are broadcast by the external services of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) London, Voice of America (VOA), Voice of Germany (Deutsche Welle), Radio Cairo, Radio Peking (China) and Radio Moscow. In the continent of Africa south of the Sahara it is as widely spoken as Swahili. In West Africa the Hausa language is fast spreading as a lingua franca.
Under the Government of the former Northern Region of
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Nigeria, Hausa has shared official status along with English (cf. Kraft and Kirk-Greene 1973). In 1979, Hausa was recognized as one of the three major languages of Nigeria (the other two are Igbo and Yoruba) and incorporated in the 2nd schedule of the Nigerian Constitution, although it does not enjoy the status of national and official language.
1.3 Dialects.
Since this is not a work on dialectology, I am not going to go into much detail, beyond what is relevant to this work.
In spite of its relatively large geographical distribution, to my knowledge the dialects are mutually intelligible.
However within the phonological systems of the various dialects there are some interesting differences (cf. Ahmed and Daura (1970), Bello (1972), Dogo (1977), Zaria (1982) and Abubakar (1983)).
Bargery (1934) classified the language into two groups which he called the "Kano dialect" and "Sokoto dialect."
The Kano dialect is usually accepted as "Standard" Hausa.
Ahmed and Daura (1970) used the terms "Classical" (to mean the Sokoto dialect) and "Modern" (to mean the Kano dialect) of Hausa. Dogo (1977) adopted the use of the terms "West"
(i.e the type of Hausa spoken in the former Sokoto and Katsina provinces of Nigeria and neighbouring French territories) and "East" (i.e the type of Hausa spoken in the former Kano, Zaria, and Bauchi provinces). Following Dogo, I have decided to adopt the terms "West" and "East".
Within the two major divisions in Nigeria, seven major dialects of Hausa have been recognized, as well as many minor dialects. Most of the dialects centre around a major city. For instance, Sakkwatanci (Sokoto dialect) is spoken mainly in Sokoto and the surrounding towns, Kananci (Kano dialect) is spoken mainly in Kano and the surrounding towns, Katsinanci (Katsina dialect) is spoken mainly in Katsina and the surrounding towns and Zazzaganci (Zaria dialect) has its concentration of its speakers in Zaria and the neighbouring towns. Dauranci (Daura dialect) centres in and around Daura, Had'ejiyanci centres in and around Had'eja, Bausanci (Bauchi dialect) and Guddiranci (Guddiri dialect) are mainly spoken in Bauchi and Guddiri and the surrounding towns respectively. The divisions according to
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Dogo (1977) are:
West Hausa
1. Sokoto dialect (Sakkwatanci).
2. Katsina dialect (Katsinanci) and
3. Daura and Gobir (Dauranci and Gobiranci).
In Niger Republic the Daura/Gobir cluster includes Dogon- douchi and Kurfey (Filingde) dialects.
East Hausa
1. Kano dialect (Kananci).
2. Had'eja dialect (Had'ejiyanci).
3. Zaria dialect (Zazzaganci)
4. Bauchi dialect (Bausanci and Guddiranci in Katagum)
As would be expected, within the two major divisions, the sub-dialects have their own idiosyncrasies distinguishing them from the other sub-dialects with which they have been grouped. Below are examples of cross-dialect correspondences between the two main divisions.
A East 1 d ’aacii 2 d'aataa
West d*waacii d'waataa
'bitterness 1 'garden egg1
3 d'aatanniyaa d'waatannaa 'a type of grass1 East /d'/i West /d'w/.
B 1
East tsiinii
Katsina
Tsiiga
West tsiinii c'iinii t'iinii Katsina Kat1ina Kac1ina Tsiiga T* iiga c* iiga
'sharpness1 'Katsina town1
'Tsiga town1
tseeree
tsaamiyaa
kitsee
tseeree t* eeree c'eeree tsaamiyaa t 1aamiyaa c > aamiyaa kitsee kit'ee kic* ee East /ts/: West /ts:t':c'/.
East k (ootaa suk1ut
West b'ootaa sub1ut
'escape1 'tamarind1
'fat'
'handle of a hoe1 'suddenly1
East / k 1/: West /b'/.
Sources: Ahmed and Daura (1970:86), Dogo (1977), Zaria (1982), Abubakar (1983:33) and Skinner (1971:302).
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