Qutbuddin 3
A
b s t r a c tThis thesis follows the emergence and development of T ahnud, the Arabic laudatory preamble, as a literary genre in the Arabic tradition: a genre that imaginatively presents the distinct worldview ( Weltanschauung) that its author embraces and a genre that not only features as a standard introduction for an infinite number of texts, but is also, in and of itself, a rich source of meaning. The dissertation proposes a literary approach for unearthing its depths of knowledge, termed the ‘relational approach’. This approach identifies and focuses on the various relations and associations, highlighted and evoked by a Tahnud despite its usual conciseness, which are the source of its vitality. Drawing upon a broad range of samples, the study also delineates the common characteristics and trends of the Talmud tradition as a whole, and focuses on its distinctiveness and significance in Fatimid-Tayyibi literature (‘Fatimid-Tayyibi’ refers to IsmaTli MustaTian Tayyibi Shiites in Fatimid Egypt as well as their spiritual successors in Yemen and India, commonly known as the Da’udI Bohras).
Following the introduction, the thesis is structured on a chronological basis in three parts. Section-I (chapters 1-3) traces the development of Talmud from its origins to maturity as a distinct genre in Arabic prose. Section-II (chapter-4), building on the literary-history presented in the previous section, presents a methodology for the analysis of Talmud and applies it to a selection of examples. Section-Ill (chapters 5-7) focuses on the unique characteristics of Fatimid-Tayyibi Tahnuds and presents an analysis of a number of examples. The section ends with a case-study of a Talmud in one of the Fatimid-Tayyibi DaT Syedna Taher Saifuddin’s (d. 1385/1965) risalahs. The question posited in the title of this thesis, ‘is the Talmud a literary genre?’ is answered in the Conclusion. An appendix of Tahnuds referred to in the thesis and illustrative samples, especially from the Fatimid-Tayyibi manuscripts, accompanies the dissertation in a separate volume.
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SCHOOL OF ORIENTAL AND AFRICAN STUDIES
T a h m id : A L it e r a r y
_________ G e n r e ?_________
A S
t u d y o f t h eA
r a b icL
a u d a t o r yP
r e a m b l eW ITH A Focus ON THE FATIM ID-TAYYIBI T
r a d i t i o nV
o l u m e- I
A z iz K. Q
u t b u d d in -2009-P
hD
Su p e r v is o r
Dr. St e f a n Sp e r l
Qutbuddin 3
A
b st r a c tThis thesis follows the emergence and development of Tahrrild, the Arabic laudatory preamble, as a literary genre in the Arabic tradition: a genre that imaginatively presents the distinct worldview (Weltanschauung) that its author embraces and a genre that features as a standard introduction for an infinite number of texts, and is also, in and of itself, a rich source of meaning. The dissertation proposes a literary approach for unearthing its depths of knowledge, termed the ‘relational approach’. This approach identifies and focuses on the various relations and associations, highlighted and evoked by a Talmud despite its usual conciseness, which are the source of its vitality. Drawing upon a broad range of samples, the study also delineates the common characteristics and trends of the Tahmid tradition as a whole, and focuses on its distinctiveness and significance in Fatimid-Tayyibi literature (‘Fatimid-Tayyibi’ refers to IsmaTfi MustaTian Tayyibi Shiites in Fatimid Egypt as well as their spiritual successors in Yemen and India, commonly known as the Da’udl Bohras).
Following the introduction, the thesis is structured on a chronological basis in three parts. Section-I (chapters 1-3) traces the development of Tahmld from its origins to maturity as a distinct genre in Arabic prose. Section-II (chapter-4), building on the literary-history presented in the previous section, presents a methodology for the analysis of Tahmid and applies it to a selection of examples. Section-Ill (chapters 5-7) focuses on the unique characteristics of Fatimid-Tayyibi Tahmids and presents an analysis of a number of examples. The section ends with a case-study of a Tahmid in one of the Fatimid-Tayyibi DaT Syedna Taher Saifuddin’s (d. 1385/1965) risalate. The question posited in the title of this thesis, ‘is the Tahmid a literary genre?’ is answered in the Conclusion. An appendix of Tahmlds referred to in the thesis and illustrative samples, especially from Fatimid-Tayyibi manuscripts, accompanies the dissertation in a separate volume.
Qutbuddin 4
A
c k n o w l e d g m e n t sAt the beginning of a thesis focusing on ‘ham d* (praise and gratitude), I must pause to acknowledge and thank all those who in many ways, large and small, helped in this venture. First of all, al-hamd 11 Allah rabb al- ‘Alamin. The prayers and patronage of Syedna Muhammad BurhanuddinTUS, the Spiritual head of the Dawoodi-Bohra community, to which I belong, have been a source of inspiration and strength for me throughout this endeavour. For the prayers, love and support my parents offered I can never thank them enough. All my life’s good deeds are ham d for having you as parents.
To you I dedicate this humble effort.
i l l
Syedna Taher Saifuddin, Diwan.
My supervisor - the ideal supervisor - Dr. Stefan Sperl, I sincerely thank with all my heart. Your guidance, keen insights and understanding, throughout the five years I have been here, have made this thesis possible. I would also like to thank the faculty members at the Near and Middle East Studies Department as SOAS and other institutions, in particular Dr. Wen-chin Ouyang, whose door was always open for advise and morale boosts.
I would also like to thank my wonderful ‘Qutbuddin family of scholars’ for their love, encouragement and advice. Each one of you (and your adorable children) has played a part in this effort. A special thanks is due to my sister Dr. Bazat-Saifiyah Qutbuddin for painstakingly reading through numerous drafts of the thesis.
My friends at SOAS have always been there with a smile on their face. I truly appreciate your friendship. Though I would like to name each and every one, I would like to particularly thank Peter Phillips, for meticulously proof reading the final draft of the dissertation, and Mahsn Majidy for proof reading the accompanying appendices containing an anthology of Tahmlds. For any short comings, I am solely responsible.
Finally, I would like to thank the School of Oriental and African Studies for granting me the SOAS Research Fellowship (2004-2007) and the Higher Education Funding Council for England for the Overseas Research Students Award (2005-2007).
Qutbuddin 5
N
oteso n
R
e f e r e n c in g, T
r a n sl it e r a t io n a n dD
a te sReferencing:
• The referencing follows the Harvard system.
• The references to texts included in the appendices (Volume-II) are in this format:
‘Appendix-x:y’, where x is the number of the appendix (from 1-4) and y is the number of the Tahmid within that appendix.
• The frequently cited M ajalis of al-Mu’ayyad are cited as xx-yy, where xx is the volume (from 1-8) and y is the number of the M ajlis within the volume.
• Encyclopaedia o flsla m -IIis abbreviated as EI2.
• Where manuscripts are cited, page numbers are not indicated, as most are not paginated.
• 4^ jui-l These brackets and red colored text denotes an unmodified Qur’anic quote.
• Red dotted underlining denotes a modified Qur’anic quote.
Transliteration:
• All Arabic words have been transliterated in the thesis. They have also been italicized except proper nouns, and titles.
Dating:
• Dates are give in the format (xxxx/yyyy), where xxxx is the Hijrl year and yyyy is the Gregorian year.
Qutbuddin 6
L
ist o fP
latesPlate-I: The ‘alamah (basmalah) of Syedna Taher Saifuddin (d. 1385/1965).
Plate-II: Inscription of the Fatihah in ‘Rawdat-TahiralT.
Plate-III: An undated Persian manuscript on verb forms in Arabic grammar most likely from the 18th century.
Plate-IV: First page of a fascimile edition of a 7th/13th century manuscript of ‘Umdat al-Kuttab.
iL J.l_ ___________ _
Plate-V: A 12 /18 century manuscript copy of Dala ’il al-kliayrat.
Plate-VI: The first M ajlis in a 14th/20th century manuscript copy of the fourth volume of al-Mu’ayyad al-ShirazTs M ajalis.
Plate-VIIa: The T ahnud in an original manuscript of Risalah-RamadaniyyahA.224H.
Plate-VIIb: The Tahmld in an original manuscript of Risalah-RamadaniyyahA244H.
Plate-VIIIa: Inscription of Syedna Taher Saifuddin’s Risalah-Ramadaniyyah-l 335H in
‘Rawdat-Tahirah’.
Plate-Vmb: A print copy of Syedna Taher Saifuddin’s Risalah-Ramadaniyyab-1335H with the basmalah written by the author.
Plate-IX: Verse (10:10): ''A nd their last prayer is \Praise be to God! The M aster o f the universe’.
C
o n ten tsDe c l a r a t io n...2
Ab s t r a c t... 3
Ac k n o w l e d g m e n t s... 4
No t e s o n Re fe r e n c in g, Tr a n sl it e r a t io na n d Da t e s... 5
Lis to f Pla t es... 6
In t r o d u c t io n: Th e De f in it io no fa Mu l t i Dim e n sio n a l Fo r m u l a... 10
Definition o f TahmTd... 17
SECTION-1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF TAHMID Ch a p t e r-I Su r a ta l-Ha m d: Th e Ar c h e t y peo f Ta h m id... 28
Introduction... 29
The Fatihah as the Archetype o f TahmTd... 30
BarcFat al-lstihlal: The Fatihah as the Introduction o f the Qur'an... 32
The Fatihah in Muslim Praxis (and Prayer)... 36
Fatihah and 'H yb rid ityO ra l and W ritten... 38
Conclusion... 43
Ch a p t e r-I I Th e De v e l o pm e n ta n d En d u r a n c eo f Ta h m id: Th e Ro l eo ft h e Islam ic Kh u t b a ha n d Ris a l a h... 45
Introduction...46
The Khutbah - Risalah C onnection... 47
The Early Islamic Khutbah and its Beginnings... 49
The Old-Risalah... 56
The New-Risalah...58
Conclusion... 67
Ch a p t e r-I I I Th e No r m so f Ta h mId: Ch a n c e r y Ma n u a ls, Ru l e sa n d Te m pl a t e s...70
Introduction...71
Pre-lslamic M anuals and Protocols... 73
The Concept o f Iq tid a ' and Islamic Chancery M anuals... 74
The Codified Rules and Templates o f TahmTd... 77
Conclusion... 98
Qutbuddin 8
SECTION-II METHOD OF ANALYSIS
Ch a p t e r-I V
An a l y z in g Ta h m id: Re l a t io n sa n d Rh e t o r ic... 102
Introduction... 103
I. The Uniqueness o f Tahmld Reiations and their Dynamics... 107
it. Styie and Rhetoric in the Creation and Enhancement o f R eiations... 121
III. An Analysis o f Five Tahmlds... 137
Conclusion... 152
SECTION-1 II THE FATIMID-TAYYIBI TRADITION Ch a p t e r-V Th e Fa t im id-Ta y y ibi Ta h m id Tr a d it io n: Th e Dist in c t iv e n e sso fit s Co m p o n e n t sa n d Re l a t io n s... 156
Introduction... 157
Components and Structure...161
Fatimid-Tayyibi Tahmld Relations: Tawhid/ Tasalsul and Binarisms... 181
Conclusion... ,... 203
C H A P T E R -V I Th e Fatim to-T'ayyibI Ta h m id Tr a d it io n: Th e Th r e e Ph a s e s... 206
Introduction... 207
The Fatimid Phase ...208
The Yemeni P hase... 220
The Indian Phase... 234
Conclusion...252
Ch a p t e r V I I T h e F a tim id -T a y y ib i T ah m Id T r a d itio n : S y e d n a T a h e r S a ifu d d in ’s Ris a l a h- Ra m a d a n iy y a hI 3 3 5H Da w9 Nu ra l-Ha q q a l-Mu b in... 255
Introduction... 256
The Production Context... 258
The R a sa ’ii-Ramadaniyyah o f Syedna Taher Saifuddin... 262
Analysis o f Syedna Taher Saif uddin's Risdlah-Ramaddniyyah-1335H Tahm ld...266
Conclusion... 286
Co n c l u sio n: A Lit er a r y Ge n r e?...289
Bib l io g r a ph y... 297
- jAjs Jtkij t.
Plate-1
The ‘alamahoT Syedna Taher Saifuddin (d. 1385/1965)
— illj
Photograph courtesy o f Taher Khorakiwala
I
n t r o d u c t io nTh e De f in it io n o f a Mu l t i Dim e n s io n a l Fo r m u l a
Introduction
The Definition o f a M ulti Dimensional Formula
Qutbuddin 11
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£ jjuiblluJj Beginnings and endings, introductions and conclusions, preambles and epilogues, are the most essential parts of a text for they set the first and last impression. Both internalize the author’s worldview ( Weltanschauung) \ highlight the fundamental premise of the subject matter and engage the audience. They place the specific focus in the larger context and create the vital connection and relation between the audience and that focus. In the Islamic tradition, both of these chiefly revolve around ham d or praise of the Almighty, a convention called Tahmid2. The endurance of this convention for over a thousand years, its widespread usage and adaptation in theological and even non- theological texts3, and not least of all, its artistic encapsulation of meaning, make the Tahmid one of the most common and special introductions and conclusions.
1 I define ‘worldview’ as 1-the overall perspective from which one sees and interprets the world, and 2-a collection o f beliefs about life and the universe held by an individual or a group.
2 Various other terms have also been used to refer to Arabic laudatory preambles that begin with the name o f God, praise Him, proclaim His Unity and beseech blessings on the Prophet and his progeny.
These include tasdir, khutbat al-kitab, hamd, hamdalah, and sadr al-kitab. Through the thesis I attempt to define the specific signification o f each even though they are often used to refer to the whole tradition;
the part referring to the whole. For the sake of consistency, I use the term Tahmld to refer to the tradition in general, and the other terms to refer to specific sub-types. The reason I choose Tahmld over others is because o f its distinction from other words {khutbah confused with oration, tasdir confused with address or other kinds of beginnings etc.) and because it is a compact single word that conveys the essence o f the tradition: praise and thanks, in perpetuity and in absolute terms since it is a verbal noun.
3 For examples o f theological and non-theological works with Tahmld see Appendix-2.
Introduction Qutbuddin 12 The Definition o f a M ulti Dimensional Formula
Beginning an epistle, a monograph, or an oration with the praise of God, such as the preamble above (in the Fatimid-Tayyibi manner) with which I have chosen to begin this chapter, is a tradition that has its roots in Islamic and even pre-Islamic Arabia.
Starting as a relatively simple and brief convention, this formulaic beginning gradually evolved into an elaborate literary composition with its own rules and templates, and with its own claim to artistic merit. The archetypal Islamic doxological beginning, the opening of the Holy Qur’an, surat al-Fatihah, established a trend that continues until this day. Over the centuries the unchanging core structure of Tahnrid has been adapted and used to provide an eloquent introduction to an array of texts and contexts.
The Tahmid tradition, despite its widespread usage and endurance in Arab- Islamic culture, has by and large been ignored in Arab and Western academia. Apart from a few encyclopaedia articles and general words within discussions of artistic or epistolary prose, it is seldom even mentioned as a significant component of the text.
The lack of reference to it is motivated by a tendency to take it for granted. However, as this study will demonstrate, far from simply being a formulaic stereotype, the Tahmid is a rich, significant and often highly artistic element of Arab-Islamic culture.
The versatility and widespread usage of Tahmid as a preamble is only one of the reasons why it merits scholarly attention. That it achieves originality within convention, adapting a static structure to such a wide range of contexts, is another motive for investigating it. Its ability to offer insights into the identity, ideology and worldview of the author, makes the study relevant to any scholar dealing with the Islamic literary tradition.
This thesis follows the emergence and development of Tahmid, the Arabic laudatory preamble, as a literary genre in the Arabic tradition: a genre that not only features as a standard introduction for an infinite number of texts, but is also, in and of itself, a rich source of meaning. The dissertation proposes a literary approach for unearthing its depths of knowledge, termed the ‘relational approach’. This approach identifies and focuses on the various relations and associations, highlighted and evoked by a Tahmld despite its usual conciseness, which are the source of its vitality. Drawing upon a broad range of samples, the study also delineates the common characteristics and trends of the Tahmld tradition as a whole, and focuses on its distinctiveness and significance in Fatimid-Tayyibi literature.
Introduction Qutbuddin 13 The Definition o f a M ulti Dimensional Formula
The name ‘Fatimid-Tayyibi’ refers to the literature of the Ismaili-Shiite Fatimids as well as then* spiritual successors in Yemen and India, who believe in the continuity of the line of the Imamate in the progeny of the twenty-first Imam al-Tayyib in seclusion, while his D a‘wah (mission) is continued by the DaT al-Mutlaq, as a representative of the Imam for his followers, in their midst. They are also known as MustaTite-Ismailis and are commonly known today as Dawoodi-Bohras4. The current base of the community is in India, headed by the fifty-second in the line of DaTs, Syedna Muhammad Burhanuddin5. The DaTs and scholars of this community produced a steady stream of literature from Fatimid times to the present day.
My experience with the unique Tahmlds written by the fifty-first Fatimid-Tayyibi DaT Syedna Taher Saifuddin6 (d. 1385/1965) initially stimulated this research project.
Rather than overlooking them, students of the tradition seek ‘oceans of knowledge’
under each word of the preambles that constitute 30-40% of the length of the D aTs risalahs . They draw attention to the historical references, the principles guiding the _ author, and the ideology and esoteric interpretations embedded in the Tahmid. This kindled my interest and encouraged me to analyze these unique examples, knowing very well that these Tahmids were part of a wider deep-rooted Arab-Islamic tradition.
The study of Syedna Taher Saifuddin’s Tahmlds thus prompted an investigation into the origins, characteristics and analysis of the Tahmid tradition in general. For this purpose, I relied essentially on primary sources containing examples of Tahmlds, including orations and epistles written in the first few centuries of Islam in addition to monographs that also begin with a laudatory preamble. I also benefited from manuals of chancery writing (2nd/8th-7tb/13th century) which contain fragments of information on the rules, expectations and guidelines for the doxological preamble in addition to invaluable examples. It is on the basis of samples from these primary sources (more than 500 Tahmlds) that the approach presented in this thesis is developed.
4 The Dawoodis are the largest denomination o f Bohras; other comparatively minor denominations include ‘Aliyas, Sulaymanis and Mahdibaghwalas.
5 See Al-Jamea-Tus-Saifiyah Publications (2001) for an illustrated biography. This is the common spelling o f the Arabic Sayyidna Muhammad Burhan al-DIn, The title ‘Syedna’ (lit. our leader) has become the universally used official title for the D al.
6 This is the common spelling o f the Arabic Sayyidna Tahir Sayf al-din.
7 Description o f Syedna Taher Saifuddin’s risalahs in wa'.z-sermon by Khuzaima b. Syedna Taher Saifuddin 1984.
Introduction
The Definition o f a M ulti Dimensional Formula
Qutbuddin 14
The study of the development and general features of Tahmld is complemented by a focus on the Fatimid-Tayyibi tradition in Egypt (4th—6th/ 10th- 12th century), Yemen (6tb—10th/l 2th—16th century) and India (10th—14th/l 6th—20th century), and Syedna Taher Saifuddin’s risalahs in particular. For this case study, I relied mainly on print editions and manuscripts of Fatimid-Tayyibi primary sources, once again due to a lack of scholarship on the subject. I was also fortunate to have access to the Fatimid-Tayyibi D aewah library in Mumbai and Syedi Khuzema b. Syedna Taher Saifuddin’s personal library, which have rare manuscripts of risalahs that boast excellent examples of Tahmid, written by Fatimid-Tayyibi authors .Q
Following the introduction, the thesis is structured on a chronological basis in three parts. In the latter part of this introduction, as a foundation for this study, I present a basic definition for the principal components of Tahmid. I also make a case for their conceptual weight, which I believe is a consequence of their continuation of the pre- Islamic tradition of praise in addition to the prominent theological and political role assigned to them in the early Islamic period. Following this, Section-I (chapters 1-3) traces the development of Tahmid from its origins to maturity as a distinct genre in Arabic prose. Section-II (chapter-4), building on the literary-history presented in the previous section, presents a methodology for the analysis of Tahmid and applies it to a selection of Tahmlds. Section-Ill (chapters 5-7) focuses on the unique characteristics of Fatimid-Tayyibi Tahmlds and presents an analysis of a number of examples. The section ends with a case-study of a praise-preamble in one of Syedna Taher Saifuddin’s twentieth century risalahs.
Section-I addresses the development, purpose and rules of Tahmid in the Arab- Islamic tradition. Chapter-1 presents surat al-Fatihah as the archetype of Tahmid in terms of its function, its substance and its style. It contends that the Fatihahi and the Tahmlds that are based on its template, must be viewed as ‘hybrid texts’: texts that are simultaneously oral and written. It is only with this view that a full appreciation of the impact and signification of the Fatihah, and Tahmlds in general, can be achieved.
Chapter-2 argues that outside the Qur’anic context, the origins of Tahmld must be sought in the Arabian tradition of orality, the khutbah in particular. It asserts that just
8 The Fatimid-Tayyibi sources are discussed in more detail in the beginning o f chapter-V (p.160). Plates- VI, Vila, Vllb, and VIHb are examples o f such manuscripts.
Introduction Qutbuddin 15 The Definition o f a M ulti Dimensional Formula
as the first century chancery risalahs assumed the function of the khutbah as a medium of communication and persuasion, they also assimilated its formal features, including the laudatory preamble. The nature of the risalah and its proliferation, I argue, was crucial in the pervasive spread of the convention. Chapter-3 delineates the basic characteristics, rules and guidelines of Tahmld based on a survey of mostly mediaeval manuals of chancery writing. I contend that the concept of iq tid a \ following or emulating a model or exemplar, which is manifested in these manuals, is an essential factor in guaranteeing the perpetuation of the Tahmid tradition.
With this background in mind, the presentation and application of the ‘relational approach’, as the preferred method for the analysis of Tahmlds, is the focus of Section- II (chapter-4). Developed specifically for the analysis of these praise-preambles, this approach enables us to appreciate the multiple layers of meaning in a seemingly mundane convention. It also allows us to appreciate the convention’s capacity to create a contextualizing framework and a state of consciousness for the text it introduces. The approach views the Tahmid as a set of carefully chosen explicit and implicit relations centering on God. The varied nature of these relations contextualizes the subsequent text and locates it, its author and its audience within the larger scheme of creation. The chapter argues for the suitability of this approach and defines terminology to assist in analysis. Based on the perception of Tahmid as a ‘hybrid genre’, this chapter emphasizes the role of rhetoric in the enhancement and creation of meaning. This is followed by an application of the approach to five selectively chosen Tahmlds, beginning with an analysis of a khutbah opening by ‘All b. Abl Talib in the l st/7th century, and ending with an analysis of an opening of a monograph by the famous historian Ibn al-Athir in the 7th/13th century. The selection consciously brings in samples from different time periods and contexts to assert the utility of this approach for the analysis of a broad spectrum of Tahmids.
Section-Ill (chapters 5-7) focuses on the distinctiveness of Tahmid in the Fatimid-Tayyibi tradition, stressing the continuity of the principal themes and motifs in Fatimid-Tayyibi praise-preambles through the ages, while at the same time emphasizing its evolution in the face of changing religious and geopolitical circumstances. Chapter-5 compares the characteristics of the Fatimid-Tayyibi Tahmids with the broader Tahmid tradition, drawing upon the findings of earlier chapters (2 and 3). It highlights the esoteric dimension of the primary Tahmid components and the
Introduction Qutbuddin 16 The Definition o f a M ulti Dimensional Formula
recurring trends that distinguish Fatimid-Tayyibi praise-premables from the rest.
Building on this comparison, chapter-6 traces the development of Tahmld in the three major phases of the tradition: Fatimid Egypt (4th - 6th/10th-12th century), Yemen (6th- 10th/l2 th—16th century) and India (10tb-14th/16th-20th century). One carefully chosen Tahmid from each of the phases is analyzed in depth using the relational approach presented earlier in chapter-4.
The final chapter, a tribute to the author whose works inspired this study, is devoted to the Tahmid in Syedna Taher Saifuddin’s first risalah. Following a brief presentation of the author’s life and works, the Tahmid is considered as a response to the pervading atmosphere of dissension. The chapter argues that Syedna Taher Saifuddin’s laudatory preamble is a high point in the evolution of the convention wherein the Tahmid rather than simply introducing the matn, the main-body of the text where the substance is expected, becomes a ‘psuedo-mata’, substantial in its own right.
A more detailed study of Syedna Taher Saifuddin’s risalahs and their Tahmids is perhaps a project for the future.
Is the Tahmid then a distinct literary genre? Based on the texts surveyed and analyzed during the course of this study, the thesis conclusion will attempt to answer this question posed in the thesis title. I define genre as a group of texts with common features and other features that are individualized (Cohen, 2003). A genre, in the context of Tahmid, is identifiable through its establishment of a clear worldview, its textual and formal characteristics, and its governance of the expectations of the author and audience.
A separately bound volume of appendices consisting of samples of Tahmids referred to in this study complements the dissertation. At present there is no anthology or collection of Tahmids, and while a number of these are published, it is practically unviable to expect readers to refer to Tahnuds scattered in a vast range of monographs from various disciplines and time periods. Many Tahmids from the Fatimid-Tayyibi tradition in particular are still in manuscript form. Appendix-1 presents examples of components of Talmud in pre-Islamic and Islamic inscriptions, Islamic numismatics and papyri. Appendix-2 presents samples of Tahmids from khutbahs, chancery-risalahs and other sources. Appendix-3 presents the guidelines or templates for Tahmids in various contexts presented in a Fatimid chancery manual. Appendix-4 presents the theological non-chancery Tahmlds from the Fatimid-Tayyibi tradition.
Introduction
The Definition o f a M ulti Dimensional Formula
Qutbuddin 17
The separately bound appendices will facilitate reference to Tahnilds being analyzed while reading the dissertation. The Tahmids included in the appendices are clearly referenced in the dissertation by ‘Appendix-x:y’, where x is the number of the appendix (from 1-4) and y is the number of the Tahmid within that appendix. The Tahmids within each appendix are presented in chronological order. A glossary of technical terms including chancery terms pertaining to the rules of Tahmid, terms developed for the ‘relational-approach’ and unfamiliar terminology in the Fatimid- Tayyibi tradition is also presented in the appendices.
A disclaimer must be made at this point: this thesis does not pretend to achieve a fully comprehensive survey of Tahmids; that is all but impossible. The corpus of material is so large that boundaries are necessary to avoid superficiality. From the l st/6th to the 9th/15th century, while a number of non-chancery examples are analyzed, the majority of samples derive from the influential state chancery of the Umayyads, Abbasids, Fatimids and Mamluks. In the post 9th/15th century period, only illustrative examples that prove the continuity of the general Tahmld tradition are cited and the focus is predominantly on praise-preambles from Fatimid-Tayyibi religious literature.
Acknowledging the ambitious nature of this project, the goal was to strike a balance between considering the Fatimid-Tayyibi tradition in depth and at the same time defining the main characteristics of the broader Tahmid tradition and providing the tools for its analysis; tools that will, I hope, prove useful to scholars reading any Arab- Islamic text beginning with Tahmld.
Definition of Tahmld
The word Tahmld, a verbal noun, is defined literally as the act of praising and offering thanks. The tradition labelled Tahmid, however, is defined by four core components that constitute its basic structure in this order:
1. The basmalah, beginning with the name of God with the formula: bism Allah al- Rahman al-Rahim 9.
9 The basmalah as the very first ayah o f the Qur’an holds a prominent position. It follows a long tradition o f invoking the name o f the divine, which is Islamized. The form o f the basmalah remains static in the overwhelming majority o f Tahmids. The emphasis is on the attribute of mercy, with most exegetes commenting on the subtle difference between Rahman and Rahim, the former used only to describe the all encompassing mercy of the Almighty while the latter adjective used to describe human mercy as well.
Analysis o f the basmalah also relates to the discussion o f the names o f Allah. The various views on these issues are presented by al-Gharaw! (1982, pp. 77-174). He also cites numerous treatises written on the
Introduction Qutbuddin 18 The Definition o f a M ulti Dimensional Formula
2. Hamd, praising and thanking Him, most commonly with the formula al-hamd li Allah alladhi..}®.
3. Shahadah, the proclamation of the Unity of God and the Prophethood of Muhammad: ashhad ant lailaha illaAllah-w a ann M uhammadrasul A lla h 11.
4. Salawat, beseeching blessings on the Prophet and his progeny, usually based on the formula Allahumma salli ‘ala Muhammad wa al M uhammad kama sallayta
— _ _ in
(ala Ibrahim wa al Ibrahim .
The first two components constitute the bare minimum for an opening to be considered a Tahnud, as in surat alFatihah. But even though the latter two are sometimes elided, most praise beginnings include all four. These are the components that form the skeleton of Tahmid from its origin to modem times. The key to the Talmud’s vitality is the adaptation of these indispensable and conceptually rich constants.
Over and above the literal definitions of these components, the conceptual value of the core elements is paramount. From the early days of Islam, the status of these formulae is substantiated by a survey of epigraphic and numismatic evidence and corroborated by numerous traditions. I contend that three aspects or dimensions of these elements are
basmalah (pp. 8-10). The esoteric signification of the basmalah in the Fatimid-Tayyibi tradition is discussed in chapter-V (p. 164).
10 Also called hamdalah, the dual signification o f hamd, praise and gratitude, is a source of debate. Most argue for the suitability o f one signification over the other depending on the context. The connection between hamd and madh is also drawn on the basis o f their shared root letters, even though rearranged.
Hassan (2004, p. 179) bases this observation on Ibn Jinrii’s concept o f al-ishtiqaq al-akbar, wherein the essence o f the signification remains the same despite the rearrangement o f letters. This connection, the word madlh in particular, ties the Tahmid tradition with one o f the prominent aghrad, lit. purposes of Arabic poetry: madlh. Al-Gharawl (1982, pp. 197-214) summarizes the various opinions on the meaning o f hamd. The esoteric signification of hamd in the Fatimid-Tayyibi tradition is also discussed in chapter- V (p.168).
11 Also called tashahhud, the proclamation o f the Unity o f God is a standard format o f negation, ‘there is no God’, followed by affirmation, ‘but Allah’. The proclamation of Muhammad, which is also included in many Tahmids, differs in that it is solely an affirmation. It is the formula with which an individual can accept the Islamic faith. Shiites also consider the declaration that ‘All is the waliyy o f God, as an extension o f the shahadah. The esoteric signification o f the shahadah in the Fatimid-Tayyibi tradition is also discussed in chapter-V (p. 170).
12 Also called tasliyah, the concept is derived from the Qur’anic verse 33:56 in which the faithful are commanded to beseech salawat on the Prophet. The definition o f salawat varies depending on who pronounces it. From God, it is rahmah, from the angels it is barakah and maghfirah and from humans it is du‘a and ta ‘zlm (al-Tabari, Tafsir and al-RazI, in tafslr o f Qur’an 33:56). The beseeching of salawat on the Prophet’s progeny is permissible as part o f the salawat by most Sunni scholars, and as an obligation, without which the salawat would be incomplete, by Shiites. The salawat thus is one o f the main markers o f sectarian differences in the Tahmid. Also see Goldziher (1970) for a summary o f the meaning (p. 38) and sectarian differences in Tahmid (pp. 55-58). The esoteric signification o f the salawat in the Fatimid- Tayyibi tradition is also discussed in chapter-V (p. 175).
Introduction Qutbuddin 19 The Definition o f a M ulti Dimensional Formula
the source of their, and the Tahmid’s, conceptual weight: the heritage, theological and political dimensions.
The pre-Islamic heritage of Tahmid components is apparent in the acceptance, Islamization and employment of formulae that preceded the advent of Islam. While Islam eradicated certain earlier traditions it adopted and Islamized others. The Hajj, considered to be an Abrahamic tradition, is the perfect example of Islamization.
Similarly, the conceptualization of Islamic formulae as an integral part of daily life was inherited from the pre-Islamic period. The well known Christian rite of doxology, the
‘Lord’s Prayer’ {Paternoster), a canonical prayer derived from the gospels of Matthew (6) and Luke (11) in the New Testament and the ‘Gloria in Excelsis Deo’ are prime examples of the use of praise formulae in liturgy13. Many Syriac texts are also known to have begun with praise incantations of the divine or the ruler14. Studies of Semitic and Greek inscriptions clearly establish a tradition of similar incantations, prayers and statements of belief in pre-Islamic times15,
Littmann (1943, p.277; Appendix-1:1) refers to a Safaitic inscription reminiscent of the Islamic basmalah: “ ...and he greeted in the name of Allat his brother...”. Gignoux (1979), tracing the origins of the basmalah to Iran, goes so far as to suggest that it is a direct descendant of the Pahlavi padnam iyazdan - ‘in the name of God’16. An inscription by the king Esimiphaios in early 6th century South Arabia reads: ‘In the name of God and His son Christ victorious and the Holy Spirit’ (Beeston,
‘Abraha’ EI2)11. Suggestive of the shahadah, Prentice (1909, p.206; Appendix-1:2) cites this Greek inscription in a Syrian house: “One God who aideth, May he who wrote this be remembered”. Prentice (p.68; Appendix-1:3) cites another such reference from the year 403 CE: “In the year 714. (There is) One God, that helpeth Lord Eulalios, who delighted in building...”. Evocative of ham d are the numerous instances of ‘praise’ that
13 ‘Gloria’ in Fortescue (2003).
14 Griffith (2008, ‘personal interview’).
15 A principal source o f reference for these inscriptions is the series o f publications of the Princeton University archaeological expeditions to Syria in 1904-1905 and 1909 (Littman, 1913,1934, 1943 and
1949). Although most o f these cannot be precisely dated, they are believed to be from the few centuries before the dawn o f Islam.
16 Numerous other Pahlavi texts from around the 5th century AD begin with the name o f God and praise, see for example Kdmdmag I Ardaxsir I Pabagan, Menog I xrad and Bimdahifn. I would like to thank Rastin Mehri, my colleague at SOAS, for bringing these texts to my attention.
17 Beeston notes the difference between this formula and the one used by Abraha found in an inscription in Ma’rib. He says that this is a sectarian distinction because Esimiphaios was most likely a Monophysite. Abrahah’s inscription reads: “By the power and favour and mercy o f God and His Messiah and the Holy Spirit”. It is an interesting precedent to formulae reflecting sectarian identity.
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The Definition o f a M ulti Dimensional Formula
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are cited in the series, especially in Syriac Inscriptions. Among the inscriptions that Littmann (1934, p.39 and 53; Appendix-1:4 and 5) cites are a few quite similar to al- ha m d li Allah: “Praise be to our Lord!...” from a dedication panel and “Praise be to our Lord who raised from the dead, Ma Daianos and Mar Cosmos his son! The memory of both be blessed...”. Others differ in that they praise the trinity but the spirit of praise is the same: “Praise be to the praised Trinity...” (p.37; Appendix-1:6). To my knowledge, the fourth element of Tahmid, salawat, is unique to the Islamic tradition.
The heritage dimension is further endorsed by traditions that link the core components of Tahmid with pre-Islamic Prophets. A tradition attributed to ‘AH by al- Nisaburi contends that the basmalah was first revealed to Adam, who said that ‘my progeny will be protected against the torments (of Hell) so long as they continue to recite it’. It was then revealed to Abraham, after which it was withdrawn and then sent to Solomon; it was again withdrawn and finally revealed to Muhammad18. In another tradition attributed to the Prophet Noah by al-Tha‘alibi in Qisas al-anbiya\ Noah is said to have given his people two commands and two prohibitions. The two commands were: i) say there is no God but Allah, and ii) to say ‘God be praised’19. The formula used by Quraysh bism ik Allahumm is shown to have Christian origins by al-Suli (pp.31- 32). and al-Qalqashandi (p.959). In a probably fantastical story, Umayyah b. Abl al-Salt al-Thaqafl, stranded in the desert, is helped by an old man in a Church who teaches him the formula bism ik Allahumm to waive off the curse upon them and protect them. The essence of these traditions and anecdotes is to associate these formulae with a Prophet or religion recognized by Islam, which demonstrates the conceptual weight that the elements of Tahmld maintained from their pre-Islamic heritage.
As a result of this heritage, many components of the earlier formulae were quite simply adapted to suit Islamic sensibilities. Once they were Islamized, they were as
‘Islamic’ as original Islamic stipulations. The basmalah, bism Allah, for instance, was only a slight modification from the earlier bism A lla t or bism ik Allahumm. The conceptual weight of formulae in pre-Islamic times was thus inherited, while the formulae were Islamized and internalized.
18 Qtd. by Ayoub (2004,p.l8). Al-Gharawi (1982,p. 15) cites a similar tradition attributed to the Prophet by al-Ja'buri, in which basmalah is presented as the first inscription by the qalam (Pen) and that it was revealed to Adam. Another anecdote, wherein Pharoah is spared God’s wrath in the time o f Moses because the basmalah is inscribed on his door, is also narrated (p. 18). He also cites Tafsir al-Fakbr al- R aziwhich states that al-hamd li Allah were the first words pronounced by Adam (p. 211).
19 Cited in Rubin (2003, p. 78).
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The Definition o f a Multi Dimensional Formula
Qutbuddin 21
The two other dimensions, the theological and political, exponentially increased the conceptual weight of Tahmld formulae. Since the two dimensions overlapped in the early days of Islam, it makes sense to discuss them together. The Islamization process assigned the formulae new roles that would conceptually revolutionize them. All components, being verbatim or modified extractions from the Qur’an, assumed a superior status. Their invocation was encouraged by many traditions as a way to gamer divine grace, heal the sick, wade off fear and protect20. They became closely associated with Islamic identity, as illustrated by the prominent role of the shahadah while espousing Islam. As the inscriptions in the Dome of the Rock and the numismatic evidence discussed below demonstrate, the formulae embodied the core beliefs of Islam as a religion and as a political force. The formulae were themselves as important as the doctrines, since they were, for all practical purposes, the doctrines.
The inscriptions in the Dome of the Rock from the year 72/691 in particular are an example of the capacity of Islamic formulae, including components of Tahmld, to represent identity21. While there are other inscriptions containing formulae from that period , this inscription is particularly significant because the primary components of 77 Tahmld appear in it with a recurring pattern.
-Oil ^l\ All )J p~*-jl! j> jll -oil p—*» [swj ^ aAp -Oil ^ 9 -oil J (ll2’<^ Jo-1 ) aJ ^ aAp 1jL<? ly*i! j j i o l l [w] (^wJl -Oil j l -Oil J Al
^>11 -oi |N\v1 ^ a!1 ^ll a!1 V px>-jS! (j-^jll -oil p—** l,v' ^ 1jA—_j
20 The traditions encouraging and enumerating the virtues o f reciting these formulae are many. For a good collection, especially with regard to basmalah and hamd see al-GharawI (1982, pp. 15-17, 178-180 and 253-257). See also Ayoub (2004, pp. 17-19) and al-Ghazali, Ihya’; the latter quotes various traditions encouraging hamd (pp. 307-309) and salawat (pp. 316-318).
21 This inscription is one o f two on the inside of the building. Full inscriptions in Appendix-1:9 and 10.
Christel Kessler (1970, pp. 8-9) provides transcriptions and pictures o f both inscriptions. The Latin letters inserted within the text show the orientation o f the inscription within the octagon. The markers or separating stars, are part of the original inscription and have not been added by Kessler or me. The underlined name is a later alteration by the Abbasid caliph al-Ma’mun who tried to attribute the construction o f the Dome of the Rock to himself, but somehow forgot to alter the date. Kessler maintains that the golden glass mosaic inscriptions are undoubtedly from the time o f the original work done in the 72H, and were not modified during the relatively recent restoration.
22 Some inscriptions containing formulae include the basmalah in an inscription from the year 31/652 discussed by el-Hawary (1930, p.322; Appendix-1:7), also an early though undated inscription o f verse 33:56 pertaining to the salawat cited by G.C. Miles (1948, p. 241; Appendix-1:8).
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The Definition o f a Multi Dimensional Formula
Qutbuddin 22
(n] AJil \ i j f j JjJl (j* t ij ^ ^J 3 \j]j
. . . O aM
In the religious and political context of l st/7th century Jerusalem, “the building of the Dome of the Rock combined the symbols of victory with an assertion of the position of Islam as the successor and supplanter of the other two monotheistic religions of the Near East” (King, 1985, p.274)23. The grand structure of the building counters the spectacular churches of Jerusalem, while the formulaic inscriptions inside distinguish Muslim identity from existing monotheistic religions. For this purpose, with the aid of Qur’anic verses 112:1-4 and 17:111, the shahadah and hamd are expanded to emphasize the belief in One God rather than the Trinity, to emphasize Muslim identity vs.
Christian identity. The manifestation of this identity in Tahmld formulae is indicative of their conceptual import.
Nowhere else is the theological and political significance of Tahmld elements more visible and dominant than in first century Islamic coins. Coins prior to the coinage reform in 77/692 were almost indistinguishable from Byzantine or Sassanian coins of the period except for the inclusion of Islamic religious phrases. Having no coinage of their own, the Muslims adapted the existing coinage to their religious and geopolitical context. Byzantine coinage was adapted in Syria and North Africa (Appendix-1:14-15), while in Mesopotamia and Persia Sassanian coinage was adapted(Appendix-l:l 1-12). In the Arab-Sassanian coins the portrait of the ruler continued to be represented on the obverse with his name, and in later coins the Arab provincial ruler’s name, in Pahlavi.
The “one strikingly distinct feature” according to G.C. Miles (1952, p. 156) was the addition of formulae such as bism Allah and al-hamd li Allah. The figure below is an example of such a coin from the year 41/660, one of many catalogued by Walker (1941)24:
Figure-i Darabijird 41/6602 23 Also see Grabar (1959, pp. 33-62).
24 For other examples of pre-reform coinage with inscriptions see Appendix-1:11-15.
25 Cited by Walker (1941, p.10) coin no.14, figure from
h ttp ://Islam iccoins.ancicnts.info/um avvads/41D arabiird AS.JPG: Appendix-1:11.
Introduction Qutbuddin 23 The Definition o f a M ulti Dimensional Formula
The basmalah in Kufic is visible on the obverse margin of the coin in a shortened form, bism Allah, which is common even for later post-reform coins26. Though the coin is typical of Arab-Sassanian coins, there is variety in the basmalah used: bism Allah rabbi, bism Allah al-eaziz etc27. The variations are possibly vestiges of the pre-Islamic tradition discussed above. Despite the heterogeneity and the continuation of an earlier tradition of iconography, the statement of Islam is made through the basmalah, since it is that which distinguishes Arab-Sassanian coins from Sassanian ones.
‘Abd al-Malik’s monetary reform in the year 77/692 was a strong political statement made primarily by discarding the symbolic iconography of the challenging empires and replacing it with its Islamic counterpart28. It is abundantly clear that in order to counter a symbol as powerful as the cross—which the Muslims saw “as the universal sign of Christianity in the Near East and also the sign of the Byzantine Empire” (King, 1985, p. 269), elements of the Tahmid were selected. The Fatimid theologian al-Qadi al-Nifman in his work, A s as al-Ta’wll\ drawing a parallel between the cross and the shahadah, states that, while the cross was the substance (asl) of Christianity, the shahadah was the asl of Islam. It is arguable that conceptually the formulae were for the Muslims what the Cross was for the Christians. The formulaic inscriptions were, for all intents and purposes, the icons of Islam.
The typical post-reform Umayyad coin contained the basmalah, shahadah, Qur’anic verses attesting the shahadah, and the date and city of minting. Later on, the name of the caliph was also included. The figure below is an example of a gold post
reform Arab dinai’m inted in 77/696, the approximate date for the first reform coins29.
26 Many other coins with various formulae abound, such as li Allah al-hamd in a coin from the year 70/689 cited by Walker (1941, p.10) coin no. 14, and Arab-Byzantine coins with the Latin equivalent of the shahadah (la ilah ilia Allah wahdah la shank lah) and many variants o f the basmalah (bism Allah, bism al-rabb, bismik Allahumm al-Muhyl al-Rahman, and bismik Allahumm)cited in Walker (1956, pp.54-56) coins no. 143, 144,145, 146. The cross in these coins is replaced by a simple pole. An interesting example is a coin with the Kharijite slogan la hukm ilia li Allah cited by Walker (1941, p.100) coin no.112 (Appendix-1:13).
27 Coins no. 6 and 9 are examples o f variations in Walker (1941).
28 The debate concerning *Abd al-Malik’s coinage reform is summarized by Burke (1995, pp. 29-32).
29 For examples of Arab-Sassanian and Arab-Byzantine post-reform coinage see Appendix-1:16 andl8.
