Strategy on Hedonic Consumption
by
Patrick Broersma
University of Groningen Faculty of Economics and Business
How Pride Eliminates the Difference between Slow and Fast Life History
Strategy on Hedonic Consumption
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LITERATURE REVIEW & HYPOTHESES.………….…….………..………....2
CONCEPTUAL MODEL……….……….…………...7 METHODOLOGY……….………....…….…………..7 RESULTS……….………..11 GENERAL DISCUSSION………...……13 REFERENCES………..………..……….……18 APPENDIX………...……...………..24 ABSTRACT
The purpose of this research is to further broaden the knowledge there is about the effect of everyday stressors and one’s life history strategy (LHS) on the consumption of hedonic food products. To advance on this effect, a new variable is introduced that moderates the said effect and could even out the differences between the contrasting characteristics of the two life history strategies; fast and slow. This variable is the self-assessment emotion ‘pride’. Results show that LHS has a direct effect on hedonic consumption and the feeling of pride makes the effect of stress and LHS on hedonic consumption disappear. The added variable pride could lower hedonic consumption for those who are not future-oriented (fast LH strategists) and lower obesity rates in the long run.
1 LITERATURE REVIEW & HYPOTHESES
More than an estimated two billion adults and children worldwide are overweight (Ng et al., 2014), and the obesity epidemic will continue to increase steadily in the coming years (Swinburn et al., 2011). This figure must be reduced in the near future because people who are overweight or obese are at an elevated risk of serious health issues including heart disease and diabetes. (Bianchini, Kaaks, and Vainio 2002). The rise in obesity rates can be attributed
primarily to overconsumption of calorie-dense processed foods (Ebersole et al., 2008; Moubarac et al., 2014; Slater et al., 2009; Swinburn et al., 2011). Numerous interventions and
governmental guidelines have therefore been undertaken to promote consumption of more healthy food products, but results have been inconsistent (e.g., Yeh et al., 2008). These
calorie-dense processed foods can be classified as hedonic, and consuming these foods will be named hedonic consumption in this research, which is the independent variable.
stressful events had higher BMI (Sinha & Jastreboff, 2013). In this research, mild stress will be used as a predictor for hedonic consumption, which will be indicated as a direct effect on the hedonic consumption variable.
The present study will look into variables that could moderate the direct effect that is explained before. Since there are individual differences in their propensity to experience stress, we have to account for this phenomenon. These individual differences can be explained by the life history strategy (LHS) theory: Life history theory posits that behavioral adaptation to various environmental (ecological and/or social) conditions encountered during childhood is regulated by a wide variety of different traits resulting in various behavioral strategies (Kaplan & Gangestad, 2005). The aim of inserting LHS as a moderator will make clear which strategist will be
to adopt more effective ways of coping, characterized by high levels of actively dealing with stressors, combined with positive reappraisal styles. Such findings concur with the notion that a slow LHS is associated with a more active control of behavior (Tops, 2014). A fast LHS,
contrarily, was hypothesized to link to more reactive coping. Therefore, life history strategy will be used as a moderator in this research, as previous research on LHS has consistently found that, on average, a faster LHS is associated with higher levels of stress and lower levels of mental well-being (e.g., Hurst & Kavanagh, 2017). A fast LHS implies a lower investment in somatic effort and behavior based on a shorter time perspective. This basically means that less effort is invested in health-promoting behavior and one tends to be more impulsive, respectively (Jonason, Koenig & Tost, 2010).
The framework as of yet, with experienced stress as an independent variable on the effect of hedonic consumption, moderated by LHS is a study of the manuscript ‘Trapped in a rabbit hole? Life History Strategies Modulate The Impact of Mild Stress on Hedonic Consumption’ (Fennis, Gineikiene, Barauskaite & van Koningsbruggen, 2018). The objective of this research is to replicate that part and to extend their research by introducing a moderator.
This added variable will be moderating the effect of LHS on experienced stress on hedonic consumption. The moderator that will be added is the self-assessment feeling ‘pride’, and the hypothesis that will be tested is the aim to prove that pride will moderate the effect of life history strategy on stress for fast (but not slow) life history strategists, and can be labeled as the second hypothesis. The presence of a sense of pride should reduce or even eliminate the
emotion typically experienced after the achievement of long term goals (Giner-Sorolla, 2001), is thought to motivate people towards future achievements (Fredrickson 2001; Louro, Pieters, and Zeelenberg, 2005), suggesting that its experience should encourage more virtuous choices at the expense of immediate indulgence. Enacting temptations (impulse) is found to have a negative effect on pride, whereas enacting non-temptations (non-impulse) has a positive effect on feeling proud. (Hofmann, Kotabe & Luhmann, 2013). As hedonic consumption can often be seen as consuming temptations, the sense of pride will be lower when consumers buy hedonic products. (Mukhopadhyay & Johar, 2007) found in the context of unintended (impulse) purchase scenarios that decisions to buy an unintended product were linked with elevated ‘‘happiness tempered with guilt’’ (Gardner & Rook, 1988) whereas decisions to forego the unintended purchase were associated with elevated levels of pride. People who felt proud in response to self-control success subsequently assigned more importance to their self-control goals, identified their tempting desire as more conflicting and were more willing to actively resist the desire, thus leading to a beneficial total effect on behavioral inhibition (Hofmann & Fisher, 2012). People are proud to behave according to their expectations and ambitions (MacInnis and Patrick, 2006;
anticipated pride, and provided evidence that anticipating pride facilitates self-control. People who felt proud in response to self-control success subsequently attached greater importance to their self-control goals, identified their tempting desire as more conflicting and were more willing to resist the desire actively, thus having a beneficial overall effect on behavioral inhibition (Hofmann & Fisher, 2012). A study by (Kotabe, Righetti & Hofmann, 2019) shows that making self-conscious emotions situationally salient by having people explicitly forecast only pride and guilt can positively impact self-control decision-making. Anticipating pride from goal adherence tunes judgment toward favoring more self-control. All in all it displays that previous studies have shown that the feeling of pride has a positive impact on self-control, and may lead to less hedonic consumption for a group that lacks a future-oriented look on life
identified as fast life history strategists do. This will be tested and added to previous research that is done by Fennis et. al.
By introducing pride as a moderator on the effect of LHS, and it turns out to have a significant effect on either slow- or fast life history strategists, it could be applied in real-world scenarios. Think of supermarkets, by applying a banner that lets consumers think about
2 CONCEPTUAL MODEL
Figure 1: Conceptual model
3 METHODOLOGY
This experiment is set out to test the fundamental notion that acutely experienced stress due to a mild stressor may boost the tendency for hedonic consumption, as indicated by the willingness to pay for hedonic food products, particularly among consumers with a fast, rather than slow LHS. This experiment is aimed to replicate the findings by Fennis et. al., and to extend the research by accounting for pride as an alternate explanation of their findings.
Participants
This online study used a design with stress as a between-subjects factor as part of a larger project and individual differences in LHS as a continuous measured independent variable. We tested the fundamental notion that acutely experienced mild stress boosts the tendency for hedonic consumption, as indicated by the willingness to pay for hedonic food products,
participants are friends, relatives and connections on several social media platforms (LinkedIn, Facebook, Instagram) and the use of participants on Amazon’s Mturk platform, and the sample size is 98 participants of various ages (M = 26.33, SD = 8.12, 63.6% Female).
Design and Procedure
The design is a 2 (stress vs. no stress) by 2 (pride vs. no pride) between-subjects factorial design with LHS as a measured predictor. To vary the levels of acutely experienced mild stress, all participants will be asked to complete a mathematical reasoning test adapted from the Montreal Imaging Stress Task (Acar-Burkay, 2017; Dedovic et al., 2005), comprised of 13 mathematical problems, without the use of paper, pencil or electronic devices. In the mild stress condition, these math problems had to be solved under time pressure (10 sec. per problem), while no time pressure was introduced in the no stress condition. The stress task will be the
independent variable in this research. We gauged the level of acutely experienced mild stress as a function of the task using a 7-point scale asking participants how stressed the task made them feel, with higher scores indicating stronger feelings of stress. (M = 4.13, SD = 1.41; Cronbach’s Alpha = .85).
(Ekman, Levenson, & Friesen, 1983), which has been shown to manipulate emotional
experiences and to produce emotion typical subjective feelings and physiology (Ekman et al., 1983; Levenson, 1992), and is the (pride condition). Each participant had a maximum capacity of 500 words. Of the remaining participants, approximately half will be instructed to write about their typical day (control condition). Researchers demonstrated that writing about an
achievement-related emotion can intensify its experience (Bosmans & Baumgartner, 2005). This task will be done before the supermarket task in order to evoke a feeling of pride in the pride condition. The extent to which participants experienced pride will be measured on an 8-item scale (1: not at all, 7: very much) consisting of pride-related words (accomplished, successful, productive, proud; Tracy & Robins, 2007) and words not associated with a feeling of pride (calm, happy, delighted, energetic). Depending on the word, the item stem was “I feel like I am...,” “I feel like I have...,” or, for most words, “I feel...”). The amount of pride a person feels will be measured by averaging the score of the items, with higher scores indicating higher pride. (M = 5.03, SD = 1.15; Cronbach’s Alpha = .86).
After this task, respondents will see 27 food products and have to decide what to spend their grocery budget on, followed by a manipulation check to see if the stress task has worked. The present study employed a modified set of 27 food products for which participants were asked to decide the extent to spend their grocery budget on, including both hedonic (e.g., cookies, ice cream) and utilitarian food items (e.g., bread, broccoli, milk, oat flakes). We used the proportion of the budget spent on hedonic food products as the main DV. In addition, this study included a mood measure (the Brief Mood Introspection Scale, Mayer and Gashke 1988) to assess the role of mood as an alternate account of our findings.
Manipulation checks. In order to analyze whether or not the stress levels of respondents differ per group, a univariate ANOVA of the stress task on the level of stress is performed. This univariate ANOVA was significant, F(1, 96) = 15,16, p = .000. The stress task does influence their stress levels. To analyze whether or not the pride levels of respondents differ per group, a univariate ANOVA of the relived emotion task on the level of pride is performed. This univariate ANOVA was not significant, F(1,96) = 2,10, p = .150. The relived emotion task does not
Results
PROCESS, model 1 is used with the aim to replicate the results of the previous experiment by Fennis et. al., and test the notion that acutely, task-induced mild stress promotes the tendency to engage in hedonic consumption, moderated by type of LHS. After that, model 3 is used to test if pride moderates the moderation effect of LHS on stress.
Replication. PROCESS, model 1 is used to test the key hypothesis that acutely, task-induced stress promotes the tendency to engage in hedonic consumption, modulated by LHS. Results indicated an insignificant interaction between experienced levels of stress and LHS (B = -.237, t (97) = -0.78, p = .437). The results showed that the indirect effect of the stress task, via acutely experienced stress did not affect the tendency to spend a higher proportion of money on hedonic food items. All other effects were insignificant, as seen in appendix 3.
present, stress and LHS had no significant effect on hedonic consumption and if pride was absent, stress and LHS had a significant effect on hedonic consumption. Therefore, a feeling of pride can make the negative effect of stress and LHS on hedonic consumption disappear. Besides looking at the hypothesized effect, other effects seemed to be significant too. The direct effect of LHS on hedonic consumption is significant (B = .676, t (97) = 2.38, p = .019). Meaning that people with a slow LHS (high average score) tend to spend more money on hedonic products, while people with a fast LHS tend to spend less money on hedonic products, which is in contrast with earlier results and predictions.
4 GENERAL DISCUSSION Theoretical Implications
This work features the hypothesis that mild stress influences hedonic consumption while moderated by a life history strategy (LHS). These life history strategies are split into two groups, namely slow and fast life history strategists. The first hypothesis is that mild stress has a positive effect on hedonic consumption for fast LHS, but not for slow LHS. The other main hypothesis is that a feeling of pride could influence this effect in a way that it diminishes or even neutralizes the effect of stress and LHS on hedonic consumption. Because pride is typically experienced after the achievement of long term goals (Giner-Sorolla, 2001) and can motivate people toward future achievements and can promote more virtuous choices instead of immediate indulgence (Fredrickson 2001; Louro, Pieters, and Zeelenberg 2005).
These hypotheses have been tested in a full-scale experiment conducted online using a 2 (stress vs. no stress) by 2 (pride vs. no pride) between-subjects factorial design with LHS as a measured predictor. The results show that the replicated test of mild stress moderated by LHS had no significant effect and found no support for this hypothesis. For the extension part of this study, support is found that a feeling of pride influences the effect of stress and LHS on hedonic consumption. When pride was absent, stress and LHS positively influenced hedonic
Contribution
People feel proud when experiencing self-control success and assign more importance to self-control goals and willing to actively resist desires (Hofmann & Fisher, 2012), and pride on its own also enacts the ability to resist desires as seen in the results of this study. This shows that a feeling of pride created by external input (as used in this study) has a positive influence on self-control and therefore the ability to lower hedonic consumption. The insertion of pride into this field of research is a unique contribution because it has not been done before, and the results show that the effect of stress and LHS can be diminished by introducing this self-assessment emotion during a supermarket trip.
Managerial Implications
Life history strategy on its own influences hedonic consumption, meaning that people who are not future-oriented will indulge more and could fall in the trap of hedonic consumption. For this group of people, the fast LH strategists, the insertion of pride could create more
Marketing managers of companies that distribute healthy products (non-hedonic) could implement a campaign that evokes the feeling of pride using in-store banners and promotion stands. This way marketing managers could use the results of this research in an economic way to make fast LH strategists also part of their target audience. However, the question could rise if this is ethically justifiable when the goal could be to pursue revenue growth instead of promoting healthy food products in order to decrease obesity rates.
Because more and more people order groceries online, supermarkets could generate a segment of consumers who often buy a lot of hedonic products, and approach these people with emails containing regular weekly discounts while also trying to evoke a feeling of pride with questions or banners. Therefore not only physical consumers will be taken into account, but also online shoppers will get nudged into making more beneficial choices. According to (Hofmann & Fisher, 2012), self-control interventions help people dwell on their pride experience in response to self-control success by using for example diaries or self-rewards in order to celebrate their achievements. These rewards could also be implemented by supermarkets in the form of complementing customers when they did not buy (a lot of) hedonic products in order to strengthen self-control through a feeling of pride for a longer period.
Limitations & Future Research
respondents were students and this could lead to the fact that the results only cover this audience, while older or younger people might respond differently to the stressor ques and reliving a proud moment and their effect on hedonic consumption. Likewise, environmental conditions are also different across countries which could make a difference in the experienced day-to-day stressors and how citizens cope with them, making it difficult to generalize the results globally.
The pride variable offers great possibilities and could be used in other future research where it moderates the difference between fast and slow LHS. For example, materialistic consumption is another dependent variable that could be affected by the difference in LHS and how pride could influence that effect, or it could be taken to a more broad spectrum and one could look into the way people are invested in a better climate. If a less future-oriented view is not only causing harm to oneself but also the society or climate, it could be interesting to see if pride can diminish the differences between the people that fall into the category of fast LHS, and generate a more desired outcome like the people that are considered to be slow LHS.
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Fennis, B. M., Gineikiene, J., Barauskaite, D., van Koningsbruggen, G. M. (2018). Trapped in a rabbit hole? Life History Strategies Modulate The Impact of Mild Stress on Hedonic Consumption, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science.
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APPENDIX
These appendices are the statistical output of tests that have been used for this research. The first two appendices are univariate ANOVA tests in order to see if both manipulations have worked, and the following appendices are Process outputs to test the replication and the extension part of this research paper. All appendices have been used in the method and results part of this paper.
Appendix 1: Univariate ANOVA test of the stress manipulation
Appendix 5: Experiment Outline
Exhibit 1. Introduction/ Cover story
Dear participant,
Welcome to a short survey (5-10 minutes) composed of two parts.
My name is Patrick Broersma and I am a Marketing Master student at the University of Groningen. In order to fulfill my masters degree I am interested in two different topics; Human Cognition and Spending Behavior.
● The first study is about the consequences of quantitative reasoning, which includes a mathematical test.
● The second study is about purchase behavior, in which a specific scenario will be given. Your participation in this study will remain confidential and there will be no attempt to link your
responses and your identity. Also, your participation in this study is entirely voluntary, and you may withdraw at any time by closing the survey platform.
If you have questions about this research, you can send an email message to Patrick Broersma at p.broersma.1@student.rug.nl
Welcome to the first part of the study! This part is about quantitative reasoning and includes a short math test.
Exhibit 2a. High Stress Condition
The Mental Game
This intelligence test serves as an important indicator of the quantitative mind of a person.
You will now be presented with a set of quantitative reasoning questions based on arithmetic tasks such as addition (+), subtraction (-), multiplication (*), and division (/).
There is one correct answer for each question. The correct answer is a number between 0 and 9. You will have 10 seconds to answer each question.
We are interested in the response that you can arrive at through mental calculation alone. As such, please complete these without the use of a pencil and paper or a calculator.
For each question select the option that you think is the correct answer.
Exhibit 2b. Low Stress Condition
The Mental Game
This intelligence test serves as an important indicator of the quantitative mind of a person.
You will now be presented with a set of quantitative reasoning questions based on arithmetic tasks such as addition (+), subtraction (-), multiplication (*), and division (/).
There is one correct answer for each question. The correct answer is a number between 0 and 9.
I am interested in the response that you can arrive at through mental calculation alone. As such, please complete these without the use of a pencil and paper or a calculator.
For each question, select the option that you think is the correct answer.
o CONTINUE Q4. EXAMPLE: 4 - 1 + 2 = ? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Q5. Here is another EXAMPLE 7 + 2 * 1 = ? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Q6. Please continue when you are ready to start!
This is the end of the Mental Game Thank you!
HIGH STRESS CONDITION: Your performance was 10% worse compared to the average of
other participants' performance.
LOW STRESS CONDITION: Your performance was similar compared to the other
Exhibit 3. Second part study
Welcome to the second part of this study.
This part is about spending behavior in a grocery store. You will now be given a short scenario.
Exhibit 5. Willingness to buy Hedonic products adapted
In your regular visit to the supermarket you encounter different products on the shelves. Please indicate for each of the following products what you would be willing to spend on each of
Exhibit 7. Manipulation Check/ Mood measure (Acar-Burkay, et al. 2014)
Back to the Mental Game.. Please use the scale below to tell us how you experienced the game
Exhibit 8. LHS: Mini-short K-form (Figueredo, 2004)
Please indicate how strongly you agree or disagree with the following statements. Use the scale
Exhibit 9a. Pride as a moderator on the effect of LHS (Tracy & Robins, 2007).
This task will be done before the supermarket task in order to evoke a feeling of pride in the pride condition:
Pride condition: Think about a time when you felt very proud of yourself and describe the events that led up to your feeling this way in as much detail as you can remember. [INSERT TEXT BOX]
Control condition: Think about your typical day, and describe the events that happen during this day. [INSERT TEXT BOX]
Exhibit 9b. Manipulation check/pride measure (Tracy & Robins, 2007).
The extent to which participants experienced pride will be measured on a 8-item scale (1: strongly disagree, 7: strongly agree) consisting of pride-related words (accomplished, successful, productive, proud; Tracy & Robins, 2007) and words not associated with a feeling of pride (calm, happy, delighted, energetic). Depending on the word, the item stem was “I feel like I am...,” “I feel like I have...,” or, for most words, “I feel...”;Tracy & Robins, 2007):
Strongly disagre e Disagre e Somewhat disagree Neither agree nor disagree Somewh at agree Agree Strongly agree I feel accomplished I feel calm I feel like I am successful
I feel happy
I feel like I am productive I feel delighted
Exhibit 10. Socioeconomic status (Griskevicius et al. 2011)
Please indicate the extent of agreement with the following statements, ranging from 1 to 9, whereas 1= Totally Disagree and 9= Totally Agree
Exhibit 11. Demographic questions.
You are at the end of the questionnaire. Please finalize answering some demographic questions.
What is your gender? Male Female Other
What is your age?
Currently I am….
Studying Working
Looking for a job Not applicable
What is your nationality?
Exhibit 12. Debriefing section
THANK YOU!
This is the end of the questionnaire.
Thank you for taking your time to complete all questions.
If you are interested in the results of the study, please fill in your e-mail address. Your information will be kept confidential and will only be used to keep you updated about the
final results of the research.
