THE INFLUENCE OF IT CULTURE ON
INDIVIDUAL READINESS TO CHANGE: A
PRE-MERGER IT-PERSPECTIVE
By
Martijn den Breejen
University of Groningen
Faculty of Economics and Business
MSc Change Management
Supervisor: Cees Reezigt
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENT ABSTRACT ... 1 INTRODUCTION ... 4 Theoretical background ... 6 CONTEXT...6 IT CULTURE...8
INDIVIDUAL READINESS TO CHANGE... 16
RESEARCH METHOD...19 DATA COLLECTION... 20 CASE DESCRIPTION... 21 DATA ANALYSIS... 22 RESULTS ...24 IT ARCHETYPES... 24
IT CULTURE INFLUENCE ON INDIVIDUAL IT READINESS TO CHANGE... 27
Influence of IT culture on Individual IT readiness to change...27
Global IT needs influence on Individual IT readiness to change....28
Primary IT need influence on Individual IT readiness to change....28
Self-accomplishment needs influence on Individual IT readiness to change...29
Extrinsic motivation, identified regulation influence on Individual IT readiness to change...30
Intrinsic motivation influence on Individual IT readiness to change...31
IT culture influence on change efficacy...31
IT culture influence on valence...32
Influences on IT culture....32
Mediating variables...33
DISCUSSION...36
Influence on IT culture...36
IT culture variables influence on Individual IT readiness to change...37
IT culture influence on variables of Individual IT readiness to change...40
Mediating variables...41
THEORETICAL IMPLICATIONS... 41
MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS... 42
LIMITATIONS... 42
FURTHER RESEARCH... 43
APPENDIX B INTERVIEW QUOTES...48
Influence of IT culture on Individual IT readiness to change...48
Global IT need influence on Individual IT readiness to change....48
Primary IT need influence on Individual IT readiness to change....50
Self-accomplishment needs influence on Individual IT readiness to change...51
Extrinsic motivation, identified regulation influence on Individual IT readiness to change...52
Intrinsic motivation influence on Individual IT readiness to change...53
IT culture influence on change efficacy...54
IT culture influence on valence...56
Influences on IT culture....57
Mediating variables...59
INTRODUCTION
Individual readiness for change (IRFC) is believed to be one of the primary
determining factors of organizational change intervention’s success (Armenakis & Harris, 2009; By, 2007; Herold, Fedor & Caldwell, 2007; Self & Schraeder, 2009). The IRFC construct has been used in Information systems (IS) research in order to explain the concept of IS adoption, IS usage, IS project success, and knowledge sharing (Iacovou et al., 1995; Hadaya and Pellerin, 2008; Zhu et al., 2010; Rusly et al. 2012). The strategic nature of IT changes in an organization, combined with the low rate of acceptance and the high rate of implementation failure make readiness to change an important topic for both researchers and practitioners (Iacovou et al. 1995; Jha et al. 2009; Snyder and Fields 2006). Even though many studies have focused on the determinants of employees’ IT adoption and use (Venkatesh, Morris & Davis, 2003, Walsh et al. 2010), low adoption rates are still seen as a major impediment to successful IT change. Moreover, many IS implementation failures are attributed to human/organizational issues rather than technical problems (Au et al., 2008; Walsh et al. 2010). As IRFC is an individual level construct, it also involves the individuals’ culture (Walsh et al. 2010)
Culture is believed to be an important factor in the acceptance and effective use of
practice and brings forward the cultural dimension in IT usage. Similar to the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM, Davis, 1989 and its derivatives) and the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology model (UTAUT, Venkatesh, Thong & Xu, 2012), IT culture aims to link an individuals’ IT needs and personal characteristics to adoption behaviour and usage behaviour. Walsh & Kefi (2008) constructed 9 archetypes based on differentiated IT needs. Subsequent research focused on the influence of the archetypes on usage behaviour (Walsh, 2014).
Even though there is a comprehensive list of studies on how IT needs and personal
characteristics influence adoption and usage behaviour (Walsh, 2014; Venkatesh, Thong & Xu, 2012; Davis, 1989), very little attention is given to the actual concept of individual IT readiness to change (Paré et al., 2011). The literature on IT culture, TAM and UTAUT all regard IT adoption and usage based on a specific IT, with a specific software or hardware in mind (Walsh, 2014; Venkatesh, Thong & Xu, 2012; Davis, 1989). Individual IT readiness to change, however, is a broader concept. It does not necessarily confine to a specific software or hardware. Moreover, all literature on IT culture focuses on IT adoption and usage. This paper aims to study the influence of IT culture on individual IT readiness to change. Additionally, this paper aims to find evidence of IT culture’s influence on individual readiness to change on a general level. Therefore, this paper aims to elaborate on the existing literature on IT culture using the following research question:
How does IT culture influence individual IT readiness to change?
As an addition, this literature aims to extend the literature on IT culture by testing the antecedents that influence IT culture.
For this research, the data will be gathered from two healthcare organizations in the
means of control or a source of creativity, something you protect and hoard, something you share, whether it is more valuable hard and quantitative or soft and qualitative (Boddy, Boonstra & Kennedy, 2008). This will inherently influence how sub-units perceive an information system. Moreover, following the line of reasoning set out by the Social Identity Theory and virtual onion model (SIT, Tajfel & Turner, 1979; Straub, Loch, Evaristo, Karahanna & Srite, 2002), the data of this study will be measured at the individual level as each person is the product of various cultural identity layers (national, organizational, ethnic etc.). This will be described in more detail in the subsequent theoretical background. The methodology used in this research will be based on the variables that constitute IT culture and the dimensions of individual readiness. Semi-structured interviews with 18 interviewees will be conducted and analyzed based on the steps of Corbin and Strauss (2008). As Isabella (1990) states, qualitative methods provide incredibly rich change specific information. Moreover, qualitative research enables researchers to identify structures through the patterns displayed by individual behaviour and such approaches allow for the detailed and meaningful examination of underlying values, beliefs and assumptions. As a result, a rich account of the cultural dynamics and complexity within an organization can be identified (Morey and Morey, 1994; Yauch and steudel, 2003).
Theoretical background
In this section of the thesis, more in depth knowledge will be provided about the
context of the given research as well as a synthesis of the conducted research on both IT culture and Individual readiness to change. As this research will be conducted at two large healthcare organizations in the north of the Netherlands, first an introduction to the healthcare industry is given explaining the differences to other industries.
Context
2004; Mitchel & Sullivan, 2001). There are also financial gains associated with healthcare information technologies adoption. Healthcare information technologies adoption improves financial performance based on return on assets, cash flow ratio, operating margin, operating income and net inpatient revenue (Menachemi et al., 2005). However, implementation of these healthcare information technologies is still not as widespread. In fact, the health care industry is lagging behind other major industries in information technology adoption (DesRoches et al., 2008; Jha et al., 2009). One of the major impediments to implementation is the concern about the performance impacts of healthcare information technologies systems. Physicians fear that these systems will not fully meet their needs (DesRoches et al. 2008), or even worse, decrease clinical efficiency and effectiveness (Simon et al. 2007). General acceptance of information technology in healthcare is problematic (Chismar & Wiley-Patton, 2002). Goh, Gao and Agarwal (2011) claim that previous studies have not shed much light on a critical precondition for hospital information technology impact: the vexing issue of what it takes for a Hospital information technologies system to be effectively implemented. The absence of such an understanding will inevitably constrain the ability of healthcare organizations to fully appropriate value from their IT investments (p.565). Paré, Sicotte, Poba-Nzaou & Balouzakis (2011) pose the question why clinical information systems are often strongly resisted by the same community that is expected to benefit from its use.
Resistance to IT systems implemented in health care manifests itself through boycotts
IT culture
As previously mentioned, this paper will research the relation between IT culture and Individual readiness to change. In this section, a more in depth analysis of existing literature on culture and IT culture in specific is given.
Culture is not something that you manipulate easily. Attempts to grab it and twist it into shape never work because you can’t grab it. Culture changes only after you have successfully altered people’s behaviour, followed by their attitudes toward the change. This will eventually influence the underlying values (Kotter, 1996, p.157)
One of the earliest accounts of culture was set by Edward Tylor in 1871. He described culture as the entire set of knowledge, beliefs and customs held by members of a society (Smith & Graetz, 2011). Pettigrew (1979) was the first to introduce the concept on an organizational level, which resulted in the blooming of studies on organizational culture ever since (Smith & Graetz, 2011). Most of the subsequent literature emphasized the measurement of deeply held values for the sake of organizational change. This method has been adopted and supported by many authors (Burnes, 2009). Its popularity has shifted the view on culture towards a great ‘cure-all’ for the majority of organisational ills (Wilson, 1992).
Culture is a very difficult concept to define. As early as the 1950’s, Kroeber and
can be isolated, described and manipulated). Hofstede (1990), Schein (1985) and Cummings and Huse (1989) all used a multilevel approach to culture, basic assumptions at the centre, values in the middle and artefacts/symbols in the most outer layer. Cultural artefacts are the most prominent and visible of the elements. They can include art, technology, myths, language, rituals and ceremony (Pettigrew, 1979). Basic assumptions are seen as the core of an individual’s culture, representing the belief systems that individuals have towards human behaviour, relationships, reality and truth (Schein, 1985). However, in order to study these cultural elements, many studies focus on values as they are more easily studied than basic assumptions, and easier to decipher than artefacts (Schein, 1985). Values can be seen as a set of social norms that define the rules or context for social interaction through which people act and communicate (David and Fahey, 2000; Keesing, 1974; Nadler and Tushman, 1988). In other words, values define how people interact with certain organizational elements such as information technology.
There is a large range of studies that focused on how national and organizational
In their work, they aim to add to the work of Straub et al. (2002) and their model of the individual’s culture. Straub et al. (2002) developed the virtual onion metaphor depicting the different layers of sub-cultures (Ethnic, national, organizational, professional etc.) that combined; make up the individual’s global culture. As the combinations of cultures and their relative dominance is unique for every individual, Straub et al. (2002) claim that culture needs to be analyzed on an individual level. Even more specific, the combination and relative dominance of these cultures is context dependant.
This view is build upon the theoretical lens of Social Identity Theory (SIT, Tajfel,
1970, 1979). In SIT, individuals perceive that they either belong to a group or not. This defines whether they are part of the “ingroup” or the “outgroup”. They act according to their own position and value others based on their identity in relation to a social group. Straub (2002) and subsequent research (Gallivan and Srite, 2005; Karahanna et al., 2005, 2006; Srite and Karahanna, 2006) used the SIT to develop, and elaborate on, the virtual onion model. This view allows for identification based on the three complementary perspectives on culture as set forward by Kappos and Rivard (2008). These are: integration, fragmentation and differentiation. These perspectives provide a framework for delineating cultural features in human settings. The difference is the level at which differentiation is acknowledged. Integration means that each sub-cultural layer is the direct result from group memberships. Fragmentation means that culture takes into consideration the various sub-cultures within the individual global culture, which could result in conflicting values. Differentiation means that an individual’s culture is the result from a unique combination of group cultures.
Both the virtual onion model and IT culture apply the differentiation perspective. The
implication of this view is methodological. It means that in order to assess a sub-culture at the group level, first an assessment at the individual level is performed. Subsequently, average central tendencies are identified.
Walsh, 2008 aims to add to the work on the virtual onion by adding an extra
dimension to the individual’s cultural framework. They aim to analyze the positioning of the individual with respect to IT, his/her perception of IT, his /her use of IT, his/her norms, beliefs and values linked to IT.
They argue that the three sublevels (audible & visual behaviours, values and
to IT culture, thus focusing on IT values to asses IT culture. Moreover, Rokeach (1973) stated that values are the result of an individual’s needs and the needs of his environment. He claimed that needs have to be processed through group norms in order to be cognitively represented and transformed into values. He also claimed that values have a strong motivational component. This is why the concept of IT culture has its foundation in needs theory and motivation. Needs theory states that an unsatisfied need will lead an individual to act in such a way as to satisfy it (Au et al., 2008). Needs guide behaviour and consists of primary needs (biological) and secondary needs (personality) (Maslow, 1954). In social psychology literature needs are seen as an antecedent to motivation (Walsh, Kefi & Baskerville, 2010). IT culture is measured through IT needs, fundamental needs satisfied through IT and IT motivation (Walsh et al. 2010). Even though the construct is studied on an individual level, identification of central average tendencies allows for sub-group analysis. In the following table, the three concepts and various dimensions of IT culture as brought forward by Walsh et al. (2010) are shown. These concepts and dimensions are then used for the interpretation of user profiles.
Concept Dimensions Description
Situational IT needs Need for specific IT in order to fulfil
given tasks
Contextual IT needs Need to use IT globally in some context
IT needs
Global IT needs Need for IT in all aspects of one’s life
Primary need satisfied through IT usage
Using IT because he/she finds it
enjoyable. If this need is high, users find it difficult to let go of their IT tools. It can become an addiction
Power need satisfied through IT usage
People use their knowledge and mastery of IT to gain status and influence other people and their wellbeing.
Affiliation need satisfied through IT usage
Using IT to socialize and share with other people
Fundamental needs satisfied through IT
Self accomplishment needs satisfied through IT usage
Using IT to overcome obstacles, surpassing themselves and feeling satisfied when they master their IT tools.
interesting. Extrinsic motivation,
external regulation
Users are told to use it by their
environment. They do not use it out of free will.
Extrinsic motivation, identified regulation
Users choose to make use of IT through a self-determined choice. They know they need it to fulfil their tasks. Their goals are congruent with their IT usage.
Walsh et al. (2010) state that an individual’s IT culture is the result of their membership to a given users group. These are informal user groups not limited by organizational or departmental boundaries. These groups are defined as archetypes. Each archetype has its own distinguishing characteristics that allow for differentiation of other archetypes. These differences are reflected in the unique combinations of above-mentioned variables. With the development of these archetypes, Walsh et al (2010) thus defined IT culture on the group level while gathering data on the individual level. Walsh, Kefi & Baskerville (2010), found that these profiles result from both an acquired cultural component and innate individual idiosyncrasies. This acquired component, therefore allows for a, albeit limited, influence and direction of an individual’s IT culture. Below, the model for assessing an individuals’ archetype is provided.
IT motivation Fundamental needs
satisfied through IT
Dangerous x x x x x x Proactive Passionate x Some times x x x x x Proactive Interested x Some times x x x Proactive or passive Disciplined x x Some times x x x x Proactive or passive Frightened x Some times x x x Passive Disenchanted x Some times x x x Passive Constrained x Some times x x x passive Dodger x x x Refusal
Due to the difficult nature of assessing culture, change managers resort to using typologies, categorizing stakeholders into ideal boxes. This limits the duration of assessment but could also influence the accuracy in describing the nuances in organizational culture (Smith & Graetz, 2011). These archetypes are an idealization of a pure cultural form that is unlikely to occur in nature (Walsh, Kefi & Baskerville, 2010). However, the combination of several archetypes, called culture hybrids, is closer to reality. Most users demonstrate two or more archetypal profiles with one dominant IT archetype.
In the following literature, a description of all above-mentioned archetypes is
provided. All these archetypes are differentiated on both motivation and needs theory, which in turn is linked to culture (Rokeach, 1973).
There are three altitudinal groups, pro-active, passive and refusal. These are informal
groups in the corporate setting (Barnard, 1938). These attitudes reflect the behaviour of users when confronted with IT use.
The studious users (Walsh, Kefi & Baskerville, 2010) like to study many different
disciplines including IT. Even though they sometimes lack formal training, they still influence others through their intrinsic motivation to know IT. Their eagerness to learn also allows them to study IT more thorough. Their self-accomplishment needs are satisfied through IT usage and an intrinsic IT motivation to accomplish. This group closely resembles the group of innovators put forward by Rogers (2003).
The Dangerous user (Walsh, Kefi & Baskerville, 2010) also participates in many
different IT projects but for different reasons than the former. Their voluntary involvement is used to improve their position in the hierarchy. Even though their formal training and organisational position does not make them obvious choices for this project they will try to use and often abuse IT in order to satisfy their need for power.
The Passionate user (Walsh, Kefi & Baskerville, 2010) is so intertwined with IT use
that they cannot function without IT in their every day life. For the passionate user, it is a passion, in some cases an addiction. This archetype uses IT for personal satisfaction. They are so connected to IT that using it becomes a primary need. They are IT dependant.
The interested user (Walsh, Kefi & Baskerville, 2010) enjoys learning about IT and
therefore very open to any newly introduced IT tool. They have an intrinsic motivation to know, but are aware of the addictive properties of IT so they aim not to be captivated by IT tools as much as the passionate user. They do see IT as a necessity but the dominant use happens in the work place.
The passive user group has a more extrinsic motivation to use IT. They feel compelled to use it in order to connect to their peers. They will use IT to the minimum requirements unless a situational or contextual need arises. This group incorporates the disciplined, the frightened, the disenchanted and the constrained archetype.
The disciplined user (Walsh, Kefi & Baskerville, 2010) see IT as just another tool.
efficient in the use of IT once mastered, but they will not go beyond what is necessary to perform their own tasks.
The frightened user (Walsh, Kefi & Baskerville, 2010) associated IT use with fear.
They feel they do not have the ability to use IT properly, they feel inadequate. They avoid learning IT in fear of failure. They occasionally show signs of amotivation. They satisfy their IT contextual needs in a work context, but there is no personal commitment. They score high on the extrinsic motivation through identified regulation variable. They limit their use of IT to that imposed by the company or society. IT anxiety has been studied on many occations (Cambre & Cook, 1985; Howard & Mendelow, 1991; Marcoulides, 1988; Mc Elroy et al. 2007). It is often a temporal user profile as people become educated about IT and their anxiety declines. With increased exposure and behavioural changes, it will influence the underlying IT values.
The disenchanted user (Walsh, Kefi & Baskerville, 2010) belongs to this archetype
due to their previous encounters with unsuccessful IT changes. They had high hopes for IT based change that was not satisfied. As a result they minimize their IT needs and use IT to a bare minimum. They expect IT tools to fail and show strong signs of amotivation. They focus their frustration towards the IT department instead of IT itself. They resent the obligatory nature of IT and do not like to talk about the subject. In the context of Bhattacherjee, 2001; Bhattacherjee & Premkumar, 2004) they went from initial acceptance and adoption towards refusal.
The constrained user (Walsh, Kefi & Baskerville, 2010) know that IT plays a central
role in today’s organization, but they believe that it does not improve their work quality. They only use IT on a situational base. They show signs of amotivation in their capacity-ability beliefs, capacity-effort beliefs and helplessness (Pelletier et al., 1997)
There is only one archetype in the refusal group, the dodger. They see IT as something they will always avoid at any cost. Their IT needs are non-existent.
The concept of IT culture has many similarities to the well-known Technology
Koufaris, 2002; Lin & Bhattacherjee, 2010; van der Heijden, 2004). However, the antecedents incorporated in both TAM and the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) offer a reference point for the analysis of IT culture and its influence on readiness to change (Venkatesh et al., 2003; Venkatesh & Bala, 2013).
Individual readiness to change
This research sets of to analyze the influence these IT culture variables (IT needs, fundamental needs satisfied through IT and IT motivation) have on the employees’ Individual IT readiness to change. The concept of readiness to change was first introduced through the re-interpretation of the work of Coch and French (1948) by Bartlem and Locke (1981) and Gardner (1977). Coch and French (1948) discovered the effect various forms of employee participation had on productivity and satisfaction during times of change. The more participation, the more satisfied employees were. This view altered the view of the academic field from resistance centred towards change readiness, a more positive perspective (Kotter, 1996; Kotter & Schlesinger, 1979; Lawrence, 1954). Holt and Vardaman (2013) defined readiness for organizational change as:
The degree to which those involved are individually and collectively primed, motivated and technically capable of executing a change.
factors (the circumstances of a change) and the level of analysis (individual and organizational level). The individual difference factors involve individual attitudes, beliefs and intentions. These are often described using the transtheoretical model of change (Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983). This model states that change goes through 5 cognitive stages being precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action and maintenance. Readiness to change resembles the preparation stage. The individual difference factors are often reflected in the attitudes and beliefs about the need for change, the appropriateness of the change, the amount of management support and the value for change (Armenakis et al., 1993; Eby, Adams, Russel & Gaby, 2000; Wanberg & Banas, 2000). An individual’s previous experiences with organizational change have a strong influence on ones readiness. If previous experiences have predominantly seen unfavourable outcomes, the individual will become more cynical and disillusioned with regard to upcoming changes (Cawsey, Deszca & Ingols, 2011). This is also seen in the frightened IT user archetype (Walsh, Kefi & Baskerville, 2010). Below, a visual representation is given of the variables that gauge individual readiness for change (Armenakis et al., 1993; Armenakis & Harris, 2009; Hol, Armenakis, Harris & Field, 2007).
Level of analysis Individual difference factors
Individual Precontemplation and preparation:
planning to take action in the near future
Appropriateness: Belief of the individual
that this change is correct for the given circumstances.
Principal support: the belief that both
formal and informal leaders support, and are committed to the success of this change initiative.
Change efficacy: The belief that the
individual can successfully adapt to the change.
Valence: Believing that the change is
This model is a synthesis of two systematic literatures conducted previously (Holt & Vardaman, 2013).
As previously mentioned, this paper will research the influence IT culture has on an
individual’s readiness to IT change. As IT culture is measured on the individual level, this study will apply the individual level variables of readiness to change (Holt & Vardaman, 2013). Therefore, the following conceptual model is provided.
Previous literature on both IT culture and the TAM and UTAUT model have linked personal characteristics to intention to use or usage behaviour. They concluded that usage behaviour is largely dependant on variables such as: perceived enjoyment, computer self efficacy, computer anxiety etc. Therefore, we expect to find a similar link in relation to readiness to change.
attitude into the literature of readiness to change based on the affective (e.g. Stress, pleasantness), cognitive (e.g. Change evaluation, change beliefs) or behavioural reaction (Change recipient involvement, behavioural intentions, coping behaviours) to change. However, the work of Oreg et al. (2011) is focused solely on change, based on a reaction to a change. IT culture on the other hand focuses on an individual’s positioning with respect to IT, his/her perception of IT, his /her use of IT, his/her norms, beliefs and values linked to IT. The work on readiness to change sees attitudes as a more context dependent explicit reaction to change (pleasantness, change evaluation, coping behaviours), whereas IT culture is focused on more fundamental values attributed to IT (primary IT need, intrinsic motivation etc.). However, there are some similarities that need to be acknowledged. The frightened user has a strong correlation to change anxiety (Paterson and Cary, 2002), additionally Oreg (2006) used fear of change as an example of an affective reaction to change. Moreover, needs have been addressed in both individual readiness to change and IT culture (Oreg et al. 2011; Walsh, 2010). However, individual readiness to change has a more limited approach to the needs theory. It does not incorporate the needs variables as set forward in the IT culture literature stream (e.g. primary need, power IT need, etc.) Even though some conceptual overlap exists between two constructs, readiness to change is more change and context specific whereas IT culture is about a more fundamental analysis of ones IT values. This is not change specific. Therefore, it can be concluded that even though overlaps do exist, the constructs are designed to measure different aspects of an individual’s characteristics.
In this section, a thorough literature analysis was provided on both IT culture and
Individual IT readiness to change. For both constructs, the variables of IT culture and the dimensions of readiness to change were provided and explained, as they are central to the analysis of both IT culture and Individual IT readiness to change.
RESEARCH METHOD
systematic classification process of coding and identifying themes or patterns” (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005, p.1278).
Data collection
For this paper, a qualitative, content analysis approach was applied in order to find out how IT culture influences an individual’s readiness to change. Conducting this case analysis was based on the research as put forward in the introduction as well as the variables put forward in the theoretical background. Moreover, this research set out to apply the dual use of both quantitative and qualitative data by means of interviews and a survey. However, due to the sensitive nature of the construct individual readiness to change, the quantitative research was discontinued in de midst of the process. Managers believed this questionnaire would create stress and resistance in both organizations. Therefore, the qualitative research has been conducted using in-depth semi-structured interviews with 18 individuals from both companies and from different departments. The method of data collection and the position of respondents were identical within both organizations as it allows for replication logic (Hersen & Barlow, 1976). These interviews were conducted using snowball sampling as one respondent of each company provided 8 other respondents that would aid the aim of this study (Arksey & Knight, 1999; Weiss, 1994). These personal contacts were the key informants for both companies allocating the correct individuals for the in-depth interviews. This way of selecting participants was needed, as the size of the sample is relatively small. Theoretical sampling increases internal validity at the cost of external validity (Gersick, 1988). In both companies, individuals from three different departments were asked to participate. The IT department, healthcare providers and managers were addressed in order to study whether certain IT cultural archetypes were dominant in certain subgroups. Moreover, Individual readiness to change can differ considerably amongst employees. Studying both constructs on an individual level allows for generalization towards a dominant IT culture or view towards change on a sub group level.
The 18 interviews lasted between 20 to 45 minutes. The interview protocol (appendix
focused on how their readiness for change was influenced by characteristics of the change and themselves. This study did not measure IT as a specific technology, rather it studied the concept of IT. The reason for this deviation of the work of Walsh et al. (2010) is that at the time of the data-gathering phase of this study, no specific choices were made about specific systems. Therefore, this study is change specific, IT specific but not software specific.
Case description
Below, a short summary of the demographics of the 18 respondents is provided.
Characteristics Company A Company B
Gender Male 6 4 Female 3 5 Age 26-59 25-55 Job IT-department 3 3 Healthcare provider 3 3 Manager 3 3
Moreover, below a list of characteristics of both companies is given.
Characteristics Company A Company B
Industry Mental Health Care Mental Health Care
Employees 2237 1489
Locations 165 80
Clients 3535 2324
change and the exact same environment. Any differences in their view on IT and organizational change can be derived from their own personal views rather than context.
Both companies are similar in their IT dependence, services provided and external environment as they are geographically located in close vicinity. Moreover, both companies are seen as representative for their use of IT as they are neither lagging nor innovative in their use of IT. This allows for better external validity towards other healthcare organizations in the same industry.
Data analysis
In order to analyse the semi-structured interviews, all interviews were transcribed and categorized based on the companies and their sub groups. For this research qualitative content analysis was used as it focuses on the characteristics of language as communication with attention to the content or contextual meaning of the text (Budd, Thorp & Donohew, 1967; Lindkvist, 1981; McTavish & Pirro, 1990; Tesch, 1990). This analysis was partly based on the existing literature on both IT culture and Readiness for change. Due to the pre-existing literature, the directed approach to content analysis, also referred to as the deductive coding method, is most applicable (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005; Potter & Levine-Donnerstein, 1999). The variables of both IT culture and Readiness for change were used to construct the initial coding scheme as described by Potter & Levine-Donnerstein (1999). Additionally, the coding scheme incorporated initial codes to identify the expected influence IT culture has on readiness for change. Throughout the coding process, codes were added based on relevant statements that implied influence between both concepts and statements that could not be categorized based on the initial coding scheme. One of the major challenges in the deductive coding method is researcher bias (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). However, as the previous theory is based on both individual concepts rather than the influence between these concepts, the pre-existing literature will only partly bias the researcher. Moreover, the initial operational definitions of both concepts were presented to an unbiased auditor before initiating the coding process.
When all interviews were coded, archetypes were determined based on the table
dominant archetype.
For every participant, the correct dominant archetype was determined in order to
RESULTS
In this result section, a detailed report of the findings is provided that will aid in the understanding of how IT culture influences individual IT readiness to change. The extensive list of interview quotes are provided in Appendix B, Interview quotes.
IT archetypes
The first step towards the analysis of the qualitative data is determining the dominant archetype of all participants. Subsequently, average tendencies and dominant archetypes are assessed on a sub-group level. This method is inspired by the work of Kappos and Rivard (2008). Their differentiation perspective on culture states that in order to assess a sub-culture on a group level, first an individual assessment is made, after which central average tendencies are identified (Walsh, Kefi & Baskerville, 2010). This analysis is based on both the table presented above and the description of all archetypes provided by Walsh, Kefi & Baskerville (2010). The list is provided below.
Respondent 1 Studious Respondent 2 Studious/interested IT-department Respondent 3 Studious/interested Respondent 4 Disciplined Respondent 5 Constrained Healthcare provider Respondent 6 Passionate
Respondent 7 Interested/ disciplined
As can be derived from this data, it is clear that the IT-departments in both companies have the most homogeneous distribution of IT archetypes. The dominant archetype of IT-department employees is: interested. They are intrinsically motivated to use IT in all aspects of their lives and enjoy learning new aspects of IT. However, their dominant use of IT is work related.
[Respondent #1] It is not like I use IT only in certain situations, I use it in every aspect
of my life. If I look at how I use my phone, I always have it with me, and I use it for fun. If you work with IT, it is your primary activity, and I like that.
[Respondent #11] It is my job, but more so a hobby. Creating your profession out of
your hobby is the most beautiful thing in the world. I do it for fun, and I enjoy using IT. I mostly use it at work though.
[Respondent #12] I obviously work with computers most of the time. I really enjoy
that, but I’m not spending day and night working with IT. I’m not a nerd or a geek…I also have a social life.
The healthcare providers showed the smallest amount of proactive attitude. Within the healthcare providers sub group, the disciplined archetype, which falls under the passive user group, was most prevalent. Disciplined users are defined as competent and well trained but without a specific interest in IT. They do however familiarize themselves with IT that allows them to do their work more efficient.
[Respondent #5] For many in this company, ICT is a substantial part of their life. But
if you ask me, I just use it for my tasks, and not a whole lot more.
[Respondent #14] …I am not so developed in IT, but it sure has its value, I’m “in” the
system. I am not a complete idiot when it comes to IT, but to say I have lots of knowledge…no.
[Respondent #6] I do not need to know everything from IT, but I like to learn about it
and see what it can do for us.
proactive attitude of the whole sample. As a passionate IT user, she showed signs of near IT addiction.
[Respondent #6] I can’t imagine a life without IT. Well, I could, but it would be very
difficult for me.
I use IT in all facets of life, during work, in my break. Not because I have to, but because I really see the value of using IT.
Additionally, another extreme was found in the healthcare providers sub group. Respondent 5 showed the least amount of proactive attitude as she holds the constrained IT archetype.
[Respondent #5] IT plays a mandatory role in my life. I do not use it for fun.
I never enjoy IT because it’s slow at work; I have to register all kinds of stuff. I long back to the times I could just use pen and paper.
I am really annoyed by the use of that software. Loading takes way too long and the functionality is very low. It used to be much easier when things were written down on paper.
The managers showed the most heterogeneous distribution in IT archetypes. However, most belonged to the proactive user type. Two managers that showed signs of the disciplined user archetype stated that they used to be more proactive in their use of IT but as the possibilities in IT grew, they became more passive in their use of IT.
[Respondent #9] It used to be a hobby, when the Internet was first introduced; it was
nice to see what the possibilities were. Nowadays, I cannot think of something that is not already available. Everything is made, everything is invented, that is why I’m not that into it anymore.
[Respondent #7] Some people want to know everything in specific software; I used to
IT culture influence on Individual IT readiness to change
Our findings suggest that there are several types of influence of IT culture on
Individual IT readiness to change. In the following section, all variables of both IT culture and individual IT readiness to change that came up in the interviews are discussed. The statements of the respondents were based on several types of relations. These are: The influence of IT culture in general on Individual IT readiness to change; Influence of variables of IT culture on Individual IT readiness to change; The influence of IT culture in general on specific dimensions of Individual IT readiness to change and lastly the influence of variables of IT culture on variables of Individual IT readiness to change. These different types of statements are discussed in separate sections of the results. The results section will close of with additional statements that are relevant for this research.
Influence of IT culture on Individual IT readiness to change.
Statements in this section of the results imply general statements of how IT culture influences Individual IT readiness to change. These incorporate all statements that could not be defined on the basis of the variables of IT culture. Most statements involve the innate capability to work with IT and IT based change. It also claims that due to the changing nature of IT, people are more experienced in adapting to a rapidly changing environment. This is exemplified in the following two quotes:
[Respondent #1] If you work with IT a lot, you will inherently face changes because IT
is constantly changing. So you are more experienced in change. Some people are not particularly interested in IT and are therefore more resistant to change.
[Respondent # 8] When referring to why his IT use influences his readiness to change
The expiry date of products in the digital world is much shorter, my grandfather used his shovel his entire life, I change my tools at least once every year…That is where the readiness comes from.
There was however one respondent who stated that strong IT users have the risk of becoming too focused on IT, forgetting the bigger picture. The respondent claims that this could have a negative influence on change readiness.
[Respondent # 5] I feel that those people who are constantly skyping or who knows
change. I think they risk getting too focused on all their little IT projects and lose sight of the bigger picture.
5 out of 18 respondents mentioned the general relation between IT culture and readiness to change. 10 out of 12 quotes came from employees of company B.
Global IT needs influence on Individual IT readiness to change.
Global IT need is seen as the need for IT in all aspects of one’s life (Walsh,
Kefi & Baskerville, 2010). Strong evidence of its influence on Individual IT readiness was presented in the qualitative data. Primarily due to their experience with IT in their private lives, people are more willing to change in an organizational setting. Their personal experiences allow them to educate others. A strong need for IT is therefore a positive moderator for Individual IT readiness to change. This not only extends to IT based change, but change in general. This is reflected in the following quote:
[Respondent #8] It is not necessarily just about IT. People that use IT a lot in private
and in their career have different personal characteristics. Large IT users, enthusiastic IT users are different types of people than those that resist IT… I think that’s the real difference between people that use IT and those who don’t, IT users change easier.
Respondents even stated that people are searching for solutions to problems
they face at work. This Self-accomplishment accompanied by their global IT need has a strong influence on their Individual IT readiness to change, as they are providing the direction for change themselves.
[Respondent #14] I believe that people who use their phone often, or technology in
general, are more susceptible to organizational IT change. People are looking for IT applications at home that they can use in a professional setting, which is something we can use and ask for as an organization.
8 out of 18 respondents confirmed this link.
Primary IT need influence on Individual IT readiness to change.
Primary IT need is referred to as finding it enjoyable to use IT (Walsh et al.,
showing more signs of Individual IT readiness to change. 14 out of 18 respondents linked primary IT need with Individual IT readiness to change.
Respondents often link primary IT need to a progressive attitude, wanting to evolve. For instance:
[Respondent #2] People who are adept in using IT are interested in IT and the
changes that are coming. We enjoy using IT; we want to move forward in the use of it. We do not want to stay the same. We are progressive.
However, there was a considerable overlap between people who regarded
intrinsic motivation and primary IT need as synonyms.
[Respondent #18] Intrinsic or extrinsic motivation, translated as do you enjoy it or see
it as a means to an end, whether that matters, I don’t know. It is more about if you see it as a solution to a problem or a necessity to gain access to information.
Moreover, Intrinsic motivation is defined as (Walsh et al., 2014) users enjoy using most IT and find IT interesting in itself. Whereas primary need is defined as, one uses IT because one finds it enjoyable. When this need is high, users find it difficult to let go of their IT tools.
In earlier research, Intrinsic IT motivation was subdivided in motivation to
know, to accomplish and to experience stimulation (Walsh, 2009). However, in the item reduction phase, motivation to accomplish loaded with self-accomplishment needs and motivation to experience stimulation loaded with primary IT need. This concludes that intrinsic motivation to know is more about enjoying the learning process, whereas primary IT need is about enjoying the use of IT.
9 out of 18 respondents confirmed the relation between primary IT need and Individual IT readiness to change.
Self-accomplishment needs influence on Individual IT readiness to change.
Self-accomplishment is defined as overcoming obstacles through the use of IT,
change.
Additionally, a link was provided between how Global IT need influences the
experience with self-accomplishment, which in turn influences Individual IT readiness to change.
[Respondent #7] I believe that it helps a lot if people use IT in their private life as well.
They see that IT makes things easier, and because of that, find it easier to adapt to changes in IT at work too.
[Respondent #8] I think interest in IT plays an important role in readiness to change.
People get satisfaction out of working with IT and mastering it.
[Respondent #17] I believe that the technology we have now, and what changes can do
for people and how they can benefit, the speed, the clarity it can provide, that definitely has an influence on my readiness to change. Time is money so if IT changes can make things more efficient, I think it is a positive thing.
6 out of 18 respondents confirmed that this relation exists.
Extrinsic motivation, identified regulation influence on Individual IT readiness to change.
Extrinsic motivation, identified regulation is defined as: users choose to use IT
through a self-determined choice. They know they need IT in order to achieve purposes that they find important (Walsh et al., 2014). Even though people are not necessarily intrinsically motivated to use IT, they can still see the benefits that IT can bring to their professional life. It is noteworthy that there is only one respondent of the IT department that established this link in our qualitative data. Moreover, 4 out of the 5 respondents are from company B. Even though most links are distributed even amongst both companies, this link is not as dominant in company A.
[Respondent #5] When referring to how IT culture influences her readiness to change:
The respondents that made this link were all showing signs of extrinsic motivation, identified regulation themselves. 5 out of 18 respondents stated that their extrinsic motivation did influence their readiness to change.
Intrinsic motivation influence on Individual IT readiness to change.
Intrinsic motivation is seen as finding IT interesting in itself. Users enjoy using
most IT (Walsh et al., 2014). From the variables of IT culture, this variable was most prominent throughout the interviews. As already mentioned, the difference between primary IT need and intrinsic motivation is a subtle one. Intrinsic motivation is seen as enjoying to gain knowledge of IT rather than the mere use of it. From the research it became clear that people using IT for their own enjoyment to gain knowledge are generally more responsive to changes as they are more curious in nature.
[Respondent #2] There are many who enjoy learning more about IT and the changes
that we are facing in the upcoming year. They enjoy using IT, they want to move forward.
One respondent even stated that affinity with IT is a precondition to good performance in their occupation.
[Respondent #7] Affinity with IT allows people to change easier. In fact, if people do
not possess the affinity with IT, they will have a difficult time to do their job, especially here at the central bureau.
10 out of 18 respondents confirmed this link. Interestingly, there were no links found in the IT department of group B.
IT culture influence on change efficacy.
Change efficacy is defined as feeling that the individual is capable that they
can make the change successful (Holt & Vardaman, 2013). Of all the codes referring to the relation between IT culture and change efficacy, this code was most prominent in the qualitative data. Respondents claim that curiosity and intrinsic IT motivation to know are large influences on their confidence that they are able to change.
[Respondent #5] I do have the insight that I believe will help me through this change.
understand something. But I like learning about IT and I am sure that if we were to choose for another direction, I would be able to cope with that.
Moreover, the changing nature of IT helps people to get used to change.
Respondents indicated that because they use IT a lot, they are used to change and feel capable about upcoming changes because of it.
[Respondent #1] If you work with IT tools a lot, you will face changes often, and there
is always something new and interesting. So you are capable in changing.
14 out of the 18 respondents felt that their IT motivation and IT needs had an influence on how they regarded their capability to cope with the upcoming changes.
IT culture influence on valence.
Valence is the belief that the change is beneficial to the individual (Holt &
Vardaman, 2013). Even though not as many respondents confirmed this claim, most of the quotes refer to the link between self-accomplishment needs and valence. People value the change as positive because it allows them to be more productive and efficient using the new system.
[Respondent #6] When referring to whether they feel this change is going to be valuable. I am sure that because I like to work with IT that much, I will be able to help
others in their change. If the system is indeed more efficient and better than we have right now, I will be able to work quicker and be more productive.
6 out of 18 respondents confirmed this link between IT culture and Valence. Influences on IT culture.
In the earlier work on IT culture, influential personal characteristics were
identified that would need further examination in future research. Amongst these were Age and academic training (Walsh & Kefi, 2008). It was exactly these two moderators that came up in the qualitative data in this research.
Age was seen as a strong influence on their innate capability to work with IT.
Younger people are seen as more capable to work with IT, adapting to new situations more easy. This inherently has an effect on their readiness to change.
Some people claim that age has a strong influence on their intrinsic IT
[Respondent #6] It is very diverse and you can really link it to age. 50+ uses IT for
work, but hates it. They’d rather have pen and paper. 40+ has two groups, one half loves it and finds it easy, whereas the other half uses pen and paper too. That is mostly about how our systems sometimes malfunction and inhibits them to do their work properly. My generation, those between 28-35 all like using IT. We want to invest our time in learning new systems that help us work more efficient.
[Respondent #17] If you look at our new colleagues, they are constantly searching for
ways to make their work more efficient by using IT. There are always two groups, those who hold on to their old Nokia, and those that look for ways to improve their daily tasks using IT. You can see that these people have a more positive disposition to IT changes.
Another influence on IT culture was education level. Several respondents
linked the level of education to their IT culture. Due to their higher education, they are required to work with IT on a more regular basis, which in turn influences their IT culture creep (Walsh et al., 2010). Culture creep is referred to as the migration of an individual from one archetype to another, in this case more proactive one.
[Respondent #8] And while we are talking, I realize that education level is a large
influence too. If you look ate higher educated people, they are faster in using IT tools in comparison to people with a low education. These less educated employees do not need IT as much because they prefer to stand by the bed and help people instead of looking at a computer.
Moreover, another respondent claimed that more educated people show higher signs of IT accomplishment needs. However, he later acknowledged that his self-accomplishment needs were mostly influenced by his position and his experience with IT.
Mediating variables.
IT knowledge is seen as a mediating variable on the relation between IT culture
[Respondent #6] The employees in this company are not really ready to change. They
dislike change. That has a lot to do with the perceived difficulty. That is largely attributed to their knowledge of IT. If they would spend more time using IT, they would see the changes are not that hard.
Moreover, Global IT need is also linked to knowledge as one of the respondents states: [Respondent #12] Knowledge in building specific windows systems would have helped
me be more ready for change. I could do it but we have a colleague who is single, lives with his parents and works with IT day and night. He is working with IT all the time. For me it is just an 8-hour working day to gain the same knowledge as he does and that’s not possible.
11 out of 18 respondents confirmed the link of IT knowledge as a moderating variable between IT culture and individual readiness to change.
In this section of the paper, the results were presented and supported by quotes from
the data set. There were several types of relations being: General IT culture influence on general individual readiness to change, IT culture variables influence on general individual readiness to change, general IT culture influence on individual readiness to change variables, influences on IT culture and finally moderating variables between IT culture and Individual IT readiness to change. These are presented graphically below.
DISCUSSION
Culture is an important factor in the acceptance and effective use of information
technologies (Gallivan and Srite, 2005; Gallupe and Tan, 1999; Kappos and Rivard, 2008; Leidner and Kayworth, 2006; Straub et al., 2002; from Walsh et al., 2010). In this research, the goal was to answer the following research question:
How does IT culture influence individual IT readiness to change?
This study therefore contributes to the academic saturation of the concept of IT
culture. In the following section the results of this study are reflected on by means of comparison with existing literature on both concepts. Subsequently, for every relation found in the current research a proposition is constructed that could provide direction for further research.
Influence on IT culture
it did not however look for causal relation between their own IT culture and their age, as is common in qualitative research. This could influence how biased someone appraises their own IT culture resulting in different results. As our results show a strong causal relation between age and IT culture, we constructed the following proposition:
Proposition 1a: Age has a negative influence on IT culture
In previous studies, a link was found between someone’s academic education and their contextual IT needs (Post et al., 1999;Walsh et al., 2010). This influence is confirmed in the current study as respondents confirmed that people with higher education generally hold positions that require a more thorough use of IT. This, in turn, results in a higher contextual IT need.
Proposition 1b: Education has a positive influence on IT culture
IT culture variables influence on Individual IT readiness to change
There are several studies that research the attitude of individuals towards IT
Individual IT readiness to change has been found. Therefore the following proposition is set forward:
Proposition 2a: Global IT need has a positive influence on Individual IT readiness to
change
In this research, a link was found between primary IT need and Individual IT
readiness to change. Primary IT need is present in archetypes such as the studious and the passionate. Both archetypes are linked to a proactive attitude towards IT (Walsh et al. 2014). Moreover, the concept of Primary IT need is similar to ‘hedonic motivation’ as put forward in the UTAUT model (Brown & Venkatesh, 2005; Venkatesh, Thong & Xu, 2012). It is defined as the fun or pleasure derived from using a technology. Their research found hedonic motivation to play an important role in determining technology acceptance and use (Brown & Venkatesh, 2005; Venkatesh, Thong & Xu, 2012; van der Heijden, 2004; Thong et al., 2006). Walsh (2014) however, found that Global IT need had a negative influence on their situational IT need. This was mainly due to a more critical position towards the selected IT tools. Highly acculturated people were more aware of alternatives that suit their needs better. Therefore their situational IT needs were occasionally constrained. However, this study looked at readiness to IT change in general rather than software specific attitudes to IT, researching whether people with global IT needs in fact are more ready to change in IT. As this measures a different construct than the mere use of a specific IT, it is most likely the source of the deviation of earlier literature. Therefore, the link between primary IT need and Individual IT readiness to change is reflected in the following proposition.
Proposition 2b: Primary IT need has a positive influence on Individual IT readiness to
change.
Our study suggests there is a link between self-accomplishment needs and
performance expectancy. This is defined as the degree to which an individual believes that using the system will help him or her to attain gains in job performance. Performance expectancy has been argued to be the strongest predictor of behavioural intention to use IT. This study found similar results in relation to Individual IT readiness to change. Therefore, the following proposition is stated:
Proposition 2c: Self-accomplishment need has a positive influence on Individual IT
readiness to change.
Extrinsic motivation, identified regulation was the fourth variable of the IT
culture construct that was found to have a positive influence on Individual IT readiness to change. This variable is dominant in the studious and interested cultural archetype, however it is predominantly linked to the less acculturated archetypes with a more passive attitude towards IT use. However, this type of external motivation contains strong similarities with job relevance of the TAM3 model (Venkatesh & Bala, 2008). Job relevance is the individual’s perception regarding the degree to which the target system is relevant to his or her job. The concept of job relevance has an indirect effect on behavioural intention. Even though the concept of TAM3 focuses on a specific IT implementation, this link between job relevance and behavioural intention is similar to the link found in the current study. This link is materialized in the following proposition:
Proposition 2d: Extrinsic motivation, identified regulation has a positive influence on
Individual IT readiness to change.
Although primary IT need and intrinsic motivation do share some of their
Speier (1999) also suggest that intrinsic motivation has the potential to enhance acceptance and usage of new systems. It can be concluded that our research is congruent to closely related research on general motivation theory and intention to use IT. Therefore the following proposition is stated:
Proposition 2e: Intrinsic IT motivation has a positive influence on Individual IT
readiness to change.
IT culture influence on variables of Individual IT readiness to change
In our research, IT culture was found to have a large influence on change
efficacy. Change efficacy refers to the extent to which one feels that he or she has the skills and is able to execute the tasks and activities that are associated with the implementation of the prospective change. Walsh et al. (2010) claim that people create a need for IT in order to improve their computer self-efficacy. This in turn influences their beliefs in their own skills. Moreover, Self-efficacy influences an individuals’ intention to use (Agarwal & Prasad, 1998; Compeau et al., 1999; Venkatesh, 2000; Venkatesh & Bala, 2008). Regardless of how useful and easy to use the health IT is, steps will need to be taken to ensure that end users feel confident in their ability to use it (Holden & Karsch, 2010, p.166). According to Walsh (2010), IT acculturation influences ones computer self-efficacy, and previous research has linked self-efficacy with readiness to change (Hol & Vardaman, 2007). This results in the following proposition:
Proposition 3a: More acculturated IT culture has a positive influence on IT change
efficacy, moderated by computer self-efficacy.
It can be concluded that there is a relation between IT culture and valence. This
a technology will provide benefits to consumers is directly linked to behavioural intention to use IT. Therefore, the following proposition is constructed:
Proposition 3b: IT culture has a positive influence on IT change valence.
Mediating variables
Our data suggests that IT knowledge serves as a mediating variable between IT
culture and Individual IT readiness to change. IT knowledge has been used as a synonym for IT experience in earlier research (Walsh, 2014). Moreover, IT usage and intention to use is seen as a result of IT acculturation. As an individual learns more about IT, they create higher IT needs which in turn influences involvement, use, adoption and diffusion (Walsh, 2010; Walsh & Kefi, 2008). This is also referred to as the numerical culture, a set of skills linked to the mastering of IT knowledge (Proulx, 2001). Furthermore, in the readiness to change literature, job knowledge and skills is seen as a strong influence on readiness to change (Hanpachern, Morgan & Griego, 1998). Other research on the UTAUT and TAM3 model defines experience as a moderating variable for intention to use and use behaviour (Venkatesh, Thong & Xu, 2012; Venkatesh & Bala, 2008). However, they see experience as increased exposure to a specific IT that is already implemented. In contrast, this study focuses on how IT knowledge/ experience with previous IT, influences ones Individual IT readiness to change. This is not related to a specific IT that has already been implemented, but rather IT in general which is yet to be realized. Therefore, the following proposition is stated:
Proposition 4: IT knowledge has a mediating influence on Individual IT readiness to
change.
Theoretical implications
Beyond users’ situational IT needs, we propose paying strong attention to its antecedents – i.e., to users’ perceived global IT needs and contextual IT needs. Their direct explanatory power on the intention to use new software would be interesting to investigate.
(Walsh, 2014).
This study elaborates on, and sometimes contradicts, previous work on IT culture,
