01-09-1995    Paul van Soomeren Dream, nightmare and awakening; Experiences at the crossroads of townplanning, architecture, security and crime prevention – Dream, nightmare and awakening; Experiences at the crossroads of townplanning, architecture,

Dream, nightmare and awakening

Experiences at the crossroads of townplanning, architecture, security and crime prevention

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Paper by Paul van Soomeren

Van Dijk, Van Soomeren en Partners Amsterdam, The Netherlands

For: The International Forum on

Promoting Safer eities and Secure Housing September 1995

Tokyo, Japan

1 Introduction

On the other side of the world, several meters below sea-Ievel, a small European country called the Netherlands is strategically located between Germany, England and France.

Though more urbanized, the Netherlands can be compared with the Japanese island Kyushu. It has the same size, more or less the same number of inhabitants and, like Kyushu, the Netherlands is known for its close connection with the sea and . . . the export of tulips.

For centuries, Japan and the

Netherlands have kept close business relations. In the 17th Century, when all other foreigners were banned from Japan, Dutch merchants were

allowed to maintain a trading post on De-jima Island. In the past, Japan acquired knowledge on western medicine and shipbuilding from our countrymen and the Dutch learned from the Japanese how to make china-ware.

Nowadays, knowledge is exchanged on a much wider range of scientific areas su eh as land reclamation, agriculture and ... safe cities and secure housing.

The Netherlands is a small but densely populated country. It is about one tenth of the size of Japan and about a half percent the size of the U.S.A.

The number of inhabitants is also limited; a mere 15 million.

While the Netherlands is a small country in terms of land mass and number of inhabitants, it wins the competition for the most densely populated coun­

try in the world.

4.000 3.500 3.000 2.500 2.000 1.500 1.000 500

0 USA

Area

(in thousands of square miles)

Japan United Kingdom Netherlands

Population 1990

(in thousands)

280.000 �---'---r---.---, 240.000

200.000 160.000 120.000 80.000 40.000

o USA Japan United Kingdom Netherlands

Population density

(per square miles)

1.200 .---.---r---�----__,

1.000 1---4---+---+_-

800 1---4--

600 1---4--

400 1---1--

200 1---1--

o

u_--L

USA Japan United Kingdom Netherlands Page 3 Dream, nightmare and awakening -P. van Soomeren, DSP, Amsterdam/Tokyo

2 The Netherlands, land of the rising cnme

No one 30 years ago could imagine th at the Netherlands would have to prepare itself for a period in which crime would be one of the main problems in society today. In the nineteen sixties, crime rates in the Netherlands were among the lowest in the world, probably because of the specific social organization of Dutch society. Society was organized into th ree religious 'pillars'. From top to bottom, each pillar consisted of a weil knit and socially integrated network, maintaining strict control on the social behaviour of individuals within each pillar. At the same time, Dutch society was in general very liberal. 'Live and let live' was the credo of th at small merchandising country.

Between 1960 and 1970, the pillar structure of Dutch society began to crumble. Young people born after the Second World War were brought up in an increasingly rich and affluent society. These youngsters ceased to follow the old religious cheerleaders - they wanted to enjoy freedom. In the

beginning, no one noticed th at th is new individual freedom also had its disadvantages. Crime was one of them. From the sixties onward crime rates increased: between 1970 and 1992, the tatal number of recorded crimes rose from less than 200 thousand to 1.3 million. This dramatic increase took pi ace mainly between 1975 and 1985. Af ter 1985, the number of recorded crimes was still growing but at a much slower pace. The number of crimes solved by the police has been more constant and has even slightly decreased in the last few years. In 1992, 242 thousand crimes ( 19%) were reported solved.

The strong increase in the Dutch crime rate was spectacular even in an international perspective. It has resulted in the Netherlands ranking

somewhere in the middle between low crime countries like Japan and high crime countries like the USA.

Crimes recorded by the poli ce 1950 - 1992

(Souree: Central Bureau of Statistics of the Netherlands)

1.400 1.200

1.000 800

600 400 200

o ��������

1980 1992

Page 4 Dream, nightmare and awakening - P. van Saameren, DSP, Amsterdam/Takya

Registered violent crimes per 100,000 residents;

1980- 1991

The increase of crime is still a major source of concern in the Netherlands.

Recent studies showed an 8 1 % increase of recorded violent crimes and a 63% increase of recorded property crimes in the Netherlands, as the following figures show. This increase is much higher than in either the USA (+ 27% resp. -4%) or Japan (-32% resp. + 19%),(sources seepage20l.

COUNTRY Japan

800 ,---,---,----,---.---,----,---,---,----,---,---,r--.

700 �--r---+---+---�--�--_r--_+--_+--�--�--�r_�

600�,.r_,.r_--r_--r_--r_--r_�r_,.r_�r_�r_�r_�

500 �,.r-__ � __ H_ __ H_���.r�.r��--�--�--�r_� 400 ��r-

__ � __ H-__ H-���.r�� ��--�--�--�� �

300 �,.r-__ � __ H_ __ H_���.r�.r��--�--�--�r_� 200 I--_.tt-_.I+---t ... --., ... -

100

o

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

• Netherlands

28 28 27 143 157 170 597 594 571

25 25 174 186 538 539

23 195 557

22 211 618

22 212 610

22 231 637

20 20 19 254 251 258 663 732 758

Registered property crimes per 100,000 residents;

1980- 199 1

• United States

6000 ,---,---,---.---,----r---,---,---,---,---,----.--.

4000 r_�- 3000

2000 1000

COUNTRY Japan

• Netherlands

• United States

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1059 1134 1177 1180 1210 1217 1197 1186 1224 1259 1225 1262 3531 4124 4750 5193 5738 5773 5742 5773 5775 5684 5591 5768 5353 5264 5033 4637 4492 4650 4863 4940 5027 5078 5088 5140

Page 5 Dream, nightmare and awakening - P. van Soomeren, DSP, AmsterdamlTokyo

Between 1960- 1980 no one reacted to the emerging crime problem in the Netherlands. The problem was ignored, the first whistle blowers were ridiculed. It was during this period that Amsterdam (the capital of the Nether­

lands), willing to tackle the housing shortage, decided to build a completely new neighbourhood for about 100,000 inhabitants in a marshy polder weil below sea-Ievel South East of Amsterdam.

In December 1966, the foundation stone was laid for what was then regarded as a unique urban planning experiment: the Bijlmer: the

functional town for the future.

More than 25 years later, the urban planner' s dream has turned into a nightmare and the Bijlmer is undergoing a radical process of spatial and social renewal.

Page 7 Dream, nightmare and awakening - P. van Soomeren, DSP, Amsterdam/Tokyo

3 The dream: a functional town

In 1960 the Bijlmer appeared ideally suited for a challenging experiment:

the construction of a 'functional town'. A town in which living, working, traffic and recreation were separated. The idea of the

functional town was not new. The architect Le Corbusier used it in his plan for Voisin near Paris, France.

The concept for the Bijlmer was largely comprised of high-rise ( 1 O-floor) deck-access apartment blocks in a honeycomb pattern. Of the 18,000 units,

13,000 were built in th is way.

There were large 'green spaces' between the blocks in which bicycle and pedestrian routes were created.

Car traffic was led above ground level to multistorey car parks.

Metro lines crossed the roadways.

The original plan was never fully completed due to budget cuts which affected the plan. The covered street, for instance, was raised one floor above ground level and the ground tloor was used for storage.

In order to incorporate more

dwellings than planned, the number of floors was increased. Dwelling units we re also incorporated on the covered-street level, so this interior street was moved to the shadow side of the building block.

There were also economies in the number of lifts and long galleries were created to provide deck access to the apartments. Many concessions were made in the car parks, which had to be connected later via parking decks with the roads. This led to the creation of cavernous spaces which remained unused or were later fitted out with shops and other facilities.

In 1968 the first dwellings we re completed and people started to move into the Bijlmer. Many who moved to the Bijlmer came from sm all houses so th at the size of the dwellings (offer 100m2) and promised comfort in 'the town of the future' was very appealing.

/

Page 9 Dream, nightmare and awakening - P. van Saameren, DSP, Amsterdam/Tokyo

4 From dream to nightmare

In the years after the completion of the first buildings, several developments affected the residential climate in the Bijlmer.

• At a national level, spatial planning policy changed: tens of thousands of low-rise dwellings were built in new towns further away from the cities.

For many this was a far more attractive proposition than an apartment block in the Bijlmer.

• Population influx did not follow to the laws of planning. There we re less families than foreseen, but a relatively large number of one-parent families, singles and partners without children. The Bijlmer became an area which attracted many people who could not find a pi ace to live somewhere else (and who of ten left again if they got the chance). Between 1970 and 1975 many people from Surinam, the former colony of Dutch Guyana, found a home in the Bijlmer. The Bijlmer was the only place where they could easily find a home. This led to overpopulation in some building blocks.

• Linked with high unemployment and increasing drug abuse, this created major problems.

• The 'functional town' also failed to function adequately in other respects:

large and expensive, unsafe car parks, insufficient shops, and a menacing atmosphere in the public and semi-public areas, all kinds of nuisance in the flat blocks. Therefore turnover was rapid and the social structure of the district remained frail.

In the beginning of the eighties things got completely out of hand. The percentage of vacant dwellings (flats) rose to 20-25%; one out of every four dwellings was deserted. Crime analysis2 showed that the risk of burglary, street robbery and rape/sexual harassment on average in the Bijlmer was 1,5- 2 times higher than the rest of Amsterdam. Hot spots for crimes such as robberies and rapes we re located outside the buildings in the public space especially near shrubs and bushes, and in the semi-public spa ce within the buildings (covered streets, lifts, galleries).

Drug abuse - mainly the use of heroin - was one of the main causes for the crime problems in the Bijlmer .

It' s rather cynical to note that the drugproblem which settled in the Bijlmer at the beginning of the eighties was mainly due to the activities which the poli ce and local authorities were carrying out in the centre of Amsterdam.

The Amsterdam drugsscene was, up till then, concentrated near the centra I railway station in the historic centre of Amsterdam. Because of the problems and incivilities that dealing and using of drugs caused in the city centre, police and local authorities had to react. Using a combination of police, rehabilitation and CPTED (Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design) measures, this approach was succesful and within less than a decade the former drugs district in the centre was clean. However, part of the problem moved to the Bijlmer .

The image of the Bijlmer as the city of the future deteriorated: the dream of a functional town became a nightmare of vacant dwellings, drug abuse and a crime ridden area.

It was decided not to construct the rest of the Bijlmer in the same way.

Housing authorities and planners returned to urban planning principles developed earlier: four-storey blocks with individual access to a limited number (4 to 8) of apartments. The urban principle of the closed building block was again applied.

The several housing associations owning the apartments were merged in one housing association owning all the 13,000 apartments.

Page 1 1 Dream, nightmare and awakening - P. van Soomeren, DSP, Amsterdam/Tokyo

5 Action: the first phase of measures

A series of measures was taken to turn the tide in the high-rise area.

Generally speaking, the package can be defined as a crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) approach to the problem:

• about one thousand four- and five- room apartments were split up into smaller units;

• the rents were lowered and car parks made free of charge;

• parts of empty multi-storey car parks were demolished;

• empty storage spaces on the ground floor were converted to homes with gardens;

• in the public green areas, plots of land were issued to occupants so they could grow their own flowers and vegetables;

• here and there, parking was allowed at ground level;

• anti burglary devices for dwellings were installed: locks/bolts/strips on front doors and special solutions for the lower balconies;

• lighting was improved;

• long galleries were closed at several places and extra lifts were installed.

Effects of the first phase measures

Slowly the situation improved. The percentage of vacant dwellings decreased, and the closing/compartimentation of some of the galleries combined with the technical anti burglary measures, had a marked effect on the number of burglaries within a building.

An evaluation study examining the micro level showed3 several of these kinds of successes.

Furthermore, the following could be learned from the implementation of the package of first phase measures.

• The physical/technical measures - the compartimentation of the galleries, for instanee - must work like a chain of which each link must be as strong as all the other links. A good loek and strong door are a waste of money if they are combined with an easily breakable glass panel next to the door.

This might seem obvious but of ten one can observe th is kind of rather ridiculous combination: a very strong chain in which one link was missing, thus ruining the effect completely.

• Sometimes physical/technical measures we re installed without consuiting the people who had to use the implemented crime prevention solutions.

One can say a loek, is a loek, is a loek .... but when people living in a building leave the door to the gallery open, the loek is useless. 50 even technical measures like installing doors and locks need, in the end, back up of people motivated to use the equipment weil.

Although th is lesson might seem ridiculouis as weil, it is too of ten overlooked.

Although the first phase of measures was of ten succesful, there were bigger problems rescining the total effect.

• The displacement of the drug scene from the city centre to the Bijlmer was already mentioned.

• Unemployment rose sharply in the Netherlands and therefore a huge number of people (especially immigrants and youths who dropped out of the education system) lost their connection with the productive society.

• The crime problem in the Netherlands stabilised, but certain types of very serious crimes (street robbery, burglary) continued to rise, especially in the deteriorated sectors of cities.

• Government cut back on spendings (such as social security).

These overwhelming problems counterbalanced the successes in combating crime in the Bijlmer. The Bijlmer was like a ship that had holes in it from the start. After managing to stop the leakage effectively, the crew gathered on deck only to notice th at the calm weather during the beginning of the journey had in the meantime turned into a hurricane.

Page 13 Dream, nightmare and awakening - ? van Soomeren, DS?, Amsterdam/Tokyo

6 Renewed action: the second phase of measures; a comprehensive approach

At the beginning of the nineties the conclusion was reached that a stronger, more comprehensive approach was needed. A plan was formulated to seek ways of improving the Bijlmer in general. Demolition of some of the high-rise blocks was necessary for this, but would only stand any chance of success if a series of other measures were also taken. The renewal process was based on three elements:

1 spatial renewal;

2 social renewal;

3 management renewal.

Cynically enough, just before the plan was implemented an EI AI Jumbo jet crashed on the Bijlmer, destroying part of one of the massive apartment blocks.

The nightmare was complete.

In general the renewal plan comprised the following parts.

a Spatial renewal

• Two blocks (800 dwellings) were demolished. The occupants could choose to take another dwelling in or outside the Bijlmer.

• One of the smaller shopping centres - now covered - will be demolished and replaced by a open-air shopping cent re with indoor markets, shops, offices and social, cultural and health facilities.

• Several car parks were demolished and some car parks were

converted into buildings now comprising small companies of ten run by formerly unemployed people living in the Bijlmer.

• The main road in the Bijlmer will be lowered to ground level, creating an avenue which can take all traffic while acquiring a residential function.

• The combination of demolishing appartment blocks and car parks, and lowering the main road will create an area where 1400 dwellings can be built, most of them low-rise.

Page 15 Dream, nightmare and awakening - P. van Soomeren, DSP, Amsterdam/Tokyo

• In the area where the main shopping centre of the Bijlmer is located and where two major banks have their head offices, a new entertainment centre is planned with a multi-screen cinema complex, a rock-music venue and a cultural centre while on the other side of the railway the new Ajax soccer stadium is being built.

• Renovation of the oldest apart­

ment block in the Bijlmer has been completed. The number of

entrances to the building was reduced and the covered street and a number of storage spaces were replaced by split-level dwellings with gardens. The residential surroundings are also thoroughly renovated.

2 Social Renewal

At least as important as spatial renewal is social renewal in the district. In order to create a neighbourhood with a robust and broad-based social structure, schools and work are very important.

• Opportunities for training and schooling in the Bijlmer are inadequate. A major lack is a regional centre for technical training. This could help halt school-students dropping out around the age of 16.

• A centre for adult education will be set up in the near future.

• Newcomers are received separately by the local district council and put on the trail of an adequate training.

• Preceding demolition of their old apartment, people do not just receive visits concerning their rehousing, but are also offered help in finding training and work.

• Unemployed people from the Bijlmer are involved in construction projects in the area. Training is also essential in this respect.

• Two hundred long-term unemployed people are trained and employed on neighbourhood watch duties in the semi-public areas of the blocks. During the dav but especially in the evening, they will serve to increase safety in the blocks and car parks. This

project is a good example of the intermingling security and safety goals by private policing on the one hand and social renewal goals aimed at bringing unemployment down on the other. The same goes for a group of unemployed people who form the 'burglary prevention centre' . This centre instalIs security hardware at very low costs.

3 Management Renewal

• In some apartment buildings intensive supervision and the presence in the building itself of supervisors and staff from the housing association improved the situation. An evaluation study showed th is kind of decentralization within the housing association to be effective. Crime, vandalism and littering decreased and so did the fear of crime4•

• The Neighbourhood Improvement Bureau for the Bijlmer discusses with occupants and all the

authorities involved how the public spa ces in the Bijlmer can best be maintained and what changes are needed to improve the

atmosphere. Joint surveys are an important weapon. (Long) lists of points make clear when and how the changes should be realised.

These kind of changes in manage­

ment are essential because a large housing association - responsible tor the maintenance of approximately

13,000 dwellings - must be weil rooted in the ta brie of local society to tune into what is happening. The same goes for the local authorities and bureaucracy.

Page 17 Dream, nightmare and awakening - P. van Soomeren, DSP, Amsterdam/Tokyo

Police figure Bijlmer (5 types of crimes)

The first results of the second ph ase of renewal measures are promising.

There was a marked decrease in the number of robberies in the Bijmer and also burglary in commercial premises and car related crimes decreased.

1992 1993 1994

Robbery 1. 277 1.3 14 844

Burglary dwellings 1. 2 12 1.35 1 1.426

Burglary commercial premises 2 19 294 192

Break in car 3. 227 2.920 2.387

Car theft 8 18 8 17 688

Total 6.753 6.696 5.537

The spatial, social and management renewal started in 1993 and will take several years to be completely effective. The first results give hope for the future though.

7 Lessons and conclusions

There are three important lessons th at can be learned from the history of the Bijlmer in Amsterdam.

• Countries having low crime rates (like the Netherlands in the sixtiesl run the risk of ignoring the need to design buildings and neighborhoods that are not prone to crime.

Looking back it is rather obvious th at the brand new functional town called the Bijlmer was clearly the wrong kind of design for a future in which crime, unemployment and the disappearance of societal bonds and control would become main issues.

Crime prevention - and certainly environmental crime prevention - might be good for the USA or the Netherlands, but Japan still has low crime rates, so why should it bother. ... Clearly, the case of the Netherlands shows that things can change in a few decades. Buildings and neighbourhoods designed today can not be quickly adopted to a changed situation.

Therefore it might be wiser to stay on the safe side and reckon with safety and security.

• In the Bijlmer two waves of measures can be distinguished. The first phase consisted of rather simple measures and each measure was of ten taken in isolation.

Although, on the micro level these first phase measures proved to be working, the total effect was drowned in a hurricane of bigger problems.

So the lesson learned from the first phase measures might be that better design and lay out alone can not offer solutions to the problems of crime, safer cities and secure housing. In suggesting this, one ignores a whole range of social and economical factors, which effect the levels of crime in a particular area. Defensive design has a role to play in crime prevention, but factors as unemployment, poverty, drug abuse, social stress and bad management simply can not be designed out. A comprehensive approach must be taken to assure safety and security5. That is why in the Bijlmer the first phase measures had to be followed ten years later by an integrated package of measures of the second phase.

• Thus, at first glance promoting safer cities and secure housing may seem to be a rather simple and straightforward target. However, the case of the Bijlmer shows that one has to take several levels into consideration. From locks, bolts, bars and lighting on the micro level to complete spatial renewal on the macro level6. Furthermore the Bijlmer case shows that one has to take into account all aspects of the problem. The hard techno­

physical spatial renewal must be coupled with soft social- and manage­

ment renewal.

The renewal of the Bijlmer is a project in which the City of Amsterdam, Local Authorities of the citydistrict South East and the Housing Association New Amsterdam cooperate. In 1995 the European Community decided to co­

sponsor the Bijlmer-renewal (Urban-programmel.

Page 19 Dream, nightmare and awakening - P. van $oomeren, DSP, Amsterdam/Tokyo

M.J.J. López:

1 993 Crime and Crime Prevention in Japan and the Netherlands:

a comparison, NRIPS, Tokyo, September 1993.

Dijk, J.J.M. van, and Pat Mayhew:

1992 Criminal Victimization in the Industrialized World: Keyfindings of the

1989 and 1992 International Crime Survey, 1992.

2 Dijk, B. van, and P. van Soomeren:

1986 De Bijlmer; criminaliteit en verbeteringsplannen,

Van Dijk, Van Soomeren en Partners, Amsterdam, 1986.

Loef, C.J.:

1985 Aanranding en verkrachting (een analyse van 902 aangegeven zeden delicten 1980-1994), Amsterdam, 1985.

3 Dijk, B. van, and P. van Soomeren:

1986 De Bijlmer; criminaliteit en verbeteringsplannen,

Van Dijk, Van Soomeren en Partners, Amsterdam, 1986.

4 OTB Technische Universiteit Delft:

1994 Evaluatie modelflats, Delft, 1994.

5 See also:

Stollard, P.:

199 1 Crime prevention through housing design, Chapman and Hall, London, 1991.

6 Soomeren, P van:

1989 The physical urban environment and reduction of urban insecurity and crime prevention; Town planning and insecurity: a general introduction; Paper by Paul van Soomeren; Conference in Barcelona

17-20 November 1987; Council of Europe/City of Barcelona.

In: Urban Renaissance in Europe (Loca/ Strategies for the Reduction of Urban Insecurity in Europe), Study Series nr. 35, pag. 2 19-233;

Council of Europe, Standing Conference of Local and Regional Authorities of Europe, Strasbourg 1989.

Design & Layout

Roei Heerema, DSP

Photographs/slides

Tobias Woldendorp, DSP Nieuw Amsterdam

Projectbureau Vernieuwing Bijlmermeer City District Amsterdam South East

Van Dijk, Van Soomeren en Partners BV

Office: Van Diemenstraat 4 10, 10 13 CR Amsterdam, The Netherlands Mailadress: Mariotteplein 9, 1098 NW Amsterdam, The Netherlands Tel: + (0)20 - 625 75 37

Fax: + (0)20 - 627 47 59

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