The Added Value of Contextual Characteristics
Master Thesis, MSc. HRM
University of Groningen, Faculty of Economics and Business
The Added Value of Contextual Characteristics
ABSTRACT
Impostor feelings can have detrimental outcomes for individuals experiencing it. Most research about impostor feelings focuses on individual characteristics, considering it as antecedents of individuals’ impostor feelings. However, considering the negative outcomes of impostor feelings, it is important to understand the full picture of the concept. This study posits that context is also indispensable when studying impostor feelings and proves that context is another predictor of impostor feelings. Therefore, this study examines whether contextual characteristics add value on top of the individual characteristics in influencing impostor feelings of individuals. First, we aim to replicate previous findings by showing that neuroticism and impostor feelings are positively associated, and extraversion and impostor feelings are negatively associated. Second, adding contextual characteristics illustrate that organizational context matters. Specifically, stepwise regression analysis showed that lack of cultural fit and impostor feelings are positively associated. Thus, contextual characteristics add value on top of the individual characteristics. We tested the hypotheses on a sample of 268 respondents within different organizations. The results underscore the importance of the role of contextual characteristics for understanding impostor feelings.
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INTRODUCTION
"I share my impostor feelings with you because we all have doubts in our abilities, about our power and what that power is” (Michelle Obama, 2018). The impostor
phenomenon refers to the notion that some individuals feel they have ended up in positions because of luck or oversight on the part of others, not because of their own competencies. Eventually, these individuals worry that they may be discovered as frauds or “impostors” (Clance & Imes, 1978). Michelle Obama recently described her battles with impostor feelings, by indicating that everyone is prone to these feelings. Furthermore, Mike Cannon-Brookes, co-founder and co-chief executive of software company Atlassian is one of the youngest Australians on the Billionaires List, but he still feels like an impostor: “Internally, you know you are not skilled, experienced or ever qualified enough to justify being there — yet you are there, and you have to figure a way out” (Mike Cannon-Brookes, 2017).
Indeed, according to Gravois (2007), roughly 70% of the individuals will experience impostor feelings at least once in their lives, which implies both the abundance of the theme and the fact that both women and men are prone to it. Impostor feelings are both harmful on the individual level and the organizational level. At the individual level, it is detrimental for career advancement by acting as an internal barrier to move up to a higher level within the organization (De Vries, 2005) and impostor feelings have detrimental effects on individuals well-being, since individuals’ overall mental health will be harmed (McGregor, Gee & Posey, 2008; Sonnak & Towell 2001). At the organizational level, individuals who experience impostor feelings are likely to have lower affective commitment (Grubb & McDowell, 2012) and are less productive (Brems, Baldwin, Davis, & Namyniuk, 1994), which indicates that the overall organizational performance decreases.
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traits (Topping & Kimmel, 1985; Ross, Stewart, Mugge, & Fultz, 2001; Bernard, Dollinger & Ramaniah, 2002) and family background (Sonnak & Towell, 2001; Want & Kleitman, 2006). In contrast, no research investigated the impact of the organizational context on impostor feelings. Hence, important questions about this impact remain to be addressed.
The traditional individual-level focus in combination with a weak understanding of contextual characteristics in which impostor feelings is conceptualized as a “syndrome”, indicates that many suggested solutions for addressing impostor feelings focus on “fixing” individuals (Langford & Glance, 1993). Hence, the efficacy of these solutions tend to fail of their full potential, since they miss an important part (i.e., how contextual characteristics shape one’s propensity to feel like an impostor). Therefore, this study will address contextual characteristics, in addition to individual characteristics.
Consequently, the purpose of the current investigation is twofold. First, this research will examine the impact of neuroticism, conscientiousness, and extraversion on impostor feelings. By doing so, we seek to constructively replicate previous findings. Second, perceived organizational support, lack of cultural fit and distinctive treatment will add new perspectives to our knowledge on impostor feelings, by indicating the importance of contextual characteristics in influencing impostor feelings.
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individualizing the concept. In this way, we will build forwards on researchers’ concerns with the view of impostorism as a stable trait (Leary, Patton, Orlando & Funk, 2000; McElwee & Yurak, 2007, 2010).
This research has important practical contributions too. As emphasized at the beginning of the introduction, the negative consequences of impostor feelings are
considerable. However, managers can undertake actions to overcome these consequences, since the present research suggests that they could focus on contextual characteristics in addition to focusing solely on individual characteristics that explain impostor feelings. For example, the negative effects of impostor feelings can be tempered when providing workplace support, taking care of cultural fit and preventing negative distinctive treatment. By this, managers will be encouraged to change the workplace conditions in order to deal more
effectively with the effects of impostor feelings. This shift in thinking about impostor feelings creates the potential to provoke change, which should create contexts in which all individuals are supported to feel confident in their abilities.
THEORY AND HYPOTHESES Impostor Feelings
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Sanchez-Huceles & Adair, 1990) and race (Ewing, Richardson, James-Myers & Russell, 1996) do not exist among individuals who experience impostor feelings.
Impostor feelings have typically been studied using personality scales, in which research excessively focuses on the individual as the level of analysis. Thus, scholars have typically treated the concept of impostor feelings as a stable personality trait (Langford & Glance, 1993; Rohrmann, Bechtoldt & Leonhard, 2016). Consequently, a lot of research has focused on the explanation of impostor feelings by examining individual-level characteristics (Bernard et al., 2002; Vergauwe et al., 2014).
In contrast, little research has focused on the role of contextual characteristics, which can be described as the elements of an individual’s environment. Besides, recent research indicates concerns about interpreting impostor feelings as personality traits (Leary et al., 2000; McElwee & Yurak, 2007, 2010). Clance et al. (1995) acknowledged the possibility that impostor feelings could be shaped by “interpersonal and social contexts” (p.80). Therefore,
this research extends the scope of research into the “impostor phenomenon” by seeing
impostor feelings as a psychological response to contextual characteristics, and not simply as a stable trait. In this, impostor feelings are considered as a psychological response that can arise from the context in which individuals who experience impostor feelings are embedded.
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wide situational scope will be considered traits, whereas states consist of a narrow scope (Mischel, 1969).
Based on these characteristics, we argue that impostor feelings are not best
conceptualized as a stable trait, but as a psychological experience that arises in response to situations within specific features (McElwee & Yurak, 2010). Therefore, if context plays a role, impostor feelings are considered as states, instead of traits. Consequently, this research is interested in both individual and contextual characteristics related to impostor feelings, to prove the importance of contextual characteristics in addition to solely individual
characteristics. Thus, this research first aims to replicate earlier findings of individual characteristics and impostor feelings. Next to that, this research investigates the influence of contextual characteristics, in addition to individual characteristics.
Individual characteristics and Impostor Feelings
This research first aims to replicate earlier findings of the effect of individual characteristics and impostor feelings. The traits of interests are neuroticism,
conscientiousness, and extraversion since they are considered most substantial in research to impostor feelings (Bernard, Dollinger & Ramaniah, 2010; Chae, Piedmont, Estadt & Wicks, 1995). The most important factor (i.e., the largest correlation in past research) for the
association between personality traits and impostor feelings is neuroticism, followed by conscientiousness and extraversion.
Neuroticism and Impostor Feelings
To start with, one personality trait of interest is neuroticism. Neuroticism is a trait of emotionality and is characterized by high levels of negative affect, for example depression, self-doubt, and anxiety (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1985). In addition, neuroticism can be
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aversive emotional states (John, Robins, & Pervin, 2008; Mathews et al., 2003; Pervin & John, 1999). Thus, this indicates that neurotic individuals are more inclined towards negative mood states such as sadness (Costa & McCrae, 1980), mood disorders and anxiety (del Barrio, Moreno-Rosset, Lopez-Martınez, & Olmedo, 1997; Bienvenu et al., 2001; Trull & Durrett, 2005).
As mentioned above, it is notable that neurotic individuals mainly focus on negative aspects and dissatisfaction in life. Similarly, these characteristics are also present at
individuals who experience impostor feelings, since they believe that others are much more capable than they are (Sakulku & Alexander, 2011). Furthermore, neurotic individuals feel more lonesome and fraudulent compared to other individuals (De Vries, 2005). Thus,
individuals prone to negativity should also be susceptible to impostor feelings. This indicates that individuals with neuroticism are plausible to cope with impostor feelings.
Bernard et al. (2002) and Ross et al. (2001) confirm this by indicating that neuroticism predicts impostor feelings. Based on these earlier research findings of neuroticism, we expect to find that neuroticism is positively associated with impostor feelings. Therefore, the first aim of this research is to replicate earlier findings of the positive effect of neuroticism on impostor feelings.
Hypothesis 1a: Neuroticism and impostor feelings are positively associated. Conscientiousness and Impostor Feelings
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in own competences is what individuals who experience impostor feelings seem to lack (Clance & Imes, 1978).
Studies have consistently found a negative correlation between conscientiousness and impostor feelings (Bernard et al. 2002; Chae et al., 1995; Ross et al. 2001). The ongoing feelings of incompetence, which consists at the heart of the impostor construct, indicates a negative relationship between conscientiousness and impostor feelings (Vergauwe et al., 2015).
Although conscientiousness is less powerful in predicting impostor feelings than neuroticism, because theoretical writings imply possible inconsistencies across individuals, researchers must take into account the negative correlation between conscientiousness and impostor feelings (Bernard et al., 2002). Based on the argument that conscientious individuals contain strong feelings of own competence, we aim to replicate earlier findings to indicate that conscientiousness and impostor feelings are negatively associated.
Hypothesis 1b: Conscientiousness and impostor feelings are negatively associated. Extraversion and Impostor Feelings
Another trait of interest is extraversion. Extraversion describes active individuals who are sociable, assertive and talkative, whereas introversion is apparent in reserved and solitary behavior (McCabe & Fleeson, 2012). Individuals who possess sociable characteristics are generally also energetic and cheerful, and these traits together determine extraversion (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1967).
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builds forward on the argumentation that extraverts tend to express positive emotions and are inclined to be cheerful and optimistic. This is the opposite of characteristics of individuals who experience impostor feelings, which is featured by a generalized negative affect, such as being worried and less optimistic (Leary et al., 2000). Therefore, we replicate earlier findings to indicate that extraversion and impostor feelings are negatively associated.
Hypothesis 1c: Extraversion and impostor feelings are negatively associated. Contextual Characteristics and Impostor Feelings
The second aim of this research is to extend the scope of research into the “impostor phenomenon” by conceptualizing impostor feelings as a psychological response to contextual characteristics. Researchers underexpose the influence of contextual characteristics, while there subsist well-developed taxonomies to explain personality. Individuals interpret behavior depending on the context in which it occurs (Jones & Davis, 1965), which indicates the importance of context, since it affects organizational behavior and therefore can have
powerful effects on research results (Johns, 2006). Thus, if we do not understand the context, we will not understand person-situation interactions (Johns, 2006) and ultimately, we could not describe impostor feelings to their full potential. This makes context an important
predictor in understanding impostor feelings. Within this research, we focus on the role of the social context, since specific elements within an individual’s environment might shape impostor feelings of individuals.
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The second contextual characteristic of interest is lack of cultural fit. Research proves that individuals perceive that certain cultures foster impostor feelings (Clark, Vardeman & Barba, 2014). Thus, lack of cultural fit seems an important predictor in influencing impostor feelings, since individuals who experience impostor feelings are insecure about their own abilities and therefore place great value on fit with their environment. Thus, lack of cultural fit seems a predictor in influencing impostor feelings.
The third contextual characteristic of interest is distinctive treatment. Individuals who experience unfair treatment in the workplace could suffer with consequences such as
psychological distress and job dissatisfaction, whereas positive treatment could create a meaningful experience for individuals (Sloan, 2011). Therefore, distinctive treatment seems another predictor in influencing impostor feelings.
Perceived Organizational Support and Impostor Feelings
Perceived organizational support (POS) is the first contextual characteristic of interest. POS consists of the belief held by an employee that the organization values his or her
membership and that this particular organization is generally concerned about his or her well-being (Aselage & Eisenberger, 2003; Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison & Sowa, 1986; Rhoades, Eisenberger & Armeli, 2001). Thus, POS indicates the extent to which employees perceive that the organization they work for cares about their personal well-being and their contributions towards the organization (Eisenberger et al., 1986).
Research suggests that impostor feelings refer to aversive affective states that affect individuals in many situations (Kolligian & Sternberg, 1991; Leary et al., 2000; McElwee & Yurak, 2010). Individuals who experience impostor feelings are anxious about the
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experience impostor feelings and who perceive they are surrounded by a supportive environment experience less emotional exhaustion, since POS is considered as a resource “that could bolster employees’ confidence in their ability to cope with role demands”
(Jawahar, Stone & Kisamore, 2007: 147). Through POS, organizations can accomplish socio-emotional needs for individuals who experience impostor feelings, such as the need for esteem, approval, and affiliation (Eisenberger et al., 1986).
Thus, if individuals who experience impostor feelings feel supported by their workplace, they feel assured that their trust will not be misplaced and their good acts and efforts will be appreciated in such a way that it is noticed, supported, and maybe even
rewarded (Stinglhamber, De Cremer & Mercken, 2006). Therefore, POS has shown to temper impostor feelings (Vergauwe et al., 2015). On the other hand, if individuals experience impostor feelings and do not feel supported by their workplace, they may be less willing to trust others and do not feel their efforts will be appreciated (Toh, Min & Srinivas, 2012). This negative information weighs more heavily on trust than positive information (Toh, Min & Srinivas, 2012), which will increase impostor feelings. Therefore, we expect to find that perceived organizational support is negatively associated with impostor feelings.
Hypothesis 2a: Perceived Organizational Support and impostor feelings are negatively associated.
Lack of Cultural Fit and Impostor Feelings
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influence an individual's response to a situation (Chatman, 1989; Schneider, 1987; Terborg, 1981).
The proposition of cultural fit adds considerable value to research that emphasizes the influence of the cultural context on psychological processes (Berry, Kim, Minde, & Mok, 1987). Cultural barriers are secondary to internal barriers, known as impostor feelings (Sandberg, 2013). Impostor feelings are related to cultural expectations, and it is proven that “while organizations may not necessarily cause impostor feelings, respondents perceived that the culture fosters those feelings” (Clark et al., 2014: 264).
Many studies focused on impostor feelings within the academic culture. Dean, Bracken and Allen (2009) state that cultural reflections should start with the understanding that students, faculty and staff are socialized into the academy and, as a result, culture shapes scholarship and work lives. Leonard (2014) emphasized the negative impact of culture concerning impostor feelings. He stated that impostor feelings origin not just from the
discrepancy between an academic and one’s identity, but also from daily experiences in which individuals convey that they do not belong. The cultural fit within the academic culture can be expanded to the organizational context, in which all employees are socialized into the
organization. Consequently, we hypothesize that lack of cultural fit is positively associated with impostor feelings.
Hypothesis 2b: Lack of Cultural Fit and impostor feelings are positively associated. Distinctive Treatment and Impostor Feelings
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among ‘group members’, which is beneficial for individuals’ well-being (Begency & Huo, 2018). For example, when ‘group members’ ask an individual for help because of certain knowledge and skills this individual possesses. Research indicates that individuals often are concerned with how authorities treat them (i.e., procedures and processes) instead of being concerned with those authorities themselves (Messick, Bloom, Boldizar & Samuelson, 1985; Mikula, Petri & Tanzer, 1990).
Individuals are motivated to evaluate their position within groups (i.e., the treatment by others during interactions with important group authorities), because this provides identity-relevant information (Smith, Tyler & Huo, 2003). This information influences an individual’s actions regarding the group and their self-images (Tyler & Blader, 2001). In this vein,
intragroup status does not indicate a formally established position within the group but it indicates a subjective position, which is based on the extent to which the group respects the individual’s personal characteristics and qualities (Emler & Hopkins, 1990).
First, individuals who feel unfairly treated are more inclined to act aggressively or even retaliate in the workplace (Haslam, van Knippenberg, Platow & Ellemers, 2003). Individuals who label themselves as minorities obtain lower levels of psychological well-being because of their perceptions of unfair treatment (Chemers, Oskamp & Costanzo, 1995). Thus, the degree to which other individuals accept (inclusion) rather than reject (exclusion) an employee is important to the individual’s psychological well-being (Leary & Downs, 1995). Barak and Levin (2002) found a relationship between exclusion and maladaptive behaviors, such as depression. Therefore, we expect to find that negative distinctive treatment is positively associated with impostor feelings (Hypothesis 2c).
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Therefore, we expect to find that positive distinctive treatment is negatively associated with impostor feelings (Hypothesis 2d).
Hypothesis 2c: Negative Distinctive Treatment and impostor feelings are positively associated.
Hypothesis 2d: Positive Distinctive Treatment and impostor feelings are negatively associated.
Individual Characteristics vs. Contextual Characteristics
This research makes the point that contextual characteristics are undervalued within current research regarding impostor feelings. Instead, this research suggests that impostor feelings can be altered by context, and thus, is approachable as a temporary state. Unlike personality traits, states can capture how an individual feels at a certain moment (Watson & Pennebaker, 1989). This indicates that states can fluctuate over time and states are less permanent than personality traits (Fiske & Taylor, 1991). Furthermore, while an event may trigger a state, once established, that state provides the context for other events and
experiences. Therefore, individual characteristics do predict impostor feelings, but context is another predictor of impostor feelings. Thus, all hypotheses together merge to the last hypothesis of this research:
Hypothesis 3: Contextual characteristics add value on top of individual characteristics in influencing impostor feelings of individuals.
15 Individual characteristics - Neuroticism - Conscientiousness - Extraversion Contextual characteristics - Perceived Organizational Support
- Lack of Cultural Fit - Distinctive Treatment
Impostor Feelings
Figure 1: Research Model
METHOD Participants and Procedure
In order to test the hypotheses, we conducted an online questionnaire among employees from diverse organizations. Participants were able to read and answer the questionnaire in English or Dutch, depending on their preference. Completing the online questionnaire would take about 10-15 minutes, without monetary reward. The fact that there were no wrong answers and that their participation was anonymous and important to the success of the research, was underscored. Initially, 417 individuals opened the questionnaire. From this group, nine individuals were self-employed and 18 individuals were not employed. Therefore, they were not allowed to fill in the questionnaire. In total, 365 individuals
indicated they currently work for a company. In the end, 268 employees completed the questionnaire. The sample of this research consisted of employees from various organizations and countries of which 97.8% originated from the Netherlands. Other nationalities were Swiss, German, Italian, Indian and Kurdish.
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administration (12.5%), marketing, sales and service (12.8%), health science (11.7%), agriculture, food and natural resources (9.4%) and social work (9.4%).
Measures
Impostor Feelings. In order to measure impostor feelings as a state, we used an adjusted version of the Impostorism Scale (Leary, Patton, Orlando & Funk, 2000), which consists of a 7-item questionnaire. Items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (I don’t experience this at all) to 5 (I experience this a lot). Example items include: “Sometimes I am afraid I will be discovered at work for who I really am” and “I tend to feel like a phony at work”. The Cronbach’s alpha of the scale is .866.
Neuroticism, Conscientiousness, and Extraversion. The International
Personality Item Pool (IPIP-20) is developed by Donnellan, Oswald, Baird and Lucas (2006), which contains 20 items presented on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). Domains include neuroticism, conscientiousness, and extraversion. Some of these items are reversed-scored (R). All personality traits include four items. Example items regarding neuroticism include: “I have frequent mood swings” and “I am relaxed most of the time” (R). Example items regarding conscientiousness include: “I like order” and “I make a mess of things” (R). Example items regarding extraversion include: “I talk to a lot of different people at parties” and “I keep in the background” (R). The Cronbach’s alpha of the scale of
neuroticism is .605, for conscientiousness .574 and for extraversion .801.
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available from my organization when I have a problem” and “My organization shows very little concern for me” (R). The Cronbach’s alpha of the scale is .862.
Lack of Cultural Fit. Participants were asked to indicate their level of cultural fit, through the completion of the scale of Lyness and Thompson (2000). This scale contains 7-items presented on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). We asked participants to indicate the extent to which they experienced the statements about the organizational culture throughout their career. Example items include: “Not feeling comfortable asserting your views because of possible consequences” and “Feeling like you are an outsider”. The Cronbach’s alpha of the scale is .780.
Distinctive Treatment. Begency, Huo, Smith and Ryan (2018) developed the negative and positive distinctive treatment scale. The negative distinctive treatment scale contains 4-items presented on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (Never) to 5 (Very Often). Example 4-items include: “How often have people that you have interacted with at work interrupted you or 'cut you off' when you were trying to share an opinion or idea?” and “How often have people that you have interacted with at work left you out of conversations, group emails, or other
informal meetings/gatherings/discussions?” The positive distinctive treatment scale contains 3-items presented on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (Never) to 5 (Very Often). Example items include: “How often have people that you have interacted with at work looked to you for guidance when they had a question or problem?” and “How often have people that you have interacted with at work asked you for advice?” The Cronbach’s alpha of the scale of negative distinctive treatment is .668 and for positive distinctive treatment .872.
Control Variables. We considered gender, age, and education level as control
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impostor feelings are present in both genders (Sakulku & Alexander, 2011, Cokley et al., 2015; Crawford et al., 2016). Therefore, this research controls for gender. Second, previous research lends support to findings that the intensity of impostor feelings diminish with age (Harvey, 1981; Chae et al., 1995; Thompson, Davis & Davidson, 1998). Third, numerous studies have documented the prevalence of impostor feelings among higher education levels (Parkman, 2016), indicating that impostor feelings are present among higher educated individuals.
RESULTS Assumptions
In order to test the hypotheses, multiple linear regression analyses were conducted. One of the assumptions of linear regression analysis is that the dependent variable has to be normally distributed (Keller, 2012). First, we looked at skewness and kurtosis in order to see whether the scores for impostor feelings were normally distributed. The Shapiro-Wilk test for normality indicates that the data concerning impostor feelings is non-normally distributed (W = .650, p = < .001), with a kurtosis of 7.078 (SE = .297) and a skewness of 2.510 (SE = .149), which indicates that the data is skewed to the right. Considering that linear regression is robust against small deviations of normality and knowing that exact symmetry is unrealistic (Carroll & Welsh, 1988), we assume that our data is sufficient for the regression analysis. Therefore, we did not transform our data.
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Preliminary Analysis
Table 1 shows descriptive statistics and intercorrelations for all variables. We first look at the correlations between variables regarding individual characteristics and impostor feelings. In support of Hypothesis 1a, the correlation analysis shows that impostor feelings correlate significantly with neuroticism (r = .294, p = < .001), in support of Hypothesis 1b, the correlation analysis shows that impostor feelings correlate significantly conscientiousness (r = -.164, p = .007) and in support of Hypothesis 1c, the correlation analysis shows that impostor feelings correlate significantly with extraversion (r = -.179, p = .003).
Second, we look at the correlations between variables regarding contextual characteristics and impostor feelings. First, in support of Hypothesis 2a, the correlation analysis shows that impostor feelings correlate significantly with perceived organizational support (r = -.161, p = .008). Second, in support of Hypothesis 2b, the correlation analysis shows that impostor feelings correlate significantly with lack of cultural fit (r = .403, p = < .001). Third, in support of Hypothesis 2c, the correlation analysis shows that impostor
feelings correlate significantly with negative distinctive treatment (r = .210, p = .001). Lastly, regarding Hypothesis 2d, the correlation analysis demonstrates that impostor feelings do not correlate significantly with positive distinctive treatment (r = -.082, p = .182).
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TABLE 1
Descriptive Statistics and Intercorrelations for all variables
Variables M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1. Gender 1.680 .469 1 2. Age 35.320 12.760 -.102 1 3. Education level 5.080 1.702 -.004 -.227** 1 4. Neuroticism 2.367 .732 .130* -.142* .021 1 5. Conscientiousness 4.005 .641 .002 .049 -.112 -.254** 1 6. Extraversion 3.388 .835 .127* -.118 -.039 -.114 .095 1
7. Perceived organizational support 3.714 .697 .088 -.150* .051 -.159** .077 .165** 1
8. Lack of cultural fit 2.003 .667 -.120 -.057 .193** .261** -.244* -.179** -.398** 1
9. Negative distinctive treatment 2.195 .626 -.048 .165** .012 .185** -.108 -.157** -.308** .458** 1
10. Positive distinctive treatment 3.552 .757 .004 .234** .014 -.176** .092 .177** .128* -.032 .066 1
11. Impostor feelings 1.305 .510 -.007 -.141* .232** .294** -.164** -.179** -.161** .403** .210** -.082 1
Notes. 267<N<268; *p < .05, **p < .01. For gender, 1 = male and 2 = female. For education level, 1 = Did not complete high school, 2 = High school, 3 = Mbo,
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Main Analysis
In order to test the hypotheses, we conducted a stepwise regression analysis. Table 2 shows the outcomes of this regression analysis. Model 1 includes the control variables (age and education level), model 2 includes all individual characteristics and model 3 includes all contextual characteristics.
First, model 2 depicts the individual characteristics. For model 2, it was found that neuroticism significantly predicted impostor feelings (B = .170, SE = .042, p = < .001), as did extraversion (B = -.090, SE = .035, p = .011). Thus, results show support for Hypothesis 1a, which states that neuroticism and impostor feelings are positively associated and results show support for Hypothesis 1c, which states that extraversion and impostor feelings are negatively associated. Next to this, Hypothesis 1b states that conscientiousness and impostor feelings are negatively associated. In contrast to expectations, we found no support for Hypothesis 1b (B = -.050, SE = .047, p = .285).
Second, model 3 shows the contextual characteristics. Hypothesis 2a states that perceived organizational support and impostor feelings are negatively associated. However, perceived organizational support proved to be not significant (B = -.008, SE = .046, p = .864). Therefore, we found no support for Hypothesis 2a. For model 3, it was found that lack of cultural fit significantly predicted impostor feelings (B = .211, SE = .053, p = < .001). Therefore, we found support for Hypothesis 2b, which states that lack of cultural fit and impostor feelings are positively associated. Hypothesis 2c states that negative distinctive treatment and impostor feelings are positively associated. In contrast to expectations, negative distinctive treatment proved to be not significant (B = .034, SE = .052, p = .519). Therefore, we found no support for Hypothesis 2c. Hypothesis 2d states that positive distinctive
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distinctive treatment was not significantly associated with impostor feelings (B = -.004, SE = .040, p = .923). Therefore, we found no support for Hypothesis 2d.
Third, Hypothesis 3 states that contextual characteristics add value on top of
individual characteristics in influencing impostor feelings of individuals. The added value of contextual characteristics on top of individual characteristics is 7.7% (R² Change = .077). Thus, we found support for Hypothesis 3. For the whole model, 21.5% (Adjusted R² = .215) of the variation of impostor feelings can be explained by the model. More specifically, for model 3, it was found that neuroticism significantly predicted impostor feelings (B = .125, SE = .041, p = .003), as did lack of cultural fit (B = .211, SE = .053, p = < .001). When looking at the partial correlations of both significant predictors, we conclude that the effect size of
neuroticism (R² = 3.5%) is less than the effect size of lack of cultural fit (R² = 5.8%)1. Thus, the influence of the contextual characteristic lack of cultural fit seems to be more substantial than the influence of the individual characteristic neuroticism.
1 In addition to solely looking at relationships, we expand the current research by considering effect sizes. The American
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TABLE 2
Summary of Stepwise Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Impostor Feelings Model 1: Control variables Model 2: Individual
characteristics Model 3: Contextual characteristics Variables B SE (B) β B SE (B) β B SE (B) β Age -.004 .002 -.090 -.003 .002 -.075 -.003 .002 -.082 Education level .063 .018 .209* 0.58 0.18 .193* .045 .017 .149* Neuroticism .170 .042 .245** .125 .041 .179* Conscientiousness -.050 .047 -.063 -.012 .046 -.015 Extraversion -.090 .035 -.148* -.063 .035 -.103 POS -.008 .046 -.011
Lack of cultural fit .211 .053 .276**
NDT .034 .052 .041 PDT -.004 .040 -.006 R2 .061 .061 .164 .103 .241 .077 R2 change F for change in R2 8.484** 10.692** 6.535**
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Post Hoc
Thus far, we have tested the research model. By doing so, we already found an
important contextual antecedent in influencing impostor feelings. By the use of archival data, we aim to examine other contextual antecedents (percentage of women within the
organization and percentage of women in key positions within the organization) and a contextual outcome (employee turnover within the organization).
The archival data is additional to the research, since the percentage of women and the percentage of women in key positions give information about the role of the social context. A gender-mixed management team is essential in creating a culture in which women feel valued. In contrast, gender imbalance creates a hostile culture that is resistant to women and women experience poor/partial fit when males dominate the organization (Simpson, 2000). Therefore, an individual’s environment (i.e., percentage of women and percentage of women in key positions) can elicit or mitigate feelings of impostorism, by signaling feelings of belonging and inclusion towards the population of women within the organization (Peters, Haslam, & Ryan, 2015; Peters, Ryan, Halsma, & Fernandes, 2012).
Thus, we propose that a high percentage of women in the organization is negatively associated with impostor feelings and we expect the same for the percentage of women in key positions. By this, we could investigate if there is a gender effect and explore further effects of cultural fit. Regarding turnover rate, research showed that impostor feelings could lead to higher employee turnover rates (De Vries, 2005). In this research, we investigate if a higher turnover rate possibly gives a first signal towards the presence of impostor feelings within an organization.
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organization. Second, the percentage of women in key positions refer to women in high-power positions, which were coded as “female managerial roles”, “female leadership
positions”, “executive women” or “women in top management”. Third, the employee turnover
rate refers to the percentage of workers who leave the organization during the calendar year 2017 or 2018.
In total, 173 different companies participated in this research (e.g., participants of the questionnaire who filled in the name of the company they work for). First, we dropped 85 companies who did not publish their annual reports at all. Second, we dropped 38 annual reports of companies that lack data about the percentage of women (N = 50), then we dropped 42 annual reports of companies that lack data about the percentage of women in key positions (N = 46) and lastly we dropped 31 annual reports of companies that lack data about the employee turnover rates (N = 57). All information was gathered in percentages. The
percentages of organizations who published their annual report in 2017 or 2018 with aspects regarding percentage of women, percentage of women in key positions and/or employee turnover rate were filled in at ‘data view’ in SPSS.
In order to test the archival data, a multilevel analysis was conducted, since the data for participants is organized at more than one level. The units of analysis are individuals who are nested within aggregate units, which are the organizations. Therefore, the variable
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TABLE 3
Descriptive Statistics and Intercorrelations Archival Data
Variables M SD 1 2 3 4
1. Women in the organizationa 51.840 22.605 1
2. Women in key positionsb 34.094 15.171 .550** 1
3. Employee turnoverc 5.251 1.522 -.022 .203 1
4. Impostor feelings 1.316 .511 -.144 -.130 .059 1
Notes. 173>N<46; **p < .01. abc Measured in percentages. DISCUSSION
In this research, we aimed to show that within the research field regarding impostor feelings, organizational context plays a role next to the personality characteristics of individuals. We did find support for the main part of our expectations, which showed that contextual characteristics add value on top of the individual characteristics in influencing impostor feelings of individuals. Next to that, we aimed to do additional archival research towards the influence of women, women in key positions and employee turnover predictions. We did not find support for this part of our expectations. We will now describe the
implications and limitations of this research and propose suggestions for future research. Theoretical Implications
The outcomes of this research have several theoretical implications. First, an
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impostor feelings not necessarily come forward solely from an individual him- or herself. In contrast, contextual factors also determine whether an individual does or does not experience impostor feelings. This overshadows the tendency to see impostor feelings as a “syndrome”, since context plays also a role in experiencing impostor feelings. Therefore, many of earlier proposed solutions and strategies for addressing impostor feelings who try to “fix” the individual miss an important piece of the puzzle: context.
Second, more specifically, we did encounter that lack of cultural fit was prominent in influencing impostor feelings. In addition, perceived organizational support and negative distinctive treatment correlate significantly with impostor feelings. In contrast, positive distinctive treatment did not correlate significantly with impostor feelings. This could suggest that positive circumstances within the context do not diminish impostor feelings, while negative circumstances do increase impostor feelings. Toh, Min and Srinivas (2012) confirm that, within the perspective of individuals, negative information weighs more heavily on trust than positive information. This could declare that negative contextual characteristics influence impostor feelings more heavily than positive contextual characteristics.
Third, we found no relationship between gender and impostor feelings. Early research on impostor feelings (Clance & Imes, 1978) assumed that only professional women did experience impostor feelings, while later findings showed that impostor feelings are present in both genders (Sakulku & Alexander, 2011, Cokley et al., 2015; Crawford et al., 2016). Thus, the fact that we did not find a difference in both genders and the extent to which they
experience impostor feelings, strengthens the latest findings on this topic.
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(Konrad, Ritchie, Lieb, & Corrigall, 2000); (b) the quantity in risky behavior (Byrnes, Miller, & Schafer, 1999); and (c) self-reports of assertiveness, dominance and masculinity (Twenge, 1997, 2001). Thus, such findings hint upon convergence in psychological attributes of women and men (Eagly & Diekman, 2003), which could explain the outcomes of recent research regarding the lack of gender effect in impostor feelings.
However, contradictory to the research findings of this study, research has shown that women experience specific challenges in their routes to high-power positions, since women experience greater barriers (e.g. lack of cultural fit, being excluded from informal networks) and greater importance of developing relationships to achieve advancement compared to men (Lyness & Thompson, 2000). Therefore, the question remains: how is it possible that women are more susceptible to negative experiences at the workplace (e.g. lack of cultural fit,
negative distinctive treatment) and are, as a result, more prone to impostor feelings? To build on this question, Gallos (1989) indicated that the definition of a successful career differs in gender. Therefore, specific insights are necessary to broaden our
understandings about career success for both women and men. In addition, building forward on tokenism theory, which states that underrepresentation is caused by negative work experiences for women (Yoder, 1991), the answer possibly lies in the persistence of
workplace inequities (Dipboye & Colella, 2005; Powell, Butterfield, & Parent, 2002), since gender workplace inequalities is still an actual theme (Verniers & Vala, 2018). We will propose suggestions for future research regarding the gender effect in impostor feelings in the section “Limitations and Future Research”.
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are possibly not that abundant as current research suggests. This also causes that the data concerning impostor feelings is non-normally distributed, which we will discuss in the section “Limitations and Future Research”.
Practical Implications
The findings in this research also have important practical implications. To start with, experiencing impostor feelings is associated with negative outcomes such as depression (Chrisman, Pieper, Clance, Holland & Glickauf-Hughs, 1995), anxiety (Chrisman et al., 1995; Topping & Kimmel, 1985), lower affective commitment at work (Grubb & McDowell, 2012) and less productivity at work (Brems, Baldwin, Davis, & Namyniuk, 1994). However, this research proved that the many suggested solutions for addressing impostor feelings focusing on “fixing” individuals (Langford & Glance, 1993) miss an important part, since contextual characteristics shape one’s tendency to feel like an impostor. This is a practical contribution, since it means that managers actually can do something.
First, as this research suggests, the negative effects of impostor feelings can be tempered when creating a solid cultural fit between the individual and the organization. Schneider (1987) suggests that individuals feel attracted to organizations they perceive as having values similar to their own. Thus, congruency between an individual's values and those of an organization is the key to a successful person-culture fit. More specifically, managers can take a first step in the right direction by keeping this in mind during the recruitment and selection process, since cultures of organizations are attractive to certain types of individuals (Wilkins & Ouchi, 1983). Next to this, managers need to acknowledge the norms, values, and goals of employees in order to maintain the cultural fit.
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in such a way that they deal more effectively with the effects of impostor feelings. The way to change workplace conditions is to create contexts in which all individuals are supported to feel confident in their abilities. By then, individuals prone to impostor feelings could diminish their reliance on external attributions (i.e. luck) when experiencing successes, which induce they could internalize a sense of accomplishment (Hutchins & Rainbolt, 2017).
In order to increase such feelings of confidence, it is most profitable to offer formal support derived from job-related sources, since these can influence the identity development of employees (Hutchins & Rainbolt, 2017). Such sources are for instance colleagues and department chairs, which offer support that helps employees regulate their cognitions and emotions in making sense of their impostor experiences (Hutchins & Rainbolt, 2017). By then, employees feel supported by their organization, which could temper their impostor feelings.
Third, our findings suggest that managers should be aware of the fact that both women and men are susceptible to impostor feelings (Sakulku & Alexander, 2011, Cokley et al., 2015; Crawford et al., 2016). Therefore, managers should treat women and men equally. This means that both genders deserve similar managerial attention in order to temper the effects of impostor feelings.
Limitations and Future Research
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Yammarino & Bass, 1991). Since this research consists of a sensitive topic, chances of self-serving biases are high, because participants reflect on their own behavior and personality (Nauta & Kluwer, 2004). This possibly causes social desirable answers, which are likely to occur when individuals rate their own behavior (Nauta & Kluwer, 2004).
Therefore, for future research, we recommend making use of multi-source data. More specifically, we recommend conducting experimental research. This study proved contextual characteristics as a predictor of impostor feelings. When manipulating context, future research could examine the actual influence of context on impostor feelings. Another future research suggestion is conducting longitudinal research by using multiple test moments in order to address the insights into the effects of contextual characteristics on impostor feelings. However, we already did measure impostor feelings from additional perspectives (Nauta & Kluwer, 2004) by doing archival research. Hereby, primary sources (i.e., annual reports) are included in the research.
Second, another limitation has to do with the reliability of the scales of the research. More specifically, the Cronbach’s alpha of neuroticism, conscientiousness, and negative distinctive treatment are below .70, which indicates these measures are below the threshold (Nunnally, 1978; 1988). This could have affected the results, since it hints upon less reliable data. However, due to the length of the questionnaire, we did choose to use a shortened scale for neuroticism and conscientiousness (Donnellan, Oswald, Baird & Lucas, 2006).
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scales with more response categories, up to about 7-point scales. More specifically, participants prefer scales with 7, 9, or 10 response categories (Preston & Colman, 1999).
Third, another limitation has to do with the measurement instrument. During interviews, participants can explain and adjust their answers. However, during the
questionnaire, we did not redirect respondents to necessary information (Bowling, 2005). Moreover, while filling in the questionnaire, participants were not able to check or adjust their previous answers. Thus, it is possible that respondents did choose an answer that did not fit best with their point of view. This might lead to less reliable data, since participants possibly did not choose the answer they intended to. For future research, we recommend including check-questions, which validate the right interpretation of the concepts (Foddy & Foddy, 1994).
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The last limitation has to do with one of the assumptions of this research: normality. More specifically, one of the assumptions of linear regression analysis is that the dependent variable has to be normally distributed (Keller, 2012). Within this research, the data
concerning impostor feelings is non-normally distributed, which makes it harder to draw valid conclusions. However, this makes the data harder to interpret, which indicates that the effects are even more robust (James, Witten, Hastie & Tibshirani, 2013). In addition, this also signals that impostor feelings possibly are of less frequent occurrence than current research suggests (Gravois, 2007), which is another important finding of this research.
Beyond addressing these limitations, future research could expand the present model by examining other potential contextual characteristics. First, role models are an example of an additional contextual characteristic. Because women experience negative stereotypes regarding their abilities in the workplace, they benefit from a woman role model. Such a role model illustrates the opportunity to conquer gender barriers, in order to achieve success. Contradictory, men do not experience the need for same-gender role models (Lockwood, 2006). Therefore, women seem to attach value to role models, in which the gender of the role model is important. This offers more insight into contextual characteristics and in the gender effect in influencing impostor feelings.
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Conclusions
Impostor feelings (or “impostor phenomenon”) is currently conceptualized as a stable personality trait. This study proves that it is problematic that the concept is
over-individualized, since contextual characteristics add value on top of the individual
characteristics in influencing impostor feelings of individuals. Therefore, we believe that the evidence presented here is suggestive of a new direction in impostor feelings research, in which impostor feelings are not necessarily a stable trait, in such a way it is always coming from the individual. Instead, our research proves that impostor feelings can be altered by context, and thus, is approachable as a temporary state. This has some important theoretical and practical implications and, thus, opens a window for further research. Consequently, this research enriches our understanding and helps us to address some of the issues that arise from over-individualizing the concept. We strongly encourage future researchers to identify more contextual variables in multiple settings and, as a result, diminish impostor feelings among employees.
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