ABSENTEEISM PREVENTION:
The effect of Coaching on the relationship between Emotional Work
Demand, Mental Workload and Absenteeism
Research Paper, Msc Human Resource Management University of Groningen, Faculty of Economics and Business
August 2010
Susan Walstra Ypk fan der Fearwei 85A
8915KL Leeuwarden Tel: (+31)620339217
Email: S.walstra@student.rug.nl, Susan.walstra@znb.nl Student number: S1830775
Supervisor University: Frouke de Poel
Supervisors field of study: Aukje Boutsma
Henk Hendriks
Bv. Noorderbreedte Friesland
ABSTRACT
This study researches the relationship between emotional work demand and mental workload with absenteeism. We expect coaching behavior to moderate. The findings may help enhance the absenteeism prevention focus, which is aimed at finding a way to intervene before an employee is absent to optimize employee availability. We will continue previous studies on absenteeism prevention. Positive support was found to relate emotional work demand, absenteeism and coaching. Surprisingly, no support was found to relate coaching to the relationship between mental workload and absenteeism, which is further elaborated in the discussion. The results highlight the need for different job resources and the importance of supervisors in absenteeism prevention. The task for organizations is to search for the best way to stimulate employees’ availability and prevent absenteeism, which will indirectly improve employees’ functioning in the organization (Schaufeli, 2010).
Employee availability can be seen as an important quality indicator for organizations, because absenteeism has a negative effect on the work continuity, production level and is therefore a high cost to the employer (Dikker & Keuning, 2009). The cost of absenteeism consists of the wages and benefits, but also contains several indirect costs like staffing, scheduling, retraining, lost production, and turnover (Benefits interface Inc, 2003). Organizational costs of absent employees grew enormously since the governments made employers responsible for their own absent employees. For example, Dutch employers are obligated to pay 100% of the employees pay during the first 52 weeks of his or her absenteeism and from the 53 week up to 104 weeks the employer has to pay 70% (Arbo advies, 2009). Consequently, employers have a huge interest in increasing employee availability.
Together with the increasing costs of absenteeism, work related and social cultural changes have an impact on the employees’ way of working and places more emphasis on employees’ well-being in relation to work. The importance of physical demand has been replaced by higher mental and emotional demands. More people are working with their head and heart instead of their hands nowadays (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2007). Consequently, employees are experiencing higher psychological demands due to the technological improvements, the ever-changing modern organization with the latest management concepts, and employer’s increasing expectations (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2007). Next to that, employees’ working pace has increased enormously since 1977 and this, together with more intense work, causes a lot of health and well-being problems (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2007). Moreover, the employees expectations are different and higher compared to years ago. Employees want to enjoy their work, be challenged, make a career, get promotion, and have nice co workers and bosses (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2007). In sum, higher psychological demands caused absenteeism to increase and this made organization’s interest in the subject grow, because of the increasing costs of absenteeism.
stimulate employees’ availability and prevent absenteeism, which will indirectly improve employees’ functioning in the organization (Schaufeli, 2010). The causes of absenteeism have been researched for many years and although some researchers have been working up to specific health factors that could prevent absenteeism for a while now (Lee & Ashforth, 1996; Schaufeli, 2010; Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner & Schaufeli, 2001; Harrison & Martocchio, 1998). Still, organizations have a strong need for more information, knowledge, understanding and practice, but also facts, guidelines and procedures on absenteeism prevention (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2007). Stated differently, they want practical and usable resources to implement regarding the prevention of absenteeism and the stimulation of employees to improve their functioning.
We focus on absenteeism in connection with emotional work demand and mental workload, which is in line with this latest focus of absenteeism prevention. We suggest the two work related stressors could be influenced by employers with the health protecting resource supervisor’s coaching behavior and this would mean a possibility to prevent absenteeism (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner & Schaufeli, 2001). Coaching is not seen as a leadership style, but is part of a leader’s behavior (Wageman, 2001). It entails the supervisor’s day to day interactions with their subordinates intended to shape processes to produce good performance (Wageman, 2001). So how the supervisor can help their subordinates realize and shape their personal goals and well-being to increase the organization’s goals and overall performance. We strive to make contributions to the HRM research field, and also to organizations by providing theoretical information and empirical evidence about the job resource coaching and its relation with absenteeism by examining Does emotional work
demands and mental workload affect absenteeism, when a direct leader coaches his or her subordinates? Research will be done in the healthcare organization Noorderbreedte among two locations and with a total of 196 people.
Theoretical Framework
Absenteeism
off (Lambert, Hogan & Altheimer, 2010). There is not a direct need to have a physical health problem when absent, which is reflected by the World Health Organization who state that being healthy means a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of diseases or infirmities (quoted by Neira, 2010). Moreover, absence can be an important signal to the organization, because absenteeism can be the sign that a specific work stressor needs to be reviewed (Ybema, Smulders & Bongers, 2010). Frequent absence from work may mean that a worker needs to recover from the stresses at work and long-term absence may indicate that a worker has serious problems that may or may not be due to the work (Ybema, Smulders & Bongers, 2010). We research absenteeism as the direct outcome of mental workload and emotional work demand, which means the reason for being absent will be irrelevant. So far, absenteeism has been researched as the outcome of diverse variables, like burnout, stress and a lack of motivation (Harrison & Martocchio, 1998). There is a lack on empirical research about the direct effect of absenteeism.
Emotional Work Demand, Mental Workload & Absenteeism
The job demands-resources model shows which factors negatively influence the employees’ health (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2007). Workers are exposed to different tasks, processes, experiences and expectations, which lead to work stressors. We focus on the psychosocial stressors emotional work demand and mental workload, because their importance grow since most employees work with their head instead of their hands. Psychosocial factors are defined as situations where psychological and social aspects play a role (GGD Fryslan, 2010). The psychosocial area assumes that body and mind are connected and a human needs both a healthy spirit and body to function (Lia Charité, 2010). Lee and Ashford found that stressors can lead to emotional exhaustion and therefore burnout, which in their turn is related to attitudinal and behavioral outcomes like absenteeism (Lee & Ashforth, 1996; Schaufeli, 2010; Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner & Schaufeli, 2001). All jobs bring specific work stressor risks, but also job resources to handle those risks (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2007). Only when employees do not have the ability to recover from high (psychosocial) job demands, this will lead to negative reactions like absenteeism (Schaufeli, 2010; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2007).
2010). Adding, emotional effort is the degree to which employees actively try to change their inner feelings to match the feelings they are expected to express by the organization (Zapf, 2002). Examples of these social stressors are conflict, animosities, verbal aggression, and unjust behavior at work (Zapf, Vogt, Seifert, Mertini, Isic, 1999).
Emotional work demand is directly related to a specific health problem, namely burnout, which is for example in the case of service workers caused by the intensive client interaction requirements (de Jonge, van Vegchel, Soderfeldt & Schaufeli, 2004). A burnout is a specific stress reaction or condition of feeling tense, which causes emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, a feeling of not being capable to perform (Gezondheidsplein, 2010; Lee & Ashforth, 1996). In addition, specific problems can be sleep disorder, loss of appetite, act chaotically, headache, neck and shoulder disorders, lack of motivation and interest (Gezondheidsplein, 2010). Different researches prove burnout to be related to absenteeism (Lee & Ashforth, 1996; Schaufeli, 2010; Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner & Schaufeli, 2001).
Furthermore, it is suggested that interactions with a high intensity result in a high level of emotions. Hochschild (1983) found that high emotional demands could lead to alienation of a person’s own feelings, which can cause psychological illnesses (quoted in Zapf, 2002). High emotional demands are for example showing not felt emotions (emotional dissonance) (Zaph,2002). In the long run, this can cause alienation from one’s own emotions, poor self esteem, low motivation and even depression (Zapf, 2002). So higher the level of these not felt emotions, than the more negative are the health problems and motivational problems (Zapf, 2002).
Considering the above, it is expected that high emotional work demands will increase an employee’s absenteeism. Principally, if an employee experiences his or her work as emotionally exhausting due to intensive people interactions this will influence their absenteeism.
Hypothesis 1a: Emotional work demand is positively related to absenteeism.
A lot of research has been done on workload to better understand the man-machine interfaces, but an interest in the effect of mental workload has increased, due to for example the technical changes, since the last ten years (Wiebe, Roberts & Behrend, 2010). Mental workload is caused by for example high workload, high quantitative demands, time pressure, interruption, uncertainty at work (de Jonge et al, 2004; Nederlands huisartsen genootschap, 2010; Zapf, Vogt, Seifert, Mertini, Isic, 1999). The results of high mental workload can cause feelings and thoughts like helplessness, feeling down, unhappy, anger, sadness or fear (Nederlands huisartsen genootschap, 2010). It is important to recognize that employees may experience different metal workload, while doing the same tasks. The main reason is that employees differ in responses to identical psychosocial conditions and requirements, so individual differences in the job demands pattern (Hacker, 2010). It is not only task specific, but also person-specific (de Waard, 1996).
Mental workload can be related to two types of stress, because on the one hand it can be influenced by task-related processing complexity and on the other hand by general stressors that affect the human energetic balance and thus performance and well-being (van der Ven, 2002). The first type of stress can be seen as caused by cognitive, task-related stressors, like task complexity, and the second type of stress is caused by physical stressors, like auditory noise, sleep deprivation and time pressure (van der Ven, 2002). Stress has different impacts on people and short term stress can even be positive. Short term stress due to excitement can help somebody function better or be more alert in certain situations (Gezondheidsplein, 2010). On the other hand, long term stress due to high workload can cause chronicle stress (Gezondheidsplein, 2010). Chronic stress is a serious problem, because a person’s body will be affected negatively. The body will not have the rest periods it needs to recover from the high stress levels. As a result, physical reactions can occur, like a painful neck or shoulders, headache at first (Gezondheidsplein, 2010). Thereafter, the reactions become even more serious. People can suffer from insomnia, exhaustion, focus problems, and the immune system will even be weakened (Gezondheidsplein, 2010).
Furthermore, though emotional demands are the key dimension causing a burnout according to theory, researchers have found empirical evidence for the mental job stressors workload and time pressure (Zapf, 2002).
Hypothesis 1b: Mental workload is positively related to absenteeism.
So far we only discussed the work stressors emotional work demand and mental workload and the negative organizational outcome of these stressors, but job resources are needed to undo or counter balance these negative work stressors. These resources will help employees cope with negative work aspects, achieve their goals and stimulate personal growth and development (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner & Schaufeli, 2001). Job resources are for example supervision support, feedback and this paper will try to find empirical evidence to support coaching as job resource (Schaufeli, 2010; Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner & Schaufeli, 2001). The job demand resources model presumes two processes. First, many and permanent exacting work demands have a negative influence on the energy level of an employee (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2007). This can result in negative outcomes like health issues and absenteeism (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2007). The second process assumes that the presence of job resources will intrinsically motivate the employee’s quality and will lead to positive outcomes like, vitality, commitment and a high performance (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2007).
Coaching & Absenteeism
Coaching behavior of the supervisor is defined as a structured and goal oriented process aimed at increasing effectivity, skill development, immediate behavior improvement, increasing competence, built commitment and enhance confidence, this is done by teaching and helping people understand how their cognition and emotions can interfere with personal effectiveness, performance and well-being (Hadikan, 2004; Stammes, Kooij, Koning de & Baarsen van, 2006; Kushnir, Ehrenfeld & Shalish, 2008; Bluckert, 2005; Soannes, Hawker & Elliott, 2009; Wageman, 2005). In short, it is the process of equipping people with the tools, knowledge and opportunities to develop themselves and become more effective (Barhett, 2006). To narrow it down even further, the essence of coaching is the improvement of people’s realization of the influence on, and improvement of, their personal well-being in organizational context by the employee’s supervisor (Hadikan, 2004; Stoker, Looise, Fisscher & Jong de, 2001; Wageman, 2005). Most simply stated, coaching is aimed at helping others realize their potential and place the responsibility and accountability of their actions on themselves (Hadikan, 2004).
health is not a direct goal of coaching and is mostly aimed at enlarging the working skills, it can have a positive influence on the prevention of absenteeism (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2007). Coaching employees on work related effectiveness has been shown to lessen workload and emotional exhaustions, which are both important factors for a burnout (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2007). The above shows organizations and researcher’s recognition of coaching’s influence on absenteeism.
Not all employees who suffer from work pressure or stress have to become absent. Different employees will need different or more absence-triggering events, before they actually become absent. For example they cannot cope with certain work stressors at all; a lack of confidence or the employee is just not at the right spot in the organization (Gezondinbedrijf, 2010). Supervisor’s coaching will help find their employee’s disturbing factors that can cause absenteeism and support the employee in finding an alternative to cope with them (Gezondinbedrijf, 2010). Besides that, the employee is stimulated to change those disturbing factors. This way the employee is learning and encouraged to take its own responsibility (Gezondinbedrijf, 2010).
A case study on absenteeism in “the coach approach” describes different elements for lowering absenteeism (Stammes et al, 2006). This case assumes that some of the “grey” absenteeism areas can be influenced by coaching, because it will wake up the employee and work towards a state that the employee is most effective. One of the elements is the individual coaching talk, which was held with different (future) absent employees (Stammes et al, 2006). These conversations had different outcomes, for example some employees got a personal development plan and others were supported in finding other work (Dikker & Keuning, 2009).
It is expected that a supervisor’s coaching behavior could be able to prevent absenteeism, which is in line with the latest shift towards investment in the development and maintenance of employees discussed before (Dikker & Keuning, 2009). Therefore, we expect coaching will be negatively related to absenteeism. If supervisors use coaching in their every day interaction with their subordinates, it would mean that those employees have a lower absenteeism level.
Emotional Work Demand, Mental Workload, Coaching & Absenteeism
Does coaching affect absenteeism when caused by emotional work demand or mental workload? Previous research proved high work pressure and lots of social contact does not have to be negative, as long as the employer offers enough job resources (Gezondinbedrijf, 2009). High levels of mental workload, emotional demands, physical demands and work-home interferences do not have to result in high levels of exhaustion and cynicism, if employees feel they have adequate levels of autonomy, receive feedback and social support, or have a high quality relationship with their supervisor (Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Dollard, Demetouti, Schaufeli, Taris & Schreurs, 2006). Therefore we suggest, supervisor’s coaching as one of those resources, because it will try to let people see they have a choice, are able to change work conditions they do not like, and increase their work related effectiveness(Gezondinbedrijf, 2010). Therefore, coaching will make employees a better version of themselves and inspire them to live their best life, and do what they enjoy (Hadikan, 2004). Interesting about this article is the suggestion that the feeling of the work resource autonomy will even make these work stressors, like workload, a challenge instead of something negative (Gezondinbedrijf, 2009).
Another interesting model is the demand control model by Robert Karasek from 1979 which suggests that psychological job demands and job decision latitude/control are huge determinants of health and well being (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2007). An employee will be able to handle lots of psychological stressors, if he or she has a high job control (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2007). This means if the employee has work autonomy and is allowed to handle the stressors the way he or she wants to, he or she will be less absent. Still people need some help with finding the right way of working, realizing they can make their own choices and sometimes some help to explore their horizon (Hadikan, 2004). A supervisor’s coaching is aimed at these three processes and will not diminish the employee’s freedom (Hadikan, 2004). Supervisor’s coaching could help to find the best way to communicate and may even be the communication style in the future (Hadikan, 2004).
of mental workload. Though we expect the same relations with absenteeism and coaching from both stressors, they are being tested separately. This because they are proven to be different variables. Therefore we are going to research the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 3a: Emotional work demand will be less positively related to absenteeism when coaching is high.
Hypothesis 3b: Mental workload will be less positively related to absenteeism when coaching is high.
FIGURE 1: RESEARCH MODEL
METHODS
Procedure and Respondentbetween 0 and 36 hours per week (M=21.17,S.D.=7.75) and the tenure varied from 0 up to 29 years (M=10.86, S.D.=7.26).
The questionnaire consists of the three parts: work, leadership and health. The questionnaire entails statements about certain group variables. All the statements used for this research had a scale from 1 to 5. The first part about work consists of statements about the variables mental workload and emotional work demand. The second part entails questions about coaching and the last part are questions about the control variable health problems. In this section one statement is given and should be answered with yes or no and one question is asked about the cause of these health problems. The participation was voluntarily and confidential, because of the personal questions involved. Therefore the questionnaire was coded instead of named to make sure the information stayed private. Next to that the questionnaires were handed out with a sealable envelope.
Organization
Noorderbreedte is a healthcare institution with 12 locations in the province Friesland in The Netherlands since 1987. Noorderbreedte’s mission is to make sure their clients continue living as they are used to during their stay in one of the locations (ZNB, 2008). The organization has 1915 employees from which 1359 (71%) have a nursing function (Arbo, 2009). Absenteeism is with 6.11% above the standard of 5.5% and both the absenteeism frequency and duration are above the standard (Arbo, 2009). Noorderbreedte’s largest difference with the standard is in the groups of “6-52 weeks” absent and “52 and above” (Arbo, 2009). Furthermore, the average employee age in Noorderbreedte is 43.2 and 50% of the employees are above 45 years (Arbo, 2009).
Measures
Dependent Variable
Absenteeism (individual level). Absenteeism will be measured in frequency and duration. The frequency measures the total of the number of times an employee was absent in the year 2009 and the duration measures the total amount of days the employee was absent in the year 2009. Both frequency and duration are retrieved objectively from the organization’s data. This absence measure is more valuable in individual behavior and proved to be more reliable in previous research of Brooke & Price (Brooke & Price, 1989; Clenney, 1992). The Cronbach’s alpha is an average 0.66.
Independent Variables
Emotional work demand (individual level). Van Veldhoven, Meijman, Broersen and Fortuin (1997) established a questionnaire for the measurement of psychosocial work demand factors named the “Questionnaire on the Experience and Assessment of Work”(VBBA) together with the Arbo service, University of Groningen, the Dutch institute of labor conditions and the University of Amsterdam. Their statements on emotional work demand were used in this research. The statements ask about level of importance and therefore the scales are divided into 1 = “not agree at all” to 5 = “totally agree”. Participants were asked about “how emotionally demanding they find their work”, “if they are personally touched by work related issues” and “if they experience difficulties in their contact with patients”. The Cronbach’s alpha of emotional work demand is 0.74.
Mental workload (individual level). The mental workload statements used in this research are based on the VBBA questionnaire established by van Veldhoven, Meijman, Broersen and Fortuin in 1997. The seven statements are also scaled in 5-point scales and again the scales are all divided into 1 = “not agree at all” to 5 = “totally agree”. The following statements were used: “I have to work very precise”, “I constantly have to pay attention while working”, “my work requires high accuracy” and “my work requires a high level of concentration”. The Cronbach’s alpha is 0.86
Moderator
members and work situations”, “helps resolve conflicts at work”, “gives compliments when appropriate”, “guides to stay alert regarding different ways of working if needed” and “helps to use unique talents”. Again, they are also scaled in 5-point scales and the scales are all divided into 1 = “not agree at all” to 5 = “totally agree”. The Cronbach’s alpha of this variable is 0.81.
Control Variables
Age, tenure, contract hours. These control variables are objectively retrieved from the company’s digital personnel files. Age, tenure and contract hours have been found to be related to absent behavior for several times in the past (Harrison & Martocchio, 1998).
Health problems. The health problem of the participant was measured by the statement “I had health problems in the year 2009” and could be answered with yes or no. The health problems have strong relations with absenteeism and can be seen as the first predictor of absenteeism (Harrison & Martocchio, 1998). These control variables are chosen, because this will exclude any influence on the variables.
Data Analysis
In this paper a regression analysis is conducted. The data was processed in SPSS, after the questionnaires were filled in and collected. Several steps needed to be taken to make a correct regression analysis. First, a factor analysis was done to make sure the item measured the same variable. Next, the Cronbach’s Alpha was calculated. After that the preparation for the regression analysis was done.
Factor Analysis
A factor analysis was used to test whether the items used for this research were measuring the same variables as they were intended to do. To find out if there was not an unobserved variable present, which could influence the research. Luckily, the factor analysis found four variables: absenteeism, mental workload, emotional work demand, and coaching behavior ( ^2=844.98, df=120, p<0.001).The rotated component matrix is shown in
appendix A.
Regression Analysis
outliers in the emotional work demand model. We conducted correlation analysis to show the strengths and directions of the relations among the variables. We used one tailed significance tests.
RESULTS
Table 1 and 2 provide the mean, standard deviations (S.D) and correlations for the variables. Mental workload has a significant Pearson‘s correlation with coaching (r=0.16, p<0.05). Emotional work demand is correlated to absenteeism (r=0.38, p<0.001) and coaching (r= -0.27, p<0.01). Also coaching and absenteeism have a significant negative relation (r= -0.30/-0.44, p<0.001). These correlations are rather small, regarding 0 as no relation and 1 as a perfect relation. The highest correlation is between coaching and absenteeism. Absenteeism has also a high positive correlation with emotional work demand and health problems (r= -0.36/-0.32, p<0.001). The lowest correlation is between mental workload and coaching.
Table 3 and 4 provide the multiple regression analysis showing the tested hypothesis. The effect of emotional work demand and coaching on absenteeism was tested in model 2 table 3. 12 percent of the hypothesized relations can be explained by the model (∆R^2=0.12, F=4.99, p<0.05). In other words, how well future outcomes can be predicted by the model. The interaction effect of model 3 table 3 is the effect of emotional work demand on absenteeism when coaching is included. In this model 35 percent can be explained by the model (∆R^2=0.35, F=4.35, p>0.05)
The effect of mental workload and coaching on absenteeism was tested in model 2 of table 4. As shown in the same table, 15 percent of the hypothesized relations can be explained by the model (∆R^2=0.15, F=5.58, p<0.05). Model 3 of table 4 shows the interaction effect, the effect of mental workload on absenteeism when coaching is included. 20 percent can be explained by the model (∆R^2=0. 20, F=0.83, p>0.05).
Emotional Work demand and Absenteeism (H1A)
Mental Workload and Absenteeism (H 1B)
The multiple regression analysis shows no significant evidence for the effect of mental workload on absenteeism (b=-0.09, t=-0.80, p>0.05). This means mental workload is negatively related to absenteeism, which means this hypothesis is not supported.
Coaching and Absenteeism (H2)
The regression analysis shows a negative relation between coaching and absenteeism (b=-0.34, t=--4.24, p<0.05). This means absenteeism will be negatively related by coaching, which supports the hypothesis. If coaching appears the absenteeism will be decreasing, which is a positive effect for an organization.
Impact of Coaching on Emotional Work Demand and Absenteeism (H3A)
Table 3 shows evidence of the effect of emotional work demand on absenteeism with coaching included (b=-0.14, t=-2.09, p<0.05). There is enough evidence of the moderator effect of coaching on emotional work demand and absenteeism. Meaning that coaching decreases the positive relation between emotional work demand and absenteeism. The interaction is shown in the graph below. Which shows low coaching behaviour shows a strong effect of absenteeism and emotional work demand(b=0.38, t=3.61, p<0.001), high coaching behavior reduces the strength of the relation between the two variables (b=0.91, t=0.79, p>0.43).
Impact of Coaching on Mental Workload and Absenteeism (H3B)
TABLE 1
Means, Standard Deviations and Correlation Emotional Work Demand
TABLE 2
TABLE 3
Results of the Multiple Regression Analysis Emotional Work Demand
Model b R square Adjusted R squared F change
1. (Control variables) 0.15 0.12 4.99*** Age 0.11 Tenure 0.06 Contract hours 0.14 Health problems -0.36*** 2. (Main effect) 0.36 0.33 17.68*** Emotion WD 0.25** Coaching (C) -0.36*** 3. (Interaction effect) 0.39 0.35 4.35* EWL x C -0.14* * p<0.05 **p<0.01 ***p<0.001 N=116 TABLE 4
Results of the Multiple Regression Analysis Mental Workload
Model b R square Adjusted R squared F change
DISCUSSION
FindingsThis study is designed to assess the role of emotional work demand, mental workload and coaching on absenteeism. Absenteeism has been researched many times already, but there is a lack of research on absenteeism as direct outcome. The main objective of this paper is to provide empirical evidence on the practical and usable resource coaching to prevent absenteeism. Is a supervisor able to prevent absenteeism by his or her coaching behavior? The job demands-resources model is the leading theory in this paper, because it supports the fact that job resources can be used to reduce the negative effect of work stressors, which can result in the prevention of absenteeism. The most interesting of this study may be the window it provides into our view on overall workload and absenteeism prevention. Our study makes two contributions in this research field, which will be explained now.
Theoretical Implications
We find evidence to support the relation between emotional work demand, coaching and absenteeism (H1A, H3A). The results suggest that if a supervisor is able to coach the employee in handling the work aspects that need sustained emotional effort and therefore cause emotional work demand, the employee will be less likely to be absent. Meaning, a supervisor can affect emotional work demand to prevent absenteeism, which makes a supervisor’s coaching behavior a good job resource to reduce the negative effect of this job stressor. Our findings provided field based support for the relation between absenteeism and coaching (H2). Pearson’s correlation and the regression analysis clearly show these relations. These relations highlight the importance of the supervisor in the prevention of absenteeism. It also shows that organizations can interfere in the absenteeism process earlier than was assumed so far.
the acquisition of more task specific knowledge, which gives the employee more experience in using a certain tool or principle (van der Ven, 2001). This can be done by, for example training and goal setting programs (van der Ven, 2001; Gaudine & Saks, 2001).
The following findings may help reconsider the inconsistence of the effect of coaching behavior on mental workload and absenteeism. It is suggested that mental workload asks for a more directing leadership behavior, than the guiding approach of coaching offers (Stammes, Kooij, Koning de & Baarsen van, 2006). Therefore, we want to introduce another leadership behavior namely motivating language, which is part of the motivating language theory and is seen as the link between leader communication and the reduction of absenteeism (Mayfield & Mayfield, 2009; Sullivan, 1988). Leader’s motivating communication entails speech acts like those reducing employee uncertainty and increase his or her knowledge, and those that facilitate the employee’s construction of cognitive schemas and scripts, which can be used to ease work tasks (Sullivan, 1988). Stated simply, employees who experience mental workload are in need of information and skills to reduce the effort needed to perform. This will not be provided by a supervisor’s coaching behavior, but instead motivating language of the supervisor will give clear guidelines and provide knowledge that is able to reduce the level of effort an employee has to put in work tasks. Besides that, motivating language focuses on communication as the principle means for optimizing valued employee outcomes, performance, job satisfaction, low absenteeism, loyalty, low retention (Mayfield & Mayfield, 2007). So, lowering mental workload by a leader’s motivating language can even have a more positive outcome than absenteeism alone.
Although a supervisor’s coaching behavior can be seen as a job resource in the relation of emotional work demand and absenteeism, it is important to realize that it will not be the right job resource for all job stressors. Emotional work demand is more depended on the true feelings and communicative preferences of the employee itself and every person might deal with them differently, but mental workload can only be reduced by helping the employee show the easiest way to handle their work tasks (van der Ven, 2001).
Further Research
studying in the future. Which job stressor will and will not be influenced by the job resource coaching behavior to prevent absenteeism? Are there other job resources that will contribute to prevent absenteeism? Will motivating language reduce the relation between mental workload and absenteeism as suggested in this paper? Moreover, this study highlights the possibilities of absenteeism prevention.
Strong & Weak Points
This study’s major advantage is that workload has been researched more deeply, because it is divided into emotional work demand and mental workload. This way the research shows the different effect of coaching on both work stressors. Next to that, the power of the sample is high for this research, which strengthens the significance of the research. Also, the variable coaching behavior consists of seven statements from different researches, which contributes the variable’s strength in this research. Another advantage of this research is that absenteeism is researched objectively, which rules out any possibility for common method bias for this variable (Meade, Watson & Kroustalis, 2007).
Coaching behavior was researched subjectively, but different steps were taken to lower the possibility for biased answers. The employees are ensured of their privacy and next to that the questionnaire stated several times that “this questionnaire was not used to judge the performance of their supervisor, but was only used for research purposes”. The questionnaire contained only a number and could be returned in a questionnaire box. The researcher was available for any questions or concerns, because she was at the location all day when handing out the questionnaires. Unfortunately, we are not able to ensure any bias is ruled out, because it is still retrieved subjectively. Another limitation is we use absenteeism over the year 2009 and we measure emotional work demand and mental workload at this moment, which can cause bias. Employee may experience differences in mental workload and emotional work demand now compared to then. These limitations need to be taken into account, when analyzing this research paper’s outcome.
Practical Implications
process. Coaching behavior can be seen as a job resource and organizations need to invest in the coaching ability of their supervisors to be able to prevent absenteeism.
Second, it is important for organizations to recognize the different work stressors and they might need different job resources to prevent absenteeism. The relation between emotional work demand and absenteeism is reduced by coaching behavior, but on the other hand mental workload is a different stressor and in need of a different job resource. Therefore, we like to suggest that organizations invest in more than one supervisor’s behaviors. Obviously, it is important to find out which job stressors are important and relate the job resource to that.
Third, for supervisors it means that they need to be aware of the impact they can have on their subordinates absenteeism. Their coaching can help ease the subordinates work related relations as proven in this paper. It is suggested that supervisors train their coaching skill and keep in mind that they are an important asset to the organization regarding absenteeism prevention.
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Appendix A: Factor Analysis
Components
1 2 3 4
My supervisor keeps me alert at things that might need a different way of working. 0.78
My supervisor helps me use my unique talents. 0.75
My supervisor helps me solve conflicts with other team members. 0.73 My supervisor gives me compliments when I do my job well. 0.73 My supervisor explains me how to handle new and difficult problems. 0.63 My supervisor accompanies me with the broader perspective of the job. 0.60
My supervisor give me advice when needed. 0.57
My work requests huge accuracy. 0.88 I constantly need to pay attention during a workday. 0.87
My work requests a lot of concentration. 0.77
I have to work precise. 0.76
I experience my work as emotionally heavy. 0.80
I am confronted with things that touch me personally during my work. 0.78 My work entails difficult contacts with clients/patients. 0.63
How many days have you been absent in the year 2009)? 0.74
How many times was the employee absent in the year 2009? 0.70
Appendix B: Questionnaire
Beste medewerker,
Voor u ligt de vragenlijst van het onderzoek “Leiderschap, Werkbelasting & Gezondheid”. Dit onderzoek is onderdeel van mijn studie Human Resource Management aan de Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. Dit onderwerp verschaft niet alleen de RUG met nieuwe academische informatie. Ook zou ik graag het management van Noorderbreedte informeren in het kader van het gezondheidsbeleid en te adviseren over verbeteringen.
De vragenlijst bestaat uit drie paragrafen. De eerste paragraaf bestaat uit stellingen over uw werk. De tweede paragraaf bestaat uit stellingen met betrekking tot uw directe leidinggevende. Dit is uw Coördinator zorg. Graag wil ik benadrukken dat
deze vragen niet worden gebruikt ter beoordeling van uw leidinggevende. Mijn
onderzoek zal alleen relaties aantonen en verbanden leggen. De vragenlijst eindigt met stellingen en vragen over uw gezondheid.
Daarnaast zou ik graag willen benadrukken dat uw gegevens vertrouwelijk zullen worden behandeld. De resultaten zullen niet te herleiden zijn tot individuele
personen!
U zult via uw leidinggevende op de hoogte worden gesteld van de uitkomsten van het onderzoek. Mocht u nog vragen hebben over het onderzoek, dan kunt u gerust contact met mij opnemen.
Alvast heel erg bedankt voor uw medewerking! Met Vriendelijke groet,
Susan Walstra
P&O stagiaire Noorderbreedte
Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, opleiding HRM
Uitleg
De vragenlijst bestaat uit stellingen met 5 keuzemogelijkheden. Omcirkel het antwoord dat voor u het meest van toepassing is. Bij twijfel kunt u het beste afgaan op het eerste antwoord dat in u opkomt. Het is de bedoeling dat u 1 antwoord omcirkelt.
De vragen zullen de twee onderstaande vormen hebben.
Voorbeeld 1: Volledig mee Oneens Oneens Niet Eens/ Niet Oneens Eens Volledig Mee Eens
Met vies weer blijf ik het liefst binnen. 1 2 3 4 5
Voorbeeld 2:
Nooit Zelden Soms Meestal Altijd
Met mooi weer ben ik altijd
1. Over het werk
Het gaat hierbij om uw ervaringen binnen uw functie.
Volledig mee Oneens Oneens Niet Eens/ Niet Oneens Eens Volledig mee Eens
1. Ik vind mijn werk emotioneel
zwaar. 1 2 3 4 5
2. Ik word tijdens mijn werk geconfronteerd met dingen die
mij persoonlijk raken. 1 2 3 4 5
3. Ik heb tijdens mijn werk contacten
met lastige patiënten. 1 2 3 4 5
4. Ik moet erg precies werken. 1 2 3 4 5
5. In mijn werk is het belangrijk dat ik voortdurend mijn aandacht er
bij moet houden. 1 2 3 4 5
6. Mijn werk vereist grote
zorgvuldigheid. 1 2 3 4 5
7. Mijn werk vereist veel
2. Over leidinggeven & coachen
Let op: met “mijn leidinggevende” wordt hier UW coördinator zorg bedoeld!
De gegevens zullen vertrouwelijk worden behandeld en zijn NIET tot een individueel persoon te herleiden. Het gaat hierbij NIET om een beoordeling van uw leidinggevende!
Volledig mee Oneens Oneens Niet Eens/ Niet Oneens Eens Volledig mee eens Mijn leidinggevende:
8. Geeft advies wanneer ik dat
nodig heb. 1 2 3 4 5
9. Legt uit hoe te handelen bij
nieuwe of moeilijke problemen. 1 2 3 4 5
10. Helpt mij bij de grote lijnen van
mijn werk. 1 2 3 4 5
11. Helpt mij bij het op lossen van
conflicten binnen het team. 1 2 3 4 5
12. Geeft mij complimenten als ik
mijn werk goed doe. 1 2 3 4 5
13. Begeleidt mij om alert te zijn op alles dat misschien een andere werkwijze nodig heeft.
1 2 3 4 5
14. Helpt mij mijn unieke talenten te
Let op: Deze vragen hebben andere keuzemogelijkheden!
Nooit Zelden Soms Meestal Altijd
Mijn leidinggevende:
15. Zet het belang van mij en mijn
team voor dat van haar/hem zelf. 1 2 3 4 5
16. Geeft leiding door het goede
voorbeeld te geven. 1 2 3 4 5
17. Straalt kracht en vertrouwen uit. 1 2 3 4 5
18. Neemt de moraal en ethische gevolgen mee in haar/zijn besluitvorming.
1 2 3 4 5
19. Houdt rekening met mijn
persoonlijke wensen. 1 2 3 4 5
20. Stelt vragen die mij aanzetten tot
nadenken. 1 2 3 4 5
21. Inspireert mij met haar/zijn
toekomstplannen. 1 2 3 4 5
3. Over uw gezondheid
De volgende vraag gaat over UW gezondheidsklachten in het jaar 2009. Uiteraard zullen ook deze gegevens vertrouwelijk worden behandeld!
22. Ik had in het jaar 2009
