巨主
CHAPTERTWO
CH肥D−HEADEDHOUSEHOLDSANDLEARNINGCHALLENGES
Thevuinerab冊yofchiid−headedhousehoidsstartsiongbeforethedeathofparents（Arnab ＆Serumaga￣Zake，2006：221）・Bythetimeparentsget用andbegintobeweak，。h柚。n Start tO eXPerience negat−Ve Cha＝enges from emotionaidistress，due to the fear of becom−ngdestituteTheybegintOtakegreaterresponsibIiitiessuchasgeneratinginCOme， SearChingforf00dandtakingcareofthemseivesandtheirsibIingS（Arnab＆Serumaga− Zake）2006：221）・These c回dren end up ge冊g exposed to anincreased nSk。f discr剛nation・eXPio圃VeChiidLabourpract−CeaStheycommand∼Owerwages，SeXual expioItation巾einthestreetsandafu皿erriSkofcontaminationwith田∨／Aids（NiChoison ＆Jefferson，2008’407−411） inthischapterJexploredgeneraiaspectsreiatedtothefCliowingiSSueS： ・C帥d−headedhousehoids：aCOnCePtCiar甫cation O CauSeSOfc回d−headed househoids O themagnitudeofchiid−headedhousehoIds o theeffectsofc刷d−headed househoIds ．Ch周一headedhousehoidsandneedsfuifiiment ● Learn旧gChallengesandch性headedhouseholds O eXPeCtatiOnS o self−eSteem 14
O goaiorlentation o reguJarschooJattendance o seifTeguiation O SeifでffrCaCy o attributions
O COgnitivedeveiopment
o motiVatiOn
O Parentaiinvoivement
O SOCIOeCOnOmicfactors2・2CHILD−HEADEDHOUSEHOLDS‥ACONCEPTCLARIFICATJON
inSouthAfrica・SOmehousehoidsconsIStOf一骨同drenon−y”（noaduはatail）whiiesome COnSistofc帥drenandtheeIder−y・Thisisduetoparentaideathsfromd肝erentcauses Orphan−hoodpreva−enceahostdoubiedbetween2000and2005asindicatedinNewe‖ （2008‥1）iWhibtherecentreportbyUN−CEF（inMa血us，2009・299−300）油cates between143and210m帖0nOrPhansworidwideandanestimated14miiIIOnOrPhansdue toAidsinSub−SaharanAfricaThisnumberisestimatedtoincreaseto18miiIionin2010． The…mberoforphansinSouthAfricawas149miiiionin2008，aSrePOrtedinreCent SouthAfricasta軸cs（Momberg・2008）・itjs佃cated航herthatabout2％ofdoubie OrPhans（Withoutbothparents）i，Veinc帥d一〇niyhousehoids・Thesech柚enare18years andyounger（Newe町2008．1）． 152▲2．2 Definitionofchiid−headedhousehoids Je紺SOn（inNichoison＆Jefferson・2008‥408）andKaIlman（2003‥34）definechIid−headed
househoidsashousehoidswherebothparentshavediedandtheheadofthehousehold
andprlmaryincomeearnerISbeIowtheageofeighteenyears・Ma血us（2009‥299） de航esc回d−headed househoIdsasthoseinwhichthereisabsenceorpermanent incapacityoftheaduitcaregLVerWhichhasnecessitatedthetakingoverofresponsib冊es bychiidren・Ch剛eaded famiJies are vuInerabie，eSPeCia‖ythose compr−S一＝g OfAids orphans
（Masondo72006：9）・Learnerswhoareheadsoffam出esdropoutofsch00iandhuntfor jobstosecureempioymentinOrdertoprovideforthesiblingS（MoHet，2007．85）Headsof C回d−headedfam用esoftenfacequitearangeofissues）SuChas−ackofs面vaineedsand ・POVehy・Theyoftenmissoutoneducat一〇nandheaithcare；needtocopewithgrief， StIgmatizatiorlanddiscr面nation（Aiiiance，2009）． Themostoverwheim−ngandhum旧ngprobiemsthatareexperiencedbytheseiearners fromchiJd−headedfamiiiesarefinanciaiprob−ems巾ngerieducationaifaiiure，Chiidiabour，
PSyChoiogICa巾robiemsiinadequate mediCaicare and d，SruPtion ofnormaichIidh00d deveiopment（AHLanCe）2009回okoena，2007‥59；Masondo，2006・4；Leathami2005・86− 87）
Mwamwenda（2004：393）beIievesthateducators）know−edge，PerSOnaiityanda靴udecan PlayaveryimPOhantroIe−n SuPPOrting−earnerswhohead househoids．SIoth−MeIsen （2004・27）arguesthateducatorsandsociaiworkerscanofferassistancewithregardto basICneedsforchiidrenwhoheadhouseho−dsiandthat舶erentgrantsareputinpiaceat
gOVemmentIeveitocaterforsomeofthebasicneeds
Thediscussionabovec−ear∼ylinkswiththehierarchyofneedsasindicatedbyMasiowin Ciarkson（2006）andW00ifolk（2004：353）・AccordingtoMasiow，basicorlower一〇rder needshavetobefuIfiIled，，nOrderforhigher−Orderseif−aCtuaIizationneedstobesatisfied （Arends・2009：142）・Theiowe巾asicneedsincIudethephysio一〇gicaineeds（food，Shelter 16andcIothing）・thesafetyneeds，theneedforloveandtobeiongandtheneedforseJf＿ esteem・From the above−mentioned diSCuSSion，一argue that ch冊en who head households，iackbasICneedswhich両urnw用刷encethehigher一〇rderneedssuchas theneedtoacqu）reknowiedge）theaestheticneediandtheneedforse廿actua厩tionand finaliytheneedfortranscendence（CJarkson・2006）・InadditiOntOthiS，duetobeingby themselves，Withoutparentsoranadu掴gurewhocanassistandmotivatethemwith deveiopmentand acquir，ng neCeSSaryS畑siitCan bearguedthatiearnerswho head householdsm一ghtexper一enCePrObiemsreiatedtothefu刑mentofthehigher一〇rderneeds Whichinciudetheneedtoacquireknowiedge（Cf2．5．5）． 而thecontextofthestudy言COnCePtu訓zedch直上headedhousehoIdsasfamiiieswhiChare ledbych柚enbeiowtheageof18becauseofthepermanentabsenceofparentsorany aduItguardlan． hthenextsectioniiexpIorefactorsthatleadtohousehoidsbecom一ngChild−headed．
2・3 FACTORSTHATLEADTOHOUSEHOLDSBECOrV‖NGCH肥D−HEADED
OneoftheieadingcausesofchiId−headedhousehoidsistheH一VandAidspandemiCthat hastakenthelivesofmanypeopieintheworid・Chi（drenarek誼asorphans，aIoneorwith eideriypeopietotakecareof Extendedfamiiiesareunabietoactascareg一VerSdueto increasedstress rdatedtopovehyand asenseofdespa−rreSu凪ngfrom HiVandAids（A用ance，2009，German，2006149−158）田VandAids affecthousehoid structures and theircompositIOngioba時AlargenumberofchikLheadedfamiiiesexIStmOStiybecauseof Aldsmorta冊y（UNICEFlnNeweH，20081）．
itisassumedtha白日hereisnOinterVentionorchangeinbehav∼Ourby2010iAids−rerated deathsareexpectedtoincreaset080009Oayear（Ka冊an，200348）．ThiS▲bringsaiong a greatchaiiengeto befaced，aS anlnCreaSed numberoforphans，and anincreasein householdsthatareheadedbych剛enin2006】40miilionpeop−ewere廟ngw剛HiV ancIAidsworIdwtdeofwhiCh63％wereilVinginSub−SaharanAfrica・inAfricadurlng2006，
12milIionAidsorphahswerecounted（France，2006）．Th，SimpIieSthatS。uthAfri。at。。is facedbyagreatch訓engetodea‖vithchIid−headedfamilIeS． ChronicaIJysickparentsareunabIetosupportandtakecareoftheirfam用es，SOCh柚en areboundtopiaythemajorroieasparentsforthesakeofthefami，y（Roby＆Cochran， 2007’20）・AccordingtoRobyandCochran（2007‥20），Childrenwhoheadhouseh。idshav。 totakeupthefoiiowingreSPOnSIbiIities：theyhavetomakesurethatthehouseisc−ean； theirS剛ngsareciean；theyhaveciothes吉heyhavefinancesfortheirstudieS占hatfoodis PrOVidedforeverybodyinthefam時theytakecareofthosethatare帖nthehouse； arrangetoobtain b刷ce輔catesfortheirsibiings，theyoffergu，dancetotheirsibiingS towardsanacceptabIeiifestybandmakedecisionso叩「，0ritizlnghowtospendmoney． LowmarriagerateSalsocontributeはrgeiytochiId−headedhouseho−dsbecauseas−ng∼e ParentiuSUaiIythemother）isboundtoIeavechiIdrenaloneforJOb−Seeking，Whichtakesus toanothercauseofch潤一headedfam帖es，nameiymob冊y（Newe町2008．11）．Parents normaliy movefrom one piaceto anothersearch一ng forgoodjobs so astofeed their famiiies・in the meant−me言heir ch柏ren are Leftaionewith oIderchiidren facing the responsib冊yofhead−ngthefamiiyiWomeninSouthAfricaseemtobethegroupofpeop，e Who have been mostly a什ected by thelabour m一gration of the apa刷eid era which COntributedtothefactthatmosthouseholdsareieftw∼thoutcaregivers（Newei上200811）． RobyandCochran（2007・20）indiCatethatabout12％ofchiid−headedfam用es，haveGOme
aboutduetoabandonmentbyparentswhoieavechiidrenalone withoutanyonetotake
CareOfthem，W剛etheparentsgotourbanareastoseekjobs（Roby＆Cochran，2007：20）． ididnotspecificaiiyfocusononeofthecausesofchild−headedhousehoidsinthecontext Ofmystudy，butseiectedleamerswhobecameheadsofhousehoidsduetoanyofthe above−mentionedcauses・inthefoiiowingSeCt一〇nihighiightthemagnitudeofchiid互eaded househoids．2．3．1Themag而udeofchiid−headedhouseh01ds
TheUNAJDSstudyof88countriesthatwasreieasedin2002（活K訓man，2003：34）， obserVedthat13・4m冊onc帥C汗en undertheageof15yearsinAfrica，AsiaandLatin AmerlCahadiostparentsduetoAidsiitisexpectedthatthenumberw旧ncreaseto25 m帖onin2010・InSub−SaharanAfriCa・12％ofalIchildrenareorphanswhicharehigher thaninAsiaand LatinAmerICa・Thenumberoforphansis rapi的‖ncreasIngin Sub− SaharanAfricaduetoAids Forinstance・SouthAfricaisexpectedtohavea16％orphan rate，Ofwhich70％wiiibeduetoAidsin2010・旧snotedthatAidsproducedmoreorphans ∼nSouthAfricathaninanyOthercountry（UNiCEFinMa周nus，2009299）．
Largenumbersoforphansimpiyiargenumbersofc刷d−headed househoIds〈KaIiman， 2003・34）0rphansIIVeinPOOrSOCio−eCOnOmiCSituations∼nAfrica，eSPeCia町nruraiareas Where the「e areiarge numbers of ch冊en who head househoIds・一n Botswana，aS 圃catedbyAmabandSerumaga−Zake（2006：221），15％ofaIich潤renareorphansand 4，2％oftheseare househoid heads・川someareas about37％ofch潤ren areheads of househoids（Amab＆Serumaga−Zake，2006’221）・TheyarechiidrenwhoexperienCePain andhungeriiackpropereducationandhaveinadequateciothing（Leatham，2005．61）
Aiiiance for ChiIdren’s Entitiementto SocialSec…ty（ACESS）statedin Nichoison and Jefferson（2008’409）that言n2002日herewere approximateiy900000chiidren underthe ageof18inSouthA面cawhoiostmothersItisantiCiPatedthatthenumberw帖ncreaseto threem間onby2015・UNAiDS（lnNichoison＆Jefferson，2008：409）fu軸erindicatesthat 370000chi）drenunder18yearsexperiencedthedeathofoneparentIn2003whiiethere Were2・2miiiionorphans TheorphanpopuIatiOninSouthAfricaJSiikeiytorisefrom9％to
12％by2015（NichoIson＆Jefferson，2008：409）
旧saIsoindicatedthat82％ofc剛d−headed househoids consistofoneorfwoch惜ren．
Therearemoreoriess11500househ01dsinSouthAfricathatareheadedbychiIdrenthat
COmpriseoftw00rmOreC帥dreniiVingwithoutadults（Richter＆Desmond，2008：1024）． Themagnitudeofch陸上headedhousehoidslntheXhariepDistrictindICateSthatthereare
about26630rPhansat描erentschoois）Ofwhich1968CouIdpossiblybeheadingfamiiies
（CfAppendixF）・
両Order to determine theiea…ng Ch訓enges experienced by）earners who head househoidsithee什ectofchiid−headedhousehoidsonIearnerswhoheadthesehousehoids hadtobeinvestigated，aSthenegativeeHectscuiminateintoneedswhich∼fnotmet，iead tochalienges． 而thenextsectioniiexploretheeffectsofchild−headedhouseholdsoniearners．
2．4THEEFFECTS OFCHILD−HEADEDHOUSEHOLDS
ltisnormaiforonetothinkthatchiId−headedfam用esareaffectedinonlyonewaybythe COnditionsjntheirhousehoIdsihthiSSeCtiOn，d晴erenteffectsthatheadingahousehoid CanhaveoniearnerswhoheadthesehousehoIds，arediscussed． 2．4．1Stigmatization C回drenwhoheadhousehoidsexperienced庸erentforms。fstigmatization（Kanyamurwa ＆Ampek−2007：72；Go軸an）2003‥）・Theyexperiencethepa活ofrejectionbysociety becausetheirparentsareHiV−POSitive・Societydoesnotacceptthem言heycannOtPlay Withtheirpeers膏ndatschoo＝tisasifeverybodyisiookingatthembecausetheirparents areHiV−POSitive（Kanyamurwa＆Ampek，2007‥72；Goffman，2003）．MostofthechiIdrenwhoareorphansdueto HiVandAidshavetodea−With stigma attachedtothemiong beforethedeath and afterthedeath ofa parentwhowas HiV−
POSitNe・Thestigmathatwasbasicauyor冊aiiyattachedtoparentsproceedstodescend toch剛enittakesawayhope・friends・relativesandone）spositiveexpectatI0nSforthe future（France，2006’3）Ch潤一headedfam出esfee間atstigmaw旧oiiowthemforthe叩eSt Oftheiriives，eVenaCCOmPanythemintodeath（France，2006）．Theyareevenreferredto as‘‘aids oIPhans’l a concept emphasizing discriminatlOn（German，2006・148−149）．A negativeou田OwofthestigmatizationisthatHiVandAldsvictims becomecrimInaIsand engageinVioIentac帥tieS（NiChoIson＆Jefferson，2008409）．
inadditIOntOtheabove一mentionedchaIlenges，Masondo（20065）indicatesthatchiidren Whoheadhouseh01dsneedcop一ngStrategIeStOdea，withstigmatiZatlOnandtraumadueto thesicknessoftheirparentswhou圃mateiydie． 2▲4．2 Discrimination DISCriminat一〇nisdefinedasanunequaitreatmentmetedouttoapahicuiarcategoryof PeOPie（Woo胤k）2004：167）・DiscrimInatiOn，eSPeCiauygenderdlSCr面nation，iSan。th。r important factor that reaHy aHects chiid−headed fam帖es Femaie ch潤ren are often depr−Vedofeducationduetoch剛abourinordertoavoidthefamiiybeingstuckinpovehy
（NichoIson＆JeHerson−2008：411，417）・C刷drenwhoheadfam用es，eSPeCiauygirk，are denied their schooIchIIdhood・The∼r SCho0両giS negative−y affected and they are VUinerabieto expIoitation（NichoIson＆Jefferson，2008：411，417）Ch冊enfrom child＿
headedhousehoidshavefeeiingSOffearanduneasineSSemanatingfromdiscrimlnationat
SChooidue to HIV and Aids being associated with theirfamiiies（Magdoi，Mo靴 ＆ Newman，1992：2）． 24．3 Vi01ence
HeadsofhouseholdsmayexperiencefeeiingSOfangerandfrustrationduetounsatisfied
SuMvaineedssuchasIackoffood．clothesandbasicheaIthservICeSWhichoftenresuitin CrimInaioffence（Arnab＆Serumaga−Zake，2006・221−223）Oftentheyareaisoaffectedby reiationshipvioiencebe読enfam‖ymembers（Donaid，Lazarus＆LoIwana，2004：244， 266） 2−4．4 Abuse （fch曜headedhousehoidsarenotsupportedInOneWayOranOtherbythepeopIeortheir neighboursinthecommunky・theyarevuinerabletoabuseandexpioitatiOnduetopoverty andothe同feneeds（German．2006：149−158）．i自sthereforeeasyforfemaiechlidrenwho headhouseh01dstobecomesexworkerssoastoearnmoneyforliv一ngandtosupport Sibiings（NichoIson＆Jefferson，2008・413；Mokoena，2007：57）．Fu航ermore工heyaIsoface Physicalaswellaspsycho−emOt一〇naIabuseandarevulnerabIetoHiV一両ection Headsofhousehoidsareforcedtoseekjobsandvvorkataneariyaget00VerCOmeiifechalienges
thattheyencounter（Roby＆Cochran）2007・19）・NichoIsonandJeHerson（2008・413） fu佃erindicate that due toioss off−nanCiaIsupportfrom parents，Ch的ren who head househoidscouldendupengag−ngrnSeX−tradeandotherunregulatediabourforcedespite thechiidiabourAc白nSouthAfrica（Nichoison＆Jefferson，2008：413）Ch囲renwhoar。 headsofhouseholdsarevulnerabietoabuse・PrOStitutionanddeai−ngWithdrugsJuStfor makingmoneyforsurvivaI（Masondo，20065）． 2．4．5 ChiIdiabour Ch潤renWhoheadhousehoidsareboundtope血rmhouseho−dchoresbecausethereis n0−0netOIeanon・TheycanbebusyforfourhoursaweekandworkIonghoursforpay，SO astohavesometh旧gtOeat（Gray）VanN∼ekerk，Struters，ViOiar∼，Ma血son，Mcintyre＆ Naidu，2006：25）・Ma面nus（2009：302）assertsthatheads ofchiid−headed fam用es帥d themseives boundtoiookfor川egaiempioyment〈duetothe汀age）so asto generate incomefor廟ng，andtheyend up mjobsthatofferlowwages．Jn additiontotheirown househoJd chores，gIrisfrom c回d−headed househoidsseekjobsashousemaids sothat theycangetsomethingtoputonthetableforthelrfamiiies（Mokoena，2007：59）．）．Ch冊
Iabourincreases as the economic conditions of chiIdrenin HiV and Aids famiiies
deteriorate（Masondo，2006：4）・Povekyistheseed−bedofch剛abour，andpoorconditions inthefam−lyforcech剛entoworkforreasonsofeconomicexpediency・Ch囲」abouris accommodatedbyempioyersforacheapandfiexibIeworkforce，andgirisespeciaHyarein demandfordomestiCSerVices（Masondo，2006・4）． 2▲4▲6 Limited educatiOn RichterandMacheiIan（inMahinus，2009：302）statethat，mOStOfthetime，theeducationof Chiid−headedfam帥esisneglected，reSultingindropping−Out。fschooi Mokoeha〈200ナ62） ind−CateSthatthereweremoregirlsthanboyswhowerenotattendingsch00loutofan estimated44m帥onchiIdreninSouthAfricain2003．Thismeansthatthefemaleieamers fromch潤一headedhousehoidsaremoredisadvantagedandsacrificetheireducation，due tonumerousresponsib冊estheyarefacedwithasaresuitof帥S．Femaleheadsofchiid−headedfamiiIeSendupfa用ngintoatrapofente…9両oear−ymarr（age，try）ngtOPrOteCt themSeivesfrom poverty（MartLnuS，2009302）．Gener訓ythegirJch潤一headisthe。ne who sufferSfrom d−SCr一minationiStigmatIZationiPrOStitution，dropp一ng Outofschooiand eariymarriage（Mahinus，2009：302；NichoIson＆Jefferson，2008・412，417；Mokoena， 2007・62，Go什man，2003） 2．4．7Psycho−SOCialprobIems UnavaiiabilityandlackofparentalguidanceandaHect，Onaffectch肱renpsychoiogiCa。y （Mahinus，2009：302）・はbecomesworseinChiId−headedhousehoIdsasthesech潤renare emotionailyaHectedeitherbytheconditionsoftheirfamiiyduetoHiVandA−dsorbythe iossofparents，Wh∼ChoftenresultinunacceptabIebehaviour Childrenfromchiid−headed householdsaisosufferfrom psycho−SOCla車robiemsresu凪ngfromaveryiongiiiheaith StatuSOftheparent（Ma巾nus，2009：302）・Mokoena（2007：60）statesthatpsycho−SOCiaI PrObiemsaggravatechronicstressandweakentheimmunesystem Leatham（2005：63） mentions that due to constantthinking Ofpoverty andincome and heaith conditions， ChiIdrenwhoheadhousehoIdsarenegatiVelyaffected言heirpsychoiogiCaIbeingaffected andtheirabiiitytocopeisweakened．
Studies by Moffet（2007：58）aisofoundthatthesocia口unctioningoflearnerswho head househoidscanbecomeaffectedbecausethechIId−headspendsmostofthetimetaking responsibiiityforpiayinga Parentair0lewhilesIheis notevenweiideveiopedforthat． Moffet（2007：58）indicatesthatparentifiCation has beenshown to bedetrimentaito c回d
deveiopment
2“4・8 Responsib冊ies Duetoorphanh00d，CarereSPOnSib冊essuch asmak旧gSurethatthereisfoodin．the house・WOrryingaboutsheiterforsibilngSIWOrryingaboutsib冊gsihea∼thandworry∼ng abouthowtopayschooifeesarecarriedoutbych昭一headsiuSuaiiythefemalechildof d肺erentagesin舶erenthouseh。ids（Neweu，20086）Hi岬nNewe町2008：7）砧cates thatthere−SahighproportionofaIIch−ldrenthatareresponsibieforthe汀OWnday−tO−day ‖ 1 ＼ i ゴ ー − ． 上 目 ： i ． ∼ − i 、 ． ＼ ． ∵ t i i ？ i ﹄ l i − i i i ． 上 ﹁ ． i ﹄ i ． “careinsomehousehoidsofch岨headedfamiiies，OnePerSO旧SreSPOnSibieforsch00i feesiOneforday−tO−daycareandoneashousehokLheadaidedbycommunitymembersor rebtives About16％ofdoubleorphansasst回atedinNeweli（2008：7），佃catedtheir sib冊gsastheircareg∼VerSiaStheheadsofhousehoid and being responsibIefortheir schooはees．
2，4．9 Crime
Crime，SOneOfthefactorsthatismostprevaIentinchiJd−headedfam用es（Nichoison＆ Jefferson，2008・409），aSthesefam用esarepovehy−StrlCken，Whichieadsthemtores。rtt。
Criminalbehaviour to make ends meet Chiidren resort to crime so as to maintain
themseives（NichoIson ＆Jefferson，2008：409）．Some chiidren from child＿headed
househoids abuse drugs sothatthey havethecourageto engagein risky behaviour
（Mokoena，2007：57）．
2．4，10 Poverty
In South Africa，POVe向日s severe and wide to an extentthatabout28，5％estimated househoidsiivedonaiowpoveHy冊eofR800・00permonthin2000（Donald eta／．， 2004’201）甲hichmightbeworsecurrently・PoveHyadverseIyaffectsdeveiopingch冊en， especiaiiythosethatarefromchild−headedhousehoids
Aithoughtherearegovernmentstructures）SuChassocla，grants，Pu自npはceinSouth Africatoassistch冊en直SSt旧○○剛etocovera旧heneedsofchiid−headedhouseh。ids．
in this regard，R−Chter and Desmond（20081023−1024）reported that13％t054％。f C帥drenin chiid−headed householdsiive on R40000per month）Wh∼Chis too皿e， especi訓ywhenmanagedbythechiid・This∼Sthetimewhenyoungg油sinch旺Lheaded famiiiesoptforearlymarr一ageOrbecomesexworkersforsurvivai（Mokoena，2007二57）． Leatham（200586）emphasizesthefactthatc冊ren、Whoheadhousehoidsspendmostof thetimeind00rStOaVOid exposurefornothavingmOneyforf00dorc一〇thing These fhanciaiconstraintsofteninterferewiththe汀SCh00回gandacademicprogress（Leatham， 2005：86）．∴ほsuesiikepovertyandgeneraisociaiexcIusionareseenasfactorswhic掴mit
futureOPPO山高tiesforc回drenandtheiraccesstotheirrightsiSuChastherighttohave food（Sioth−Nielsen，2004：9）i
larguethatidue to the…merOuS PrOblems thatlearners who head househoids couid expenenCe・a number of unmet needs that can have a negat−Veinfiuence on theIr academiciearn一ngmayarise・ThenextsectronwiiIfocusontheIearnerneedsthatcouid arisefromtheeffectsofchiId−headedhousehoIds
2．5 CHILD一日EADED HOUSEHOLDSANDNEEDS FULFiLMENT
in the absence ofparents）Ch潤ren who head households arefaced with a…mberof unmetneedsw出chcouidposethreatstotheirlearninganddeve）opment．
AbrahmMasiowindICateSthatach冊’sdeveIopmentdependsond惰erentneedsthatmust notbetakenforgrantedastheyauowthechiidtodeveiophoiisticaiiy（Arends，2009：140）． Asmuch as deveiopmentproceedsthrough d盾erentstages，Arends（2009：140）fu刷er
StateSthattheneedsareaIsohierarchicaiiyorderedaccordingtothebasicneedsthathave
tobemetfirst・Masiow（inCotton，1995：58）ind，CateSthatbeforethehumanbeing，sseif− actuaiizationcan bereached言heprecedingieveisthatrefertothephysioiog−Caineeds， Safety needs，love and beiong周g，eSteem，COgnitive and aesthetic needs must鉦st be fu剛ed・Hereferstothefirstfourleveisasthebasic，deficiencyneedsandthelastfour ieveisasgrowthorbeingnee・ds（Arends，2009142；Wooifoik，2004．353）． inthissection）ibriefIydiscusstheh∼erarChyofneedsaccordingtoAbrahamMas∼ow（in Arends，2009142−143）andiinktheabsenceofneedfuifiimentintheiivesofch）ldrenwh。 headhousehoIdstoiearningC剛engesthatcou∼dariseasares埴Figure2・1prov∼desa Visuairepresentationoftheneedshierarchy．
Figure2°1：Maslow’sneedshierarchy（Arends，2009：142） 2・5・1Physio10g−Calneeds Masiowstatesthatnutritionplaysanimportantroie∼nOne，sdeveiopmentasitisabasic Physioiogicaineed・inhistheory，Oneunderstandsthatphys一〇togicaineedsarethemost importantneedsthatpiayaro∼etowardsthedeve一〇pmentofanindependentandmature Personwithfu‖potentiai（Eggen＆Kauchak，2010：29日Mwamwenda，2004．239，241）． Theverypowe回drivingfactorforprimeSat−Sfactionisthebodiiyneeds・Hungerandthirst
haVetObefu剛edforonetofunctionnormaiiy Hungerandthirstasthebasicneeds， distraCtlearnerS’aHent，OnIntheclassroomt00iftheyarenotfu剛ed，meanIngthat learningisimpossibieintheseconditions（Arends）2009142，Cotton，1995：59）． iargUethatitISimpossibieforthelearnersfromchiid−headedhousehoidstoconcentrate Ontheiriearn−ng・Whentheyareliv旧ginPOVehy・ThegreatdisadvantageofphysI0−0giCai needsthatarenotmetcanbevuinerabiiitytochiidiabouriabuseandexp−oitation，」uStfor OnereaSOn food（RIChter＆Desmond・2008・1023−1024）・Forlndividua−stodeveioptheir fuiipotentiai）itislmPOhantthattheirnutritionandhealtharewe。caredfor（Mwamwenda， 2004：239）・Shouidithappenatastagethatonesuffersinthesetwoaspects言heusual OutCOmeisimpairedfunctlOningWhichresuitsindec帖ngscho−asticperformance（Ca吐 2001：30）・AsLeatham（2005：63）puts−t）POVertyitselfcontributesiarge∼ytowardsiearning C剛enges becauseit first aggravates stressithen stress affects the da白y normal f…CtioningOftheperson 2．5，2 LoveandbeiongJng 旧simportanttobeiovedinordertog∼Veiove・Th−SPiaysanimportantroieinthechiid、s deveiopmentraSindicatedbyMasiow（Cotton）1995・60）＝nthechiId−headedhousehoId， Ioveandbeiongingareabsent・Theheadsofhouseho−dsfindthemseivescompeiiedtobe inhousehoidsthatarenotcompiete，aStherearenoparents・Attimestheyareseparated fromthe汗sibiingswhentheyarediv∼dedamongtherelatives・Loveheipsiearnerstolearn SuCCeSSf時（Cottoni199560）anditispossIbiethattheselearnerscou）ddropoutof SChooiwhentheydonotfeeiastrongsenseofbeIong−ngtOtheirschooiCh囲renseek aCCePtanCebypeers，neighboursandthecommun∼tyatiarge（Magdo−eta／・，1992．4らbutit isoftend面cu旧orthem車uetodiscr一minationandstigmatizationthattheyexperiencedue tOthefactofbecomingheadsofhousehoidsduetoHiVandA∼dsstigmatizatiPn（Cf2ふ4・1；
2・42）．
itisvery−mPOrtanttOinvoiveparents両he汀Chiidren，sacademiC−earningastheyarethere tobuildconf，denCe言nterestintheschoo∼andw冊gnesstobewithotherpeopie．itis Parents’at血de，honestyiCOOPerat一〇nanddisciP一一nethatinfiuencethefamiiy∼ngenerait0 27be POSitiVe（Bernard，1972：54）・Eggen and Kauchak（2010．367）fu柚er柚。at。that severa吊enefitsflowfrom∼nVOiv−ng ParentSintheIrChiidren，S−ea…ng，SuCh as better ac而eVement・greaterW冊gnesstodohomework申rOrePOSitiveattitudesandhigherieveis ofse置eguiation Thec刷dbmgSthefamiiytoschooionecanrecogniZefromthec回d thekind offam時thechiId comesfrom（Bernard，1972・54）．Theiearnerwho heads a househokJisfacedwith帖essathome巾nanciaiprobIems，emOtionsandquarreisthat occurattimeswhichmightaffecttheirCOnCentrationonschooiwork（Donaldeta／．，2004． 244，266）・Chiidrenwhoheadhouseholdsofteniackasenseofbeiong，ngduetoth。 absenceofparentsiandareIess凧eiytoseekknowiedgeofsubjectsthantheyareto searchforfriends（Arends，2009：142）． Fam自ycompositioniWhich−Sthepresenceofparentstog∼VeaSSistanceandsupportevery timeaneedarisesiPiaysamaJOrrOIeInCreatingiearningCh訓engesforleamers．inchiid− headedfam而es・Whereparents areabsentithestoryiS aはOgetherd盾erent．A h…an beingcanoniyieadag00diPrOductiveandsatisfyingiife）fa情he汀basicneedsarefuiiy met（Davis−1989：246）anditisonlyafterthedeficiencyneedsaremet，thatgrowthneeds （needsin而eliectualachieVement）canbefu剛ed（Mwamwenda，2004・239，W00ifoik， 2004：353）． Loveandsecurityarethesecondbasicneedsthathavetobefu剛edbeforeonecanfocus anh∼gher一〇rderneeds・aSindiCatedbyMasiow（inMwamwenda，2004：241両Davis， 1989246） 2・5・3Safetyneeds Thesecond−eve一〇fneedsthathavetobemetanerhungerandthirsthavebeenfu剛edis Security Threat can be physICaL When oneisiooking at a dangerous object，Or PSychoiog−Ca上Whenonefearstheunknown・Thebodyneedstobeprotecteclinasafe homeはmusthaveasafepiacetohideduringstormydaysandwhenonelSCioudedwIth 暗ateverklndoffear（Arendsi2009：142，Cotton，1995・60）Thesec…tyOfch‖drenfrom Chiid−headedhousehoIdsisnotguaranteed・Atdmestheyfindthemselvesmthestreet duetotheirhomeshavingbeenciaimedbyreiativesafterthedeathofthe一rParentSThey 28
areaHectedbytheabsenceofparentswhoareregardedasfiguresofhope（Leatham， 2005：71−72，France，2006）・TheirheaIthsecurity，Saisoaffectedbecauseaccesst。hea冊 servicesisimpossIbie for c刷d−headed househoids；due toiack offinances（Caiitz， 2001：19〉・Theirsenseofsecurityisaisothreatenedbythelackoffinancialsupportfor everydayneedsandwantsiThefactthattheydonothaveparents言hreatensthemm。St
（Ca崎2001：19）・
For chiidren who head fammes，iifeis cha日eng一ng due to the absence of an adult figure／parentwhocanguaranteesafety・Duetoa rackofsafety，aiearnerwhoheads a househordmayfee＝nsecure・anXious，mistrus血i（Larry，1996370）andgetdemotivated ai。ngthepathofpersonaJgrowth・aSSafetyisaprimarySOUrCeOfmotlVation〈Leatham， −2005：105）
2．5．4 Esteem
EveryInd−V∼duaihas a need for a feel−ng Of adequacy，aChievement and self−eSteem． Receivingattentionandrespectfromothersstrengthensse廿Confidence（C−arkson，2006）． Thisistheieveithathastobegra描edafterloveandbelong−ng，Whichisnotthecasewith thechiidrenfromchiid−headedhousehoids旧snecessaryfor∼earnersasyoungchiidrento beassistedtofu冊heneedforapprovaibecauseifitisnotmetitheyeas一一ysubmittopeer
PreSSure and become engagedin unwanted or disapproved peeractivities（Eggen＆ Kauchak，2010’293）・Theydo notfeeirespected becausetheyareoften stigmatized， discriminatedagainstandabused（NIChois。n＆Jefferson，2008：409；German，2006：148− 149；Goffman，2003），Which affecttheir seirconfidence．it becomes d岡curtf。r these Ch冊entobeacceptedbythecommunityandevenbytherelatives，duetopovehyandthe Statusofthefam−iyaftertheparentalioss・eSPeCia一一ythroughHiVandAids・Acceptanceis d輸cultanddoesnOtOftenoccur，becauseofthestigmaattachedtothem（German， 2006・148−149）吊tisevend冊cu旧obuildfriendships，andsadiyitisindl。atedthatch潤ren
WhodonothavefriendsareatriskofdeveiopmglnterPerSOnaiprobiemsandemotionai
disturbancesbecausetheyfeeIbnel，erinsoc∼ety（Hamachek，1995‥83）．inadd涌0ntOthis， Bernard（1972‥49）ind∼CateSthatone）sexperiencesandseIf−COnCePtdetermineone・sgoaL 29Orientati0∩，WhichimplieSthatiearnersfrom chiId−headed househoIdsmayexpenenCe d瀞CuItyinformuiatingandachiev，nggOals・TheirseiLesteemm即tbeaffectedbythe
conditionsinwhichtheyiIVeandfornothavingParentSWhocanaPPrOVetheiractivities
andmot−Vatethemorbecausetheyfeeiisoiatedduetotheircircumstances・FeeIingsof esteemarestrongIyrelatedtocompetence）a制at−Onand刷uencewhichieadstogreater motivationandinvoIvementInSChool（Arends，2009：143）．When the first fourieveis（basiC needs）are not satisfied，aSind，Cated by Wooifoik （2004：353），themotlVationorneedtofuifi冊emWIi）notdecreaseandwiiiaffectthen。rmai functioningOfthechiidatalaterstage・Ch剛enwhosefee冊gsofsafetyandsenseof beiongingarethreatenedbythedeathofparents，andwhohaven。Sheiter（iikethosein Chiid−headed househoid）areboundtovacatetheirhomesforreiatives，have剛eorn。 interest−niear…g becausetheyaremoreconcernedwith secur∼tythanwithiearnmg
（Wooifoiki2004：353）iBasicneedsaredependentonotherpeopIesuchasparentsfortheir fu剛ment・butiftheparentisnotthereanymore，Who∼SSuPPOSedtoc一〇sethegaps？，tis
importantforteachersto estabIish g00d reiationshipswithiearners so thatthose who
expenenCefee冊gs ofinsecurity Can eXPerience safety during teaching andiearnLng
（Mwamwenda，200424）
2与5 Knowiedge
Accordingto Eioffand Ebersohn（2004・401），humanbe∼ngSeXPeriencesatisfactionby explo…9，SOIv−ngPrObiemsandfindingmeanmgtogether Throughthesocia‖nteraction
PrOCeSS言heyareabietounderstandandknowtheworidaroundthemtogetherwithits Cha帖nges Cognitive deveiopmentis enhanced bylnteraCting withindIViduais and the environment（Eioff＆Ebersohn，2004：401）．iarguethatduetothefactthatc帥drenwh。 head househo−dsdonotoftenge自nvoivedinSOCiaire∼ationsh−PS）duetofea1−0f Stigmatizatbn and discrimlnatbn（Cf 2・4・1】2・4・2）and being overburdened by reSPOnSib冊esathome（Cf24・8）言heycouIdhaveIimitedoppo血nitiesforstimuiating the（rCOgnitivedeveIopment・
繍㌣
2．5．6Aestheticneeds
Aestheticneeds m申yan apprecIation and searchforbeautyand ba−ance（Masiow， 1970：25−26）・Thequestionarisesastowhetheriearnerswhoheadhouseh。Idsandare OVerburdenedbynumerousresponsib冊eswouidfeeItheneedtosearchforbeautyand baはnceln庸e？
2．5．7 SeJfゼCtualization
FinaiiyiaHeraiiotherieveishavebeensatisfied言ndiVidua同umanbeIngSWiiiattainseif− actuaIizationilmPiyingthatone’staIents and potentiaisarefu−fIiIed（CIarkson，2006） Ch剛enfromchIid−headedhousehoidsmightnotbeabietoreaiizetheirpotentiaIand taientsbecauseofnOthavingquaiityo冊eduetomanyunfuifjiledbasicneeds．十日ssaid that one’s experiences and seif−COnCePt determine one，s goa，S（Bernard，1972・49）． However−eVerybodyisinneedofsuccessdesp，tetheworrほSthataffectconcentration Learnerswhoheadhousehoidsmightneverreachthestageorieveiofseif−aCtuaIizationas theymightneverreachouttofu剛thegrowthneedsthatareextinguishedbythebasiC deficiencyneedswhichtheystruggietogratifyduringtheirentirech剛00d（W00Ifoik， 2004：353）． Transcendence十eferstothesupremeothernessofGodandHispresenceinalireaIity
（Knox，1976：22）・AccordingtO Knox（1976：22）human beingS hav。th。ne。d t。b。 associatedwithGod・thetranscendentother・Thisisaspirituaineedthathastobesatisfied OncethehighestseJf−aCtual∼Zationneedhasbeengratified・Fu軸ermore，Ciarkson（2006） als0回ks transcendenceto the heip−ng Ofothers to achieve seiトactuaHzation The
quest，Onarisesastowhetherleamerswhostrugg−ewiththe，rOWnSe片actuaiizat10nW用be abietoheipothersach−eVetheirs Learnerswhoheadhouseho−dsexperiencenumerous UnmetIower，bas−Cneedswh∼Chcouidhavean両uenceonthetranscendenceneednot beingmet．
Basedontheaforementionediiamoftheopinionthatunfu剛edneeds，aSindicatedby MaslowiCOu刷eadtoanumberofiearmgChaHengesthatlearnerswhoheadhousehoIds mightexperience・inthenextsect，OnlexpIoreanumberoftheseiearningChaiIenges．
2▲6 LEARNINGCHALLENGESFACEDBYLEARNERSWHOHEADHOUSEHOLDS
Lear…giSareiativeIypermanentunintent一〇nalordeIiberatechangeinan刷vldual、s knowiedgecausedbyexperience（Wooifoik，2004198）・Learningcanbetheacquisitionof Subjectmatterihabitsia出tude再erCePt10n言nterest，SOCiaIadjustment言deasandsk川S。f manytypes・lnshotCotton（1995・45）defineSiearningasacquis涌Onofknowiedgeand PrOCeSSingthatinformationw∼thinthecogn砧0nOfonese−f Learn一ngCanbeaccidentaiand 而OrmaiandintentionalandformaIatthesametime（Ebff＆Ebersohn，2004‥146）． L−fewithouteducationisdevastating・andch囲renwhoheadhousehoidsarefacedwitha tragiCaiiyoverwheimingSituat一〇nOfpervasivepovehythat，eadstotheIrios−ngOutOn educatiOnforthesakeoffinancia＝ncome（Masond。，2006：4）．Theworst。。nditi。nisthe rOutethattheynormaiiyfoiiowtoescapelSuChasunregu−atedIabourpracticeandsex trade（Mchoison＆Jefferson，2008‥407）・而thecaseofHIVandAids，ChiidrenbeglntO take great responsibility−mmed−ateiywhen parentsfaii帖ChIldren who are heads of fam用eshavetoprovideforfood，takecareofnursingthes，Ckandgenerateincome．ThiSiS thetimewhenitbeginstobedi苗cuitforg回S∼n Pa由curartoattendorcontinuewith SCh00日ng（Arnab＆Serumaga−Zake，2006‥222）Fioyd，Crampin，G恒n，Madise， MwenebabuiMnkhondia）NgwiraandZaba（2007788）supportthis byreportingthat ChiidrenwiIinotattendschooireguiar−ywhenparentsare川duetoHiVandAidsuptotheir deathimea…gOrPhanhoodstatusdueto皿VandAidshavemorenegatIVeeffectson Chiid−headedhousehoidsthanorphanh00dfromdeath−reiatedtoanyother帖ess．旧SObviOuSthatinfamiIiesiedbyaduitsthereisagreatchancetohaveadequateresourcesto
attendsch00LNutritionandhea冊needsw用bemet，aSOPPOSedtothesituationinc回d− headedhousehoids（Dannerbeck＆Muriukin・2007‥180）・Grayeta／・（2006・16）aisore函 thatch冊enwhohavefotakecareofs冊gsandparentswhoareiiLduetoHiVandAids， WithdrawfromschooiandoftendropoutofschooJforsurwa∼（MacIelianinMartmus， 32 十 十 日 十 日 言 古 ﹁ ， ゴ ー i j ： ： ∴ i i ﹁ − 主 上 十 十 ﹁ 仁 王 ， − ， − ． i − ” − i ∴ 仁 子 ∴ ㍉ − 十 日 目 − ﹁ i ∴ ﹄ ∴ i i ∵ ﹁ i i ′2009：302）・hadditiontothis，ChiidrenfromchiJd−headedhousehoidshavetogotoschooi ungryduetoabsenceoffoodandiackoffinanciairesources，andthefewthatcontinue sch001ingareassiStedbyoiders剛ngswithschooiwork（Grayeta／・，2006・24】25）． Bearingtheaboveinmin中日sevidentthatacademiCPerformancew川beproblematic． WhenMasiowdescribesthetheoryofse丘actuaiIZation直eidentifiesstagesinaneeds lIerarChywhich compr∼Se，Physi010giCalneeds，beIongingneSSandlove，Safetyneeds， ∋Steemneeds−knowiedgeneeds・aeStheticneeds，Self−aCtua−izat一〇nandtranscendence ：Ciarkson，2006，W00ifoik，2004・353）ThefemaIeheadsofhousehoidsw帖ace…mer。uS ear…g Chaiienges dueto thefactthattheiriower，basic needs are notsatisfledin idditionto帥S了eSOurCeaVailabiiityatsch00iandathome，0ne，sintereStandseJf−efficacy，
7enderiheaith and nu掴on aiso contribute positiveiy to successfuiiearning（Calitz， 200111−23）．
tothepreviousdiscussion言hereareanumberofiearningChaIiengesthatcouid
6．1Expectations
rental expectatiOnSi Peer grOuP eXPeCtations and seif expectations，ali have a erminingfactortowardsacademicachievement，WhetherpositiveornegatiVe（Caiitz， 〕1：57）・Caiitz（2001‥57）arguesthatwhenparentalexpectationsaretoohigh言tcan
tofeei，ngSOfdespairanddecIine∼nSCholasticperformance桁helearnercannotfu剛 e expectations Forthelearnerfrom a child−headed fa刷ywhere the parentis not raiiabie）there，snoonetosetexpectat一〇nSandtomotivatetheiearnertowardsreaiizing eexpectations． 26．2 Self＿eSteem VeryhumanbeinghasaneedforseIf−reSPeCtandesteemofothers．Masiowseesitasa ∋SireforreputatioTlOrPreStige序seif−eSteemissatisfied−fee而gsofself−COnfidence，SeLf− 0mandstrengthdevelop（MasIowi1954）incontrasttose旧espectandseif−eSteem， ee冊gsofinfer∼Ority・Weaknessandheip−essnessdeveiopwhentheneedforse置esteem 33
駿isnOtfu剛ed・Th∼SCanbereIevanttothelearnerwhoheadsahousehoIdanddoesnot
haVemuChhopeln冊e（Masiow，1954）・
peop−eusuaiiyacqu−reCOnditionsofworthwhens一gnificantotherssuchasparentsprov∼de
positive unconditionaIregard，aSindicated by CariRogers’theory of persona冊y（in Dagmar，1996：十2）TheiearnerfromachIid−headedhousehoidwhodoesnothaveparents exper∼enCe PrObiemsregarding him／herseifaswo皿whilebecausethereisnobodywho
providespraiSeOraPPreCiation（MasIow，1954；Dagmar，1996・1−2）i
2．6．3 GoaIorientation
According to Aitmadi（2007）and Pintrich and Schunk（2002：213）goalorientationiS reiatedtoacademicachievement・Wh−Chisposit，Velyreiatedtomasteryandperformance
goais・Mostofthetime，gOaiorientationandachievementconsistofthedes∼retOeXCeIand avoidfa血reInd−V−dualsmayth∼nkofoutperformingOthersormaster∼ngataSkasadesire toexcei This言hen，dependsonhowoneismotivated，WhlChaisodependsonvariabIes 『ke parentlng Styies，learning strategies and seiトconcept（ALEmad上 2007）AII the ） Ch訓engesthatiearnersfromchild−headed househoIdscan experience（Cf2．62−26．11）
affectthem asthey struggieto make ends meetfortheir progress and havevery冊e OPPO血nitytosetgoaisforachievementandsuccess（Aifmad主2007）．
2・6・4 Regularsch00lattendance
Learnersfromchiid−headedhousehoIdsareoftenabsentfromschooiduetohunger車irty Ciothes，Iack ofproperclothing，nO mOneyforschooifees orany eventto be heid at SCh00上andsomemightnotgotosch00Ibecausetheydonothavesomebodytoassist themwithhomework（NlChoison＆JeHerson，2008：411，Mokoena，2007：2；Goffman，2003）．
Itisimportant forleamers to attend schoolreguLarIy and pay attention to cIassr00m
actNities，buti自Sd岡curtforiearnersfromchild−headed households，aStheystruggletoJ fu剛theirphys一〇log−Caineeds Eveniftheyattend，theirattention∼SnOtaiwaysdirectedto Wha自sdone言heirmindsarepreoccupied bythingSIikewhattheyw川 eatafterschooL
hoWtheyW川attendaneducationaltourand wheretheyw川getmoneytopayforthe doctOrforthesICksibiingathome（Eggen＆Kauchak，2010：291）
2．6−5Serf−reguJation
Se桁eguiat一〇…mPlieSthatIeamersbecomemotIVationaiiyactivepakicipantsinthelrOWn iearning PrOCeSSeS and set goals which assist∼n PrOViding standards agalnSt W州ch performanCe Can be comparecl（Bembenuはy，2006−5，346】823；McM用an＆Wergin， 2006：75）・Learnershavetofocustheirattenti。nOnSettingspecif一cmanageabIegoais， maintai…g an aPPrOPriatelevelof motivation andidentifyhg appropriate−earning StrategleS・The mostimportantaspectsthat piay a roiein se旧eguiation are，Setdng
personalgoaJs，Vicariousiea…ng eXPenenCeS，SOCiaImode冊g，SOCiaiconditions and historyofreinforcement（Bembenutly，2006‥5，346，823）i Bembe回ty（2006・5，346，823） expia∼nSthat self−regulatedleamerscanmonitortheirgOaisand beiiefs，COmParetheir
Performancewithapproprratestandardsandengageinsocia∼andenv㈹＝mentaicontroi， Whichisad肝erentcaseforieamersfromch潤一headedfam出eswhoareiessskiiied．
Bandura（in Bembe…ity，2006●5，346，823）ment，OnSthatseif−reguiationiseffectivein mostkey areas ofhuman deveiopmentandieaming atSChooL Se∼f−reguiatiOn entaiis iearners’self一両atlCn aCtions to attain academic goa，s such as focusing Or Pay−ng attentioninciassJengag旧gineXtraCIasses，Studyinganddoinghomework（Bembenuity， 2006：5）345・823）・岨soenta，isprocessessuchasseif−e面cacy，StrategIClearningand SeIf…anagement・Se旧eguiatedlearners need additiona同meforpianning and need mOreeffortsbecausesettinggeneraigoaIs）absoIuteandnon−hierarchicaidistaigoa−siead toiess motivation andiess success（Schunk＆Zimmerman，2001：290，295）Seif− reguIatedieamersarecapabIeofdeIay∼nggratificationwhich−Sre聞edtohighermotivatIOn andach−eVement（Schunk＆Zimmermani2001：290・295）・However，eHQrtSforSeiL reguiationdependonlearners，situationaIcontext（Schunk＆Z一mmerman，2001・290）which mightbe a big cha，iengeforthe−earnerswhohead househoids becausetheirtimeis 帖ted andtheyhave househoid choreswaitingforthem・ltmightalsobed冊cuitor UnlmportantforthemtosetgoaisanddelaygratifiCationfor−ateracademicrewards，dueto
thehardshipsanddepressing庸econditionsthattheyexperience（Schunk＆ZImmerman， 2001：303）Their main andImmediate gOaimight be to providein the needs oftheir sibiings（Cf Newei上2008：7，2・2・48）and they w川therefore be unabie to generate appropriateself−efficacybei一efs・andinterestandoutcomeexpectationsthatcou−dheip them attam their predetermined academ∼C gOals successfulIy（Bembenuity， 2006．5，346，823）．
2．6．6 Seif−e冊cacy
Bandura（in McM用an ＆Wergln，2006：76）defines se廿e璃cacy as personai beiiefs concern−ng One’s capab冊y toiearn or perform skiiis at a designatedieveI．it could thereforebepossibiethat言fthenegativefeeiingSthatIearnerswhoheadhousehoidsmight experienCe（Cf24・2）are added to theiriowseif−eSteem（Cf2．6．2），their academlC learningandachleVementmightbenegatiVelyaffected McM用anandWergin（2006：76） arguethathighorpositivese廿e冊cacyleadstohigherachievement，WhiChreIatesd汀eCt−y togoaLSettingandseif−reguiation． 2，6．7 Attributions A帥butionsaredefinedastheprocessthroughwhichpeopieseektoiden描ythecausesof behaviou「（E聞＆Ebersohn，2004：71；Pintr−Ch＆Schunk，2002・93）．ChiIdrenfromchild−
headed househoidsmighthaveleamedfeeIingSOfheipiessnessasanattributIOndueto
thenegat∼VeeVentStheyareaiwaysexposedt〇・Theytendtobedepressedandiosehope， Wh∼Ch uitimate）yaffectstheiracademicpe血rmance（目off＆Ebersohn，2004：71）．ThisimpHesthattheycontributetheirsuccessorfailuretoextemaifactorsratherthantotheir
OWnefforts（Arends，2009：144） 2〃6・8 Cognitivedevelopment CognitionimpI∼eSthinkhgaboutthewayspeop−eprocess∼nformation，SOiveprobiems， make dec−Sions and expand their knowiedgeiWhiCh areimportant prerequlS（teS for effectiveiearning（Eioff＆Ebersohn，2004・14）iEbffandEbersohn（2004：401）indICatethat COgnitiveandsociaideveiopmentcontributestoiearning）andthatcognitivedeve一〇pmentisbroUghtaboutbysociaiinteraction BearIngthisargumentinmind言tcouidbethatiearners whoheadhousehoidsmightbeexperienc∼ngd瀞cu凪esw剛theircognitivedeveiopment duetObeingioneiyandwithdrawnbecauseofnonlnVOivementinsociai而eraction．
而addition to aiack of sociai血eraction，iearners from c帥d−headed househoids are ciouded wIth emotions reiated to d肝erent aspects such as anger because ofiosmg
parentsinOthavingenOughfoodandfrustrationsforhavingtodoeverythingbythemseives
（Ma而us，2009：302，Newei上2008‥6−7）（Cf2・4・7・2・48）・When oneis emotionaliy aHected・One’s cognitivesystem∼S aiso affected and one，s abiiityofproblem−SOiving， reasoning・decision一making and creative endeavouriS negativeIy hampered（Eioff＆ Ebersohn，2004：34）．
2．6−9 Motivation
Mot∼Vationisthecom…tmentOrSelf−COntrOithataffordscognition，andisaprocessofan ，nStigatedandsustalnedactivItyWhichisgoai−directed（Eggen＆Kauchak，2010：284）． Sch…kandZimmerman（2001°246，247）indicatesthatmotivationiSaboutone，sidentity
Which refersto personalactivitiesthatemergefrom cuituralcontext Motivationinforms
One“Sbel−efsandthegoaisthatonesets，and howtopriOr砧zeand coordinateamong experiences・Learners，Who are motiVated toiearn，nOrma一一y find academiC aCtivltieS meaningfuIandwo刷whiie（Schunk＆Z一mmerman，2001：246）．Theg仙earnerwhoheads ahousehoidmaynotbemotiVatedtolearnascertalnbasicneedsareunfu剛ied Needsfor food・SeCurIty言0Veandseif−eSteemCOuidbecomebarrierStObemotivatedtostudyfu刷er andtoachieveacademicgoais（Mwamwenda，2004：237）．
2▲6，10 Parentalinvoivement
Pa「entaiinvoivementIS One OftheimpoHant aspects that p∼ay a roiein−aiearner・s aCademicperformance（Caiitz，2001：17）．圧hasbeenindicatedintheintroduction。fthe Section（cf2・6）thatiea…ngCantakepiaceinf。rmaily（Eioff＆Ebersohn，2004：146），and thisiswheretheparentstaketheiead・ParentscanassIStandteachtheirchiidrenproper
waysofta冊g・COrreCtWaySOfdoingthingsandaisoass，StWithhomework，gIVeadvice andoHermoraisuppoH（EIoff＆Ebersohni2004：146）・inch曜headedhousehoids，the needtobelongmIghtnotbemet（Eggen＆Kauchak・2010・367），andthereisnoparent aでtendingtoactivitiessuchasassistingW航homework・givingadviceandoffer，ngSuPPOrt． DuetOaiackofparentaiinvoivement言earnerswhoheadhousehoidsare−essmotivated， asparentaidisc剛nelCOntrCl・mOn∼tOring・COnCernandencouragementasaspectsofa
parenLChiid−reiat一〇nShip are miSSing（Magd。iet a／，19927）．Academic performan。。
cannotbepositiVeinsuchconditionsandthereforethechancesforiearnerswhohead
househoidstoIearnsuccessfuilyareverysIim（Magd。ieta／っ1992．7）．
BerlnaarS（mCaiitzi2001：43）supportsthisargumentbymentioningthatparentsassiStWith
PhysiCai・emOtionalandsociaideveiopmentwhich，SneededforthechIIdreniseffective adaptation to the schooIenvlrOnmentitis d瀞cuitforthe−earnerfrom a chiJd−headed householdtoadapttotheschooienvirOnmentasheremotiona−andsocia−deveiopment mightbeIimited・Someiearnerswhoheadhouseho∼dsmightbeveryyoungandwithout adequateiy deveioped s剛s to deaiwith emotions・Coetzee（m Coetzee，2005：20） hig帥ghtsthatthe“焼sisofeducationis／aidinthefam研W回eEnge−brecht（inCoetzee， 2005：20）hig帥ghtsthefactthattogetherwiththeparent，educationisachangingagentin thesociety・iarguethatparents pIayanimportantroie and powe回roieathome regarding chiidren，s deveIopmentforthe purpose of聞ng them become successful humanbeingsinufeandacademicaIly・ThereforechiidrenwhoheadhousehoIdsarefaced W冊agreatchaliengenowthattheydonothaveparentstoaccompanythemthroughtheir deveIopment． AccordingtoLeatham（2005：68）言hefam自ysatisfleSChiIdren・spsychoLogicaineeds（such aSSeCurity）7emOtionaineeds（ilkebeingtheretocarrywhateverisbotheringthem）， COgnitiVeneeds伸keofferingguidancetowardsdecision−makingandprob，em−Soiving）・and aCademicneeds（attend∼ngParentSmeetingsandassist−ngWhenfacedwithd瀞cultw。rk fromstudies） 38 9mm191五十−古1日∵﹁1つーーー1検−Tl七〇−−−−’場−−○︳︷強1“i十十＝巨．上す−主if目上主目上
C帥d−headed householdsdonothaveparentswhotakecareofresponsIb冊essuchas protectionandsuppo巾Who（asprimarycare一givers）piayanimpohantroieinphysicai， socialandemotionaIdeveiopment；WhoassiStinpreventingprob−emsthatiearnersmay expenenCeatSChoo口heiearnersfromc刷d−headedhousehoidsaredisadvantagedby thedeathoftheirparentsandaga−nStSuChcondit，OnS，Jbeiieve言tisun（ikeiyforacademic pe加rmancetobefavourabie・ThiSlinkstothethreatenedsafetyneeds：Whenparentsare nota白Ve，Iearnersarealwaysscaredby剛ethingsbecausethereisnobody toIeanon andtoprotectthemevenagainstdiSCrimination（Caiitz，2001．19）（Cf25．2） 2．6，11Socio−eCOnOmicfactors Liv，nginPOVe回eadstod輸cu庸esinlearningiandlear…gd冊cuItiescausemorepoverty becauseonem∼ghtdropoutfromschooiw冊outhavmgaCareer，WhIChieadstofinanciai d圃cu凪es（W00ifoik，2004・158）Ch陸上headed households are exposed to heaith and SafetyrISkssuchasma血tritionandinfectionsduetopovehy（DonaIdeta／っ2004：205）．it isfu冊er刷cated thatthese heaith risks resuitin physicai言nteiiectuai，SenSOryand neuroIogicaJprobiemsleadIngtOieamingbarrLerS（DonaIdeta／っ2004：205）．
P00r nutrition can resuitin poor or bad hea冊Conditions，mentairetardation and other 冊esses due to mainutrition（Ca旧Z，2001：20）・Caiitz（200120）points out that poor nu踊Oncontributestoiackofconcentrationandiackofreca川nginformation，Whichmeans Iearnerscanexper∼enCePrObiemswiththeiracademictasks・Magdoleta／．（19924）also indicatesthatbeingatriskofpoorheaithandnutritiOnaffectstheab冊ytoconcentratein theclassr00m，Whichaffectsacademicperformance LearnerswhoheadhousehoIdsaremorelikeiyto−ackbas∼CaCademics畑sduetotheway theyarebroughtup・Thestressandiackofsociaisupportasa・resuitofunavailab冊yof
Parents adversely affect the汀inteiIectual deveIopment whiCh then a苗ectS academic Performance（Magdoieta／・，1992’5〉・Mokoena（2007：51）highiightsthefactthatinmost areaswherec回drenareaffected byHiVandAids，aCCeSStOhearth servicesis Limlted．in the case of chiid−headed househo−dsi both p00r nu踊on and unfavourable health COnditionscouidhaveanegatiVe∼mPaCtOntheacadem∼CPerformanceofiearnersasthey
回ghtbeconsistentiyabsentfromsch00日oraIongperioddueto冊eaithsincethey struggietoaccesshea冊serv∼CeS（Mokoena，2007：51）．圧ISPOSSiblethatthesei。arn。rS m卸tberetainedIngradesandendupdroppingoutofschooJduetopoverty（W001foIk， 2004：158）．
2．7CHAPTERSUMMARY
lnthischapteriiookedatch曜headedhousehoIdsandiearn−ngChai−engesthatmaybe experiencedbyIearnerswhoheadhouseholds・Theconceptchiid−headedhousehCldwas definedasahousehoidwhich−SieadbychiIdrenwhoarebe一〇wtheageof18，becauseof thepermanentabsenceoftheparentsoranyadukguardian（Cf2・2・2），CauSedbyHIVand AidsiChronICaiiysickparentsiiow marriageratesanclmigrat一〇nduetojobseeking（Cf 23）． TheConstitut，0nOfSouthAfrica（SA，1996：13）Specifiesthatbasicneedshavetob。m。t，n achiId’siifeforproperdevelopmenttowardsaduithood・Theconstitutionmentionshea町 food・Safetyandeducationasch冊en，srightsthathavetobetaken而oconsiderat一〇nby everycItizen ThisiS・however）nOtthe casewith thelearnerwho heads a househoid （Cf2．5） HiVandAidswasiden描edasthemaJ0rCauSeOfchiid−headedhousehoIdsasitt00kiives OfmanypeopieieavIngChiidrenaloneasorphans・一twasfu刷erindicatedthatthereare Stii両用onsofpeopIewhocans帥diefromH−VandAids・Thisimp一一eSanincreaseinthe numberoforphansthatcansti日beexpected，aSWe一一asanincreasednumberofchiid− headedhousehoids（Cf2．2．1） Theimpactofch−id−headedhouseho∼dsiSnegatiVein nature．Thesereferlntera／iato discriminationiStigmatizatron・Crime，abuse・househoidrespons剛ies申mhededucation， PSycho−SOC∼alproblems，Crime，POVertyandchildiabour（Cf2．4）．Duetothe negativeeffects mentIOnedintheprevious paragraph，iearnerswho head househo∼dsexper−enCeanumberofunfuifiiIed needs（Cf2．5）．Theseneeds referto
Physica同eeds，Safetyneeds・ioveandbelongingneeds・eSteemneeds，knowiedgeneeds， 40 ﹁ 9 1 ㌧ ヽ 一 葛 i b 山 場 i J ︳ l ＋ i J ● i f i l − t l
aesthet−CneedsiSeif−aCtuaiizationneedsandtranscendenceneeds・Bear∼ngthenumber ofneedsinm申iarguethata…mberoflearn∼ngChaiIengescouldarise duetotheLack ofneedfu聞ment，nameIyanabsenceofexpectationsiiackofse廿esteem，POOrgOal一 〇rientationiirreguiarschoolattendance，Jackofseif寸eguiati0回OWSe−f−e冊cacy，negatlVe attributions・deficientcognitIVeandsociaIdeveiopme申POOrmOtivation，iackofparentai invoivement and poor soc，0−eCOnOmic conditions（Cf26・126・8）．These cha‖enges COntr岨eintera／iatopoorconcentratiOn，POOrattentiOnSPaniiowieve∼sofmotivation， iackofinteresttosetandattaingoais・ほckofskiIisforsoiv−ngPrOb−emsandco一一ecting information，anddroppingOutOfsch00i（Cf26）． inthenextchapteradetaiIeddiscussionoftheresearchdes，gnandmethodoiogyusedin
