University of Groningen Computer programming skills: A cognitive perspective Graafsma, Irene

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Computer programming skills: A cognitive perspective

Graafsma, Irene

DOI:

10.33612/diss.168003240

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Publication date:

2021

Link to publication in University of Groningen/UMCG research database

Citation for published version (APA):

Graafsma, I. (2021). Computer programming skills: A cognitive perspective. University of Groningen.

https://doi.org/10.33612/diss.168003240

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558273-L-bw-Graafsma 558273-L-bw-Graafsma 558273-L-bw-Graafsma 558273-L-bw-Graafsma Processed on: 1-4-2021 Processed on: 1-4-2021 Processed on: 1-4-2021

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Appendix A

Table with item details that were used to split the SCS1

programming test into two versions

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Ta bl e A. 1 Ite m s a ssi gn ed to SC S1 -S 1 w ith the le ve l o f di ffi cul ty a s e sti m ate d a cc or di ng to the fi rs t v al ida tio n of th e S CS 1 by P ar ke r e (2016) a nd ac co rd in g to o ur p ilo t w ork . Q ue st io n nu m be r SC S1 -S1 Orig in al qu es tio n fro m S CS 1 To pi c Ty pe o f q ues tio n Diffic ult y ac co rd in g to P ark er e t al. (2 01 6) 0-0. 50 = H ard 0. 50 -0. 85 = M od erat e >0. 85 = E as y Diffic ult y ac co rd in g to o ur p ilo t s tu dy Le ve l o f d isc rim in at io n ac co rd in g t o Park er e t al. (2 01 6) <0 .1 = p oo r 0.1 -0 .3 = fair >0 .3 = g oo d Le ve l o f Dis cri m ac co rd in ou r p ilo SC S1 -S1 1 1 fo r de fin itio nal m od erat e .1 8 go od .1 3 2 2 lo gic al op erat or trac in g m od erat e .4 1 go od .29* * 3 5 fu nc tio n re tu rn v alu es trac in g hard .1 2 po or .1 4 4 6 if de fin itio nal hard .4 6 fair .31* * 5 9 w hile trac in g hard .2 9 fair .43* ** 6 12 bas ics de fin itio nal hard .5 0 fair .42* ** 7 13 fo r co de co m pl et io n hard .1 6 fair .1 8 8 14 re cu rs io n de fin itio nal hard .3 5 go od .49* ** 9 17 array s co de co m pl et io n hard .2 3 fair .50* ** 10 18 re cu rs io n co de co m pl et io n hard .2 2 po or .1 8 11 22 array s trac in g hard .3 2 fair .54* ** 12 25 bas ics co de co m pl et io n hard .4 6 fair .60* **

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13 27 fu nc tio n param et ers trac in g hard .1 8 po or .2 3 SC S1 -S2 1 3 w hile de fin itio nal m od erat e .6 1 go od .39* 2 4 array s de fin itio nal hard .2 3 fair .46* 3 7 w hile co de co m pl et io n hard .2 3 fair .52* 4 8 fo r Trac in g hard .3 3 po or .37* 5 10 lo gic al op erat or de fin itio nal hard .4 5 fair .33* 6 11 fu nc tio n re tu rn v alu es de fin itio nal hard .2 0 fair .21* 7 16 fu nc tio n param et ers co de co m pl et io n hard .2 1 fair .45* 8 19 if trac in g m od erat e .5 2 go od .58* 9 20 fu nc tio n param et ers de fin itio nal hard .1 6 po or .24* 10 21 if co de co m pl et io n hard .2 9 fair .55* 11 23 bas ics trac in g m od erat e .5 7 fair .62* 12 24 re cu rs io n trac in g hard .1 8 po or .1 5 13 26 lo gic al op erat or co de co m pl et io n hard .2 8 fair .39* No te : D iffic ult y is d efin ed a s t he p ro po rt io n of c orr ec t at te m pt s f or eac h q ue st io n. D isc rim in ab ilit y is d efin ed b y t he p oin t b ise rial c orre lat sc ore o n e ac h i te m an d t ot al S CS 1-S s co re . U na ns w er ed q ue st io ns w er e co un te d a s i nc or re ct .

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Appendix B

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Experimental stimuli

Dutch Grammatical

List 1 List 2

Het heeft veel tijd nodig. Hij doet een goede zet. Hij is een slechte kok. Hij kon slecht vogels vangen. Ik doe dit nooit meer. Ik durf alleen te reizen. Ik kan de was doen.

Ik was een geweldige docent. Jij bent een aardige jongen. Jij deed dat elke dag. Jij kunt niet goed duiken. Jullie doen heel belangrijk werk. Jullie durven wel te springen. Jullie hebben een lange vakantie. Wij durven morgen te protesteren. Wij hadden vroeger een paard. Wij hebben een mooi standbeeld. Wij konden goed huiswerk maken. Wij kunnen dat heel goed. Zij is een goede zwemster.

Het deed er niet toe.

Het kan elk moment gebeuren. Hij durft alles te vragen. Hij heeft een gebroken been. Hij kan goed bloemen tekenen. Hij was een goede fotograaf. Ik ben een goede student. Ik heb veel mooie verhalen. Ik kan goed aardappels schillen. Jij doet altijd zo gek.

Jij durft dit te bespreken. Jij hebt even pauze nodig. Jij hebt veel dure kleding. Jij kon heel goed rekenen. Jullie hadden veel films gemaakt. Jullie kunnen heel goed dansen. Jullie zijn een gezellige club. Wij deden het moeilijke examen. Wij doen ons werk dagelijks. Wij zijn een beetje moe.

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Het deden er niet toe.

Het kunnen elk moment gebeuren. Hij durven alles te vragen.

Hij hebben een gebroken been. Hij kunt goed bloemen tekenen. Hij waren een goede fotograaf. Ik bent een goede student. Ik hebben veel mooie verhalen. Ik kunnen goed aardappels schillen. Jij doe altijd zo gek.

Jij durven dit te bespreken. Jij heeft even pauze nodig. Jij heeft veel dure kleding. Jij konden heel goed rekenen. Jullie had veel films gemaakt. Jullie is een gezellige club. Jullie kan heel goed dansen. Wij deed het moeilijke examen. Wij doet ons werk dagelijks. Wij is een beetje moe.

Het hebben veel tijd nodig. Hij bent een slechte kok. Hij doe een goede zet.

Hij konden slecht vogels vangen. Ik doet dit nooit meer.

Ik durven alleen te reizen. Ik kunt de was doen.

Ik waren een geweldige docent. Jij deden dat elke dag.

Jij kunnen niet goed duiken. Jij zijn een aardige jongen. Jullie doet heel belangrijk werk. Jullie durft wel te springen. Jullie heeft een lange vakantie. Wij durft morgen te protesteren. Wij had vroeger een paard. Wij heeft een mooi standbeeld. Wij kan dat heel goed.

Wij kon goed huiswerk maken. Zij ben een goede zwemster.

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English Grammatical

List 1 List 2

He is an expert programmer. He needs to practice drawing. He was a clever journalist. I am an excellent painter. I have many tasty snacks. I need some more potatoes. It dares to sneak inside. It needs to happen now. She dares to say anything. She does her stretches daily. She has a big nose.

They have many famous books. They need a short break. They were always very mean. We are a bit late.

We do the expensive groceries. You dare to present this. You do all the chores. You have so many shoes. You were a bad swimmer.

He dares to jump far. He does the dirty dishes. He has a rare disease. I dare to cycle fast. I do a silly dance. I was a terrible singer. It does that every day. It has a long tail. It is a bad choice. She is a great dancer. She needs a long holiday. They are a friendly group. They dare to climb high. They do their difficult task. We dare to fight them. We have a beautiful painting. We need a strong coffee. We were a great team. You are a good friend. You need to eat more.

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He dare to jump far. He do the dirty dishes. He have a rare disease. I dares to cycle fast. I does a silly dance. I were a terrible singer. It are a bad choice. It do that every day. It have a long tail. She are a great dancer. She need a long holiday. They am a friendly group. They dares to climb high. They does their difficult task. We dares to fight them. We has a beautiful painting. We needs a strong coffee. We was a great team. You is a good friend. You needs to eat more.

He are an expert programmer. He need to practice drawing. He were a clever journalist. I has many tasty snacks. I is an excellent painter. I needs some more potatoes. It dare to sneak inside. It need to happen now. She dare to say anything. She do her stretches daily. She have a big nose.

They has many famous books. They needs a short break. They was always very mean. We am a bit late.

We does the expensive groceries. You dares to present this. You does all the chores. You has so many shoes. You was a bad swimmer.

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Processed on: 1-4-2021 PDF page: 164PDF page: 164PDF page: 164PDF page: 164 146 Java Grammatical List 1 List 2 if (a>=5) if (a>2) if (b!=1) if (b==40) if (i<7) if (j==110) if (x<=23) if (x<20) if (z!=14) if (z<32) while (a!=6) while (b==4) while (j>15) while (k>5) while (p==55) while (v<2) while (x<26) while (x==0) while (y<=6) while (z>37) if (a<10) if (a==100) if (b<=107) if (b<22) if (i!=10) if (i==2) if (x<27) if (x>5) if (z!=0) if (z>=2) while (a==0) while (b!=4) while (b==10) while (i==7) while (i>1) while (j<20) while (j<22) while (k>=50) while (x<10) while (x>0)

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Processed on: 1-4-2021 PDF page: 165PDF page: 165PDF page: 165PDF page: 165 147 if {a<10} if {a==100} if {b<=107} if {b<22} if {i!=10} if {i==2} if {x<27} if {x>5} if {z!=0} if {z>=2} while {a==0} while {b!=4} while {b==10} while {i==7} while {i>1} while {j<20} while {j<22} while {k>=50} while {x<10} while {x>0} if {a>=5} if {a>2} if {b!=1} if {b==40} if {i<7} if {j==110} if {x<=23} if {x<20} if {z!=14} if {z<32} while {a!=6} while {b==4} while {j>15} while {k>5} while {p==55} while {v<2} while {x<26} while {x==0} while {y<=6} while {z>37}

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Fillers

Dutch Grammatical

Lists 1 and 2

Daar stroomt een grote rivier. Dat is een officieel instituut. Dat was een ernstig incident.

De afgekeurde manuscripten werden vernietigd. De mooie etiketten worden verkocht.

De noodzakelijke vetten zijn gezond. De turnster had een uitdaging.

De uitgebreide documenten worden besproken. De verplichte formulieren liggen daar.

Er hing een zeldzame viool. Er is een giftig gas.

Er ontstond een acute crisis. Het huidige adres is onbekend. Het ingewikkelde recept is lekker. Het moderne concert klonk goed. Het nieuwe paspoort is geldig. Hij gebruikte een klassiek instrument. Hij ontdekte een nieuw continent. Hij verdiende een goed salaris. Zij heeft een indrukwekkend fort.

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Daar is een diepe meer. Dat was een gevaarlijke park. De lang touwen hangen daar. De leeg nesten waren verspreid. De radicaal fronten bevochten elkaar. Er is een nieuw klok.

Er ligt een ongebruikte apparaat. Er stond een hoge hek.

Het beschadigde netten werden vervangen. Het bot mes werkt niet.

Het donkere vlakken moeten gewit. Het moeilijke vakken werden gehaat. Het piepende wielen werden gesmeerd. Het was een grote avontuur.

Hier is een lange lint.

Hij gaf een grote compliment. Hij heeft een sterk zoon. Hij verliet een prachtige dorp. Zij bezochten een prachtige plein. Zij sloten een geheime pact.

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English Grammatical

List 1 and 2

Everyone likes to receive pay. He loved magic a lot.

He played with the sand. His dad earns some money. I can't follow the logic. I have so much homework. I should gather my courage. I was quickly granted permission. It is a simple question.

It must have been tourism. It's relatively easy to win.

Plants don't stop producing oxygen. She handled most financial tasks. She has a strong faith.

She has knowledge of health. She never drinks enough water. The hotel offered cheap transportation. The professor discussed some research. There was not much evidence.

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A good health is important. He didn't make a progress. His leader demanded a progress. I have never played hockeys. I ran a finance today. I will offer an advice. I've access to an information. My laptop generates a heats. She packed all the luggages. She really values a privacy. She shows a good participation. That is an important knowledge. That was very much funs. The car had a damage. The greeds is not good.

The informations are not correct. The team made many progresses. The weathers have been terrible. They perform maintenances on roads. They stood on some gravels.

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Processed on: 1-4-2021 PDF page: 170PDF page: 170PDF page: 170PDF page: 170 152 Java Grammatical List 1 and 2 else {j=i} while (z==b) if (b>=-5) else {x=z} else {x=2} else {i=j} while (y!=x) else {j=100} while (x=<i) else {v=-5} else {v=0} if (t==x) else {y=1} if (a==x) else {i=0} else {j=28} else {v=1} else {a=b} else {x=10} else {y=13}

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Appendix C

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Ta bl e C .1. Re su lts o f re pe at ed me as ure s A NO VAs fo r D ut ch lan gu ag e s tim uli. Ti m e w in do w 200 -40 0 400 -60 0 600 -80 0 800 -10 00 Lat eral re gio ns Gram m at icali ty F( 11) = 10. 59 1, p = .0 08 **, η 2G = . 03 8 F( 11) = 3. 641, p = .083 , η 2G = .0 39 F( 11) = 15. 19 8, p = .0 02 **, η 2G = .20 8 F( 11) = 6. 304, p = .029 *, η 2G = .0 51 Gram m at icali ty *an te rio rit y F( 22) = .51 7, p = .511 , η 2G =. 00 2 F( 22) = 12. 07 6, p < .0 01 *** , η 2G = .0 48 F( 22) = 10. 88 3, p < .0 01 *** , η 2G = .0 26 F( 22) = 6. 452, p = .0 06 **, η 2G = .01 8 Gram m at icali ty *h em isp he re F( 11) = 0 .0 49, p = .829 , η 2G < .0 01 F( 11) = 3. 631, p = .083 , η 2G = .0 14 F( 11) = 1. 483, p = .249 , η 2G = .0 06 F( 11) = .44 3, p = 52 0, η 2G = .0 01 M id lin e re gio ns Gram m at icali ty F( 11) = 4. 648, p = .054 , η 2G = .0 40 F( 11) = 2. 133, p = .172 , η 2G = .0 49 F( 11) = 9. 972, p = .0 09 **, η 2G = .28 1 F( 11) = 8. 228, p = .015 *, η 2G = .1 37 Gram m at icali ty *an te rio rit y F( 22) = 0 .5 86, p = .472 , η 2G = .0 03 F( 22) = 8. 079, p = .013 *, η 2G = .0 40 F( 22) = 2. 581, p = .134 , η 2G = .0 13 F( 22) = 8. 656, p = .0 09 **, η 2G = .02 5 No te : T he to p p art o f t he tab le sh ow s t he re su lts fo r t he A NO VA s w ith th e lat eral re gio ns o f in te re st an d h ad g ram m at icali ty (2 le ve ls: g ram m at ical an un gram m at ical) , h em isp he re (2 le ve ls: le ft an d rig ht h em isp he re ), an d an te rio rit y ( 3 l ev els : an te rio r, c en tral , a nd p os te rio r) a s b et w ee n su bj ec t f ac to sec on d p ar t o f th e ta bl e sh ows th e r ep ea ted m ea su re s A NO VA s o nl y l oo ked a t th e r eg io ns o f i nter es t i n th e m id lin e an d h ad g ra m m at icalit y ( 2 le ve ls: gram m at ical an d u ng ram m at ical) , an d an te rio rit y ( 3 le ve ls: an te rio r, c en tral , an d po st eri or) . A NO VA s w ere ru n p er 2 00 m s t im e in cre m en t fr om 2 00 -1 As a n ef fe ct s ize sta tis tic fo r th e A NO VA a na ly se s, w e r ep or t g en er al ised eta sq ua red (η 2G ). *in dic at es p -v al ue b el ow . 05 , ** i nd ica tes p -v al ue b el ow in di ca tes p -v al ue b el ow .0 01 .

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Ta bl e C .2. Re sul ts o f po st h oc t-te st s f or th e in te rac tio n be tw ee n g ramma tic alit y a nd an te rio rit y a nd g ramma tic alit y a nd h emis Dutc h l ang ua ge sti m ul i. Ti m e w in do w 200 -40 0m s 400 -60 0m s 600 -80 0m s 800 -10 00 m s Lat eral re gio ns Gram m at icali ty * A nt erio rit y LA X t(1 1) = -3. 40 0, p = .00 6** t(1 1) = -5. 28 7, p < .00 1*** t(1 1) = -0. 80 1, LC X t(1 1) = -1. 83 7, p = .09 3 t(1 1) = -3. 84 2, p = .00 3** t(1 1) = -2. 49 8, LP X t(1 1) = 0. 06 5, p = .94 9 t(1 1) = -1. 64 7, p = .12 8 t(1 1) = -3. 11 2, RA X t(1 1) = -1. 50 7, p = .16 0 t(1 1) = -3. 83 3, p = .00 3** t(1 1) = 0. 39 9, p RC X t(1 1) = -1. 09 1, p = .29 9 t(1 1) = -3. 17 4, p = .00 9** t(1 1) = -1. 95 6, RP X t(1 1) = 1. 04 2, p = .32 0 t(1 1) = -1. 85 0, p = .09 1 t(1 1) = -4. 09 9, Gram m at icali ty * H em isp he re Le ft X t(1 1) = -2. 23 9, p = .04 7* X X Ri gh t X t(1 1) = -2. 14 7, p = .05 5 X X M id lin e re gi on s Gram m at icali ty * A nt erio rit y MA X t(1 1) = -2. 85 1, p = .01 6* X t(1 1) = -1. 04 3, MC X t(1 1) = -1. 20 2, p = .25 5 X t(1 1) = -3. 02 2, MP X t(1 1) = 0. 01 4, p = .98 9 X t(1 1) = -4. 77 9, No te : Po st h oc t-te st s w er e o nl y p er fo rm ed fo r t im e w in do w s w he re a n i nt er ac tio n w as fo un d b et w ee n gra m m at icali ty an d an te rio rit y o an d h em isp he re . * in di ca te s p -v al ue b el ow . 05 , ** i nd ica tes p -v alu e b elo w .0 1, * ** in dic at es p -v alu e b elo w .0 01 .

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Tab le C .3 . R es ult s o f re pe at ed me as ure s A NO VAs fo r E ng lis h la ng uag e s timu li. Ti m e w in do w 200 -40 0 400 -60 0 600 -80 0 800 -10 00 Lat eral re gio ns Gram m at icali ty F( 11) = 0 .27 4, p = .611 2, η2 G = . 00 2 F( 11) = 0 .3 90, p = .545 , η2 G = .0 05 F( 11) = 11. 34 1, p = .0 06 **, η2 G = . 18 8 F( 11) = 5. 535, p = .038 *, η2 G = . 07 9 Gram m at icali ty *an te rio rit y F( 22) = 0 .5 00, p = .52 3, η2 G = .0 02 F( 22) = 0 .6 20, p = .472 , η2 G = .0 03 F( 22) = 0 .3 41, p = .57 9, η2 G = .0 02 F( 22) = 12. 73 5, p = .0 02 **, η2 G = . 06 3 Gram m at icali ty *h em isp he re F( 11) = 0 .0 91, p = .7 68, η 2G < .00 1 F( 11) = 3. 974, p = .072 , η2 G = .0 11 F( 11) = 3. 036, p = .10 9, η2 G = .0 16 F( 11) = 0 .2 15, p = .65 2, η2 G = .2 79 M id lin e re gi on s Gram m at icali ty F( 11) = 0 .0 03, p = .95 5, η 2G < .0 01 F( 11) = 0 .3 53, p = .564 , η2 G = .0 07 F( 11) = 13. 34 2, p = .0 04 **, η2 G = . 29 6 F( 11) = 10. 42 8, p = .0 08 **, η2 G = . 20 5 Gram m at icali ty *an te rio rit y F( 22) = 0 .9 16, p = .37 3, η2 G = .0 05 F( 22) = 0 .7 30, p = .425 , η2 G = .0 07 F( 22) = 0 .7 15, p = .42 8, η2 G = .0 05 F( 22) = 13. 73 9, p = .0 02 **, η2 G = . 09 0 No te : Th e t op p ar t o f th e ta bl e s ho ws th e r es ul ts fo r t he A NO VA s wi th th e l ater al re gio ns o f in te re st an d h ad g ram m at icali ty (2 le ve ls: g ram m at ical an un gram m at ical) , h em isp he re (2 le ve ls: le ft an d rig ht h em isp he re ), an d an te rio rit y ( 3 l ev els : an te rio r, c en tral, an d p os te rio r) a s b etwe en su bj ec t f ac to rs se co nd p ar t o f t he ta bl e sh ows th e r ep ea ted m ea su re s A NO VA s o nl y l oo ked a t th e r eg io ns o f i nter es t o n th e m id lin e a nd h ad g ra m m ati ca lity (2 lev el s: gram m at ical an d u ng ram m at ical) , an d an te rio rit y ( 3 le ve ls: an te rio r, c en tral , an d po st eri or) . A NO VA s w ere ru n p er 2 00 m s t im e in cre m en t f ro m 2 00 -1 00 m s. As a n ef fe ct s ize s ta tis tic fo r th e A NO VA a na ly ses , we r ep or t g en er al ised et a s qu ar ed (η 2G ). *in dic at es p -v alu e b el ow .0 5, * * in dic at es p -v al ue b el ow *** i nd ica tes p -v al ue b el ow .0 01 .

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Ta bl e C .4. Re sul ts o f po st h oc t-te sts fo r t he in te rac tio n be tw ee n g ramma tic alit y a nd an te rio rit y a nd g ramma tic alit y a nd h emis En glis h l an gu ag e s timu li. Ti m e w in do w 200 -40 0m s 400 -60 0m s 600 -80 0m s 800 -10 00 m s Lat eral Gram m at icali ty * A nt erio rit y LA X X X t(1 1) = -0. 51 6, LC X X X t(1 1) = -2. 02 2, LP X X X t(1 1) = -4. 40 9, RA X X X t(1 1) = 0. 84 2, RC X X X t(1 1) = -1. 91 7, RP X X X t(1 1) = -4. 33 9, Gram m at icali ty * H em isp he re Le ft X t(1 1) = -2. 50 7, p = .02 9* X X Ri gh t X t(1 1) = -1. 63 5, p = .13 0 X X M id lin e Gram m at icali ty * A nt erio rit y MA X X X t(1 1) = -0. 40 7, MC X X X t(1 1) = -3. 58 5, MP X X X t(1 1) = -5. 24 9, No te : Po st h oc t-te st s w er e o nl y p er fo rm ed fo r t im e w in do w s w he re a n i nt er ac tio n w as fo un d b et w ee n gra m m at icali ty an d an te rio rit y o an d h em isp he re . * in di ca te s p -v al ue b el ow . 05 , ** i nd ica tes p -v alu e b elo w .0 1, * ** in dic at es p -v alu e b elo w .0 01 .

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Tab le C .5 . R es ul ts o f re pe at ed me as ure s A NO VAs fo r Jav a pro grammi ng la ng uag e s timu li. Ti m e w in do w 200 -40 0 400 -60 0 600 -80 0 800 -10 00 Lat eral re gio ns Gram m at icali ty F( 11) = 5. 444, p = .040 *, η2 G = . 05 0 F( 11) = 15. 20 0, p = .0 02 **, η2 G = . 14 0 F( 11) = 4. 327, p = .062 , η2 G = .0 52 F( 11) = .19 1, p = .671 , η2 G = .0 03 Gram m at icali ty *an te rio rit y F( 22) = .59 5, p = .4 71, η2 G = .0 03 F( 22) = 3. 478, p = .078 , η2 G = .0 19 F( 22) = 1. 287, p = .286 , η2 G = .0 08 F( 22) = 1. 164, p = .314 , η2 G = .0 09 Gram m at icali ty *h em isp he re F( 11) = .43 8, p = .5 22, η2 G = .0 01 F( 11) <. 001, p = .98 9, η 2G < .0 01 F( 11) = 1. 264, p = .285 , η2 G = .0 02 F( 11) = .16 6, p = .692 , η2 G = .0 01 M id lin e re gi on s Gram m at icali ty F( 11) = 3. 519, p = .087 , η2 G = .0 59 F( 11) = 10. 89 0, p = .0 07 **, η2 G = . 18 4 F( 11) = 2. 601, p = .135 , η2 G = .0 53 F( 11) = .07 0, p = .796 , η2 G = .0 02 Gram m at icali ty *an te rio rit y F( 22) = 1. 282, p = .292 , η2 G = .0 03 F( 22) = 14. 16 0, p = .0 01 **, η2 G = . 03 7 F( 22) = 6. 224, p = .0 07 **, η2 G = . 01 5 F( 22) = 3. 577, p = .074 , η2 G = .0 24 No te : Th e t op p art o f t he tab le sh ow s t he re su lts fo r t he A NO VA s w ith th e lat eral re gio ns o f in te re st an d h ad g ram m at icali ty (2 le ve ls: g ra m m at ical an un gram m at ical) , h em isp he re (2 le ve ls: le ft an d rig ht h em isp he re ), an d an te rio rit y ( 3 l ev els : an te rio r, c en tral, an d p os ter io r) a s b etwe en su bj ec t f ac to rs sec on d p ar t o f th e ta bl e sh ows th e r ep ea ted m ea su re s A NO VA s o nl y l oo ked a t th e r eg io ns o f i nter es t o n th e m id lin e a nd h ad g ra m m at icalit y ( 2 le ve ls: gram m at ical an d u ng ram m at ical) , an d an te rio rit y ( 3 le ve ls: an te rio r, c en tral , an d po st eri or) . A NO VA s w ere ru n p er 2 00 m s t im e in cre m en t fr om 2 00 -1 00 m s. As a n ef fe ct s ize s ta tis tic fo r th e A NO VA a na ly ses , we r ep or t g en er al ised et a s qu ar ed (η 2G ). *in dic at es p -v alu e b el ow .0 5, * * in dic at es p -v al ue b el ow *** i nd ica tes p -v al ue b el ow .0 01 .

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Ta bl e C .7. Re sul ts o f po st h oc t-te st s f or th e in te rac tio n be tw ee n g ramma tic alit y a nd an te rio rit y a nd g ramma tic alit y a nd h emis Jav a p ro gr ammin g lan gu ag e s tim uli. Ti m e w in do w 200 -40 0m s 400 -60 0m s 600 -80 0m s 800 -10 00 m s Lat eral Gram m at icali ty * A nt erio rit y LA X t(1 1) = -4. 54 8, p < .00 1*** X X LC X t(1 1) = -2. 98 5, p = .01 2* X X LP X t(1 1) = -1. 41 3, p = .18 6 X X RA X t(1 1) = -3. 21 8, p = .00 8** X X RC X t(1 1) = -3. 84 2, p = .00 3** X X RP X t(1 1) = -1. 66 7, p = .12 4 X X Gram m at icali ty * H em isp he re Le ft X X X X Ri gh t X X X X M id lin e Gram m at icali ty * A nt erio rit y MA X t(1 1) = -4. 08 9, p = .00 2** t(1 1) = -2. 91 5, p = .01 4* t(1 1) = -1. 29 2, MC X t(1 1) = -2. 63 6, p = .02 3* t(1 1) = -1. 30 0, p = .22 0 t(1 1) = 0. 37 8, MP X t(1 1) = -2. 44 1, p = .03 3* t(1 1) = -0. 61 3, p = .55 3 t(1 1) = 1. 01 4, No te : Po st h oc t-te st s w er e o nl y p er fo rm ed fo r t im e w in do w s w he re a n i nt er ac tio n w as fo un d b et w ee n gra m m at icali ty an d an te rio rit y o an d h em isp he re . * in di ca te s p -v al ue b el ow . 05 , ** i nd ica tes p -v alu e b elo w .0 1, * ** in dic at es p -v alu e b elo w .0 01 .

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Ta bl e C .8. Re su lts o f re pe at ed me as ure s A NO VA s w ith the di ffe re nc e s co re s be tw ee n t he g ra m m at ical an d u ng ramma tic al s timu li f or e ac lan gu ag e. Ti m e w in do w 200 -40 0 400 -60 0 600 -80 0 800 -10 00 Lat eral re gio ns La ngu age F( 22) = 1. 227, p = .312 , η2 G = .0 39 F( 22) = 5. 820, p = .0 09 **, η2 G = . 14 6 F( 22) = 2. 719, p = .088 , η2 G = .0 55 F( 22) = 1. 564, p = .23 2, η2 G = .0 44 Lan gu ag e* an te rio rit y F( 44) = 1. 016, p = .380 , η2 G = .0 14 F( 44) = 4. 716, p = .020 *, η2 G = . 05 5 F( 44) = 4. 420, p = .0 04 **, η2 G = . 02 5 F( 44) = 6. 400, p = .0 05 **, η2 G = . 06 9 La ngu age *h em isp he re F( 22) = .09 8, p = .9 07, η2 G = .0 01 F( 22) = 1. 450, p = .256 , η2 G = .0 12 F( 22) = 2. 308, p = .123 , η2 G = .0 18 F( 22) = .25 4, p = .7 78, η2 G = .0 04 M id lin e re gi on s La ngu age F( 22) = 1. 270, p = .301 , η2 G = .0 62 F( 22) = 3. 098, p = .065 , η2 G = .0 88 F( 22) = 2. 736, p = .087 , η2 G = .0 76 F( 22) = 4. 331, p = .02 6* , η2 G = .1 62 Lan gu ag e* an te rio rit y F( 44) = 1. 419, p = .262 , η2 G = .0 18 F( 44) = 6. 017, p = .017 *, η2 G = . 05 4 F( 44) = 4. 816, p = .012 *, η2 G = . 02 0 F( 44) = 10. 18 0, p < .0 01 *** , η2 G = .1 01 No te : Th e t op p ar t o f th e ta bl e s ho ws th e r es ul ts fo r t he A NO VA s wi th th e l ater al reg io ns o f i nt er es t a nd h ad lan gu ag e (3 lev el s: Du tc h, E ngl ish a nd Ja he m isp he re (2 le ve ls: le ft a nd rig ht h em isp he re ), an d an te rio rit y (3 le ve ls: an te rio r, c en tral, an d p os te rio r) a s b et w ee n s ub je ct fa ct or s. Th e s ec on d p th e ta bl e s ho ws th e r ep ea ted m ea su res A NO VA s o nl y lo ok ed a t th e r eg io ns o f i nt er es t o n th e m id lin e a nd h ad lan gu ag e (3 lev el s: Du tc h, E ngl ish a nd an d an te rio rit y (3 le ve ls: an te rio r, c en tral, an d p os te rio r). A NO VA s w er e r un p er 2 00 m s t im e in cre m en t fro m 2 00 -1 000 m s. As an e ffe ct siz e st at ist ic f AN OV A a na ly ses , w e r ep or t g en er al ised eta sq ua red (η 2G ). *in dic at es p -v alu e b elo w .0 5, * * in dic at es p -v alu e b el ow .0 1, * ** in dic at es p -v al ue b el ow

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Ta bl e C .9. Re sul ts o f po st h oc t-te sts fo r the mai n ef fe ct s o f lan gu ag e, th e in te rac tio ns b et we en lan gu ag e and a nt er io rity a nd lan he mis ph ere fo r t he fo r t he d iff ere nc e s co re s b et w ee n g ramma tic al a nd u ng rammat ical st im uli fo r e ac h lan gu ag e. Ti m e w in do w 200 -40 0m s 400 -60 0m s 600 -80 0m s 800 Lat eral M ain Du tc h v s Ja va X t(7 1) = -2. 89 6, p = .015 * t(7 1) = 4. 00 2, p < .001 *** X En gl ish v s Ja va X t(7 1) = -5. 63 7, p < .001 *** t(7 1) = 2. 85 3, p = .01 8* X Du tc h v s E ngl ish X t(7 1) = 3. 30 1, p = .005 ** t(7 1) = .7 38, p = .9 99 X Gram m at icali ty * A nt erio rit y LA Du tc h v s Ja va X t(1 1) = .2 21, p = .9 99 t(1 1) = 2. 87 3, p = .04 5* t(1 1) = En gl ish v s Ja va X t(1 1) = -2. 13 1, p = .17 0 t(1 1) = 1. 90 1, p = .25 1 t(1 1) = Du tc h v s E ngl ish X t(1 1) = 2. 20 9, p = .15 0 t(1 1) = 0. 92 2, p = .99 9 t(1 1) = RA Du tc h v s Ja va X t(1 1) = -1. 08 4, p = .90 4 t(1 1) = 1. 50 3, p = .48 0 t(1 1) = En gl ish v s Ja va X t(1 1) = -3. 31 6, p = .021 * t(1 1) = -0. 75 6, p = .99 9 t(1 1) = Du tc h v s E ngl ish X t(1 1) = 3. 27 4, p = .02 2* t(1 1) = 2. 40 7, p = .10 0 t(1 1) = LC Du tc h v s Ja va X t(1 1) = -0. 84 4, p = .99 9 t(1 1) = 2. 34 4, p = .12 0 t(1 1) = En gl ish v s Ja va X t(1 1) = -2. 82 3, p = .05 0 t(1 1) = 2. 07 7, p = .19 0 t(1 1) = Du tc h v s E ngl ish X t(1 1) = 1. 46 7, p = .51 0 t(1 1) = 0. 46 0, p = .99 9 t(1 1) = RC Du tc h v s Ja va X t(1 1) = -3. 58 0, p = .013 * t(1 1) = 0. 97 8, p = .99 9 t(1 1) = En gl ish v s Ja va X t(1 1) = -3. 25 9, p = .023 * t(1 1) = 0. 35 1, p = .99 9 t(1 1) =

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Du tc h v s E ngl ish X t(1 1) = 1. 59 7, p = .41 5 t(1 1) = 0. 49 8, p = .99 9 t(1 1) = -0. 16 2, p LP Du tc h v s Ja va X t(1 1) = -1. 13 9, p = .84 0 t(1 1) = 1. 12 8, p = .84 9 t(1 1) = 1. 83 0, p = En gl ish v s Ja va X t(1 1) = -0. 64 6, p = .99 9 t(1 1) = 2. 68 3, p = .06 4 t(1 1) = 2. 95 3, p = Du tc h v s E ngl ish X t(1 1) = -0. 67 1, p = .99 9 t(1 1) = -1. 92 2, p = .24 3 t(1 1) = -1. 04 8, p RP Du tc h v s Ja va X t(1 1) = -2. 43 8, p = .09 9 t(1 1) = 0. 85 7, p = .99 9 t(1 1) = 1. 91 4, p = En gl ish v s Ja va X t(1 1) = -1. 60 7, p = .40 9 t(1 1) = 1. 44 7, p = .53 0 t(1 1) = 2. 30 0, p = Du tc h v s E ngl ish X t(1 1) = -0. 50 8, p = .99 9 t(1 1) = -2. 00 7, p = .21 0 t(1 1) = -1. 70 7, p Hem isp her e * A nter io rity Le ft Du tc h v s Ja va X X X X En gl ish v s Ja va X X X X Du tc h v s E ngl ish X X X X Ri gh t Du tc h v s Ja va X X X X En gl ish v s Ja va X X X X Du tc h v s E ngl ish X X X X M id lin e M ain Du tc h v s Ja va X t(3 5) = -2. 52 7, p = .048 * t(3 5) = 3. 660 , p = .003 ** t(3 5) = 3. 37 9, p = .005 ** En gl ish v s Ja va X t(3 5) = -3. 02 3, p = .008 ** t(3 5) = 2. 82 2, p = .02 3* t(3 5) = 3. 34 7, p = .006 ** Du tc h v s E ngl ish X t(3 5) = 1. 18 4, p = .73 4 t(3 5) = -0. 06 5, p = .9 99 t(3 5) = -0. 42 6, p Gram m at icali ty * A nt erio rit y MA Du tc h v s J av a X t(1 1) = -1. 38 3, p = .58 2 t(1 1) = 2. 07 9, p = .19 0 t(1 1) = 0. 37 3, p = En gl ish v s Ja va X t(1 1) = -2. 86 7, p = .046 * t(1 1) = 0. 53 6, p = .99 9 t(1 1) = -0. 20 0, p Du tc h v s E ngl ish X t(1 1) = 2. 40 5, p = .10 5 t(1 1) = 1. 21 1, p = .75 0 t(1 1) = 0. 66 2, p =

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MC Du tc h v s Ja va X t(1 1) = -1. 34 4, p = .62 0 t(1 1) = 1. 89 4, p = .25 0 t(1 1) = En gl ish v s Ja va X t(1 1) = -1. 89 4, p = .25 0 t(1 1) = 1. 58 9, p = .42 0 t(1 1) = Du tc h v s E ngl ish X t(1 1) = 0. 66 9, p = .99 9 t(1 1) = -0. 35 0, p = .99 9 t(1 1) = MP Du tc h v s Ja va X t(1 1) = -1. 55 5, p = .44 0 t(1 1) = 2. 18 8, p = .15 3 t(1 1) = En gl ish v s Ja va X t(1 1) = -0. 54 2, p = .99 9 t(1 1) = 3. 09 2, p = .03 1* t(1 1) = .006 ** Du tc h v s E ngl ish X t(1 1) = -1. 18 2, p = .79 0 t(1 1) = -1. 19 5, p = .77 2 t(1 1) = No te : Po st h oc t-tes ts w er e o nl y p er fo rm ed fo r ti m e w in do ws w he re a sig nific an t o r m arg in ally sig nific an t m ain e ffe ct o f lan gu ag e w as fo un a s ig nific an t o r m arg in ally sig nific an t in te rac tio n be tw een g ra m m at icalit y an d an te rio rit y or g ra m m at icalit y a nd h em isp he re . Th e ta bl e pr es aft er c orre ct io n fo r m ul tip le co m paris on s w ith B on fe rro ni c orre ct io ns . * in dic at es p -v alu e b el ow .0 5, * * in dic at es p -v alu e b el ow .0 1, * ** in dic be lo w .0 01 .

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