The influence of an abundance of food on problem solving capacity among dieters and non-dieters
‘To what extent has food abundance influence on the problem solving capacity of dieters and non-dieters? Can a dietary restraint be seen as a moderating factor within the relationship
between an abundance of food and subsequent problem solving capacity?’
University of Groningen Faculty of Economics & Business Master Thesis Marketing Management
June 16, 2016
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction……….……….……… 5
2. Literature review……….……….……… 7
3. Conceptual model……….……….……… 10
. 3.1 Food abundance……….………..…….……….10
. 3.2 Susceptibility (dietary restraint)………..……….………..11
. 3.3 Problem solving capacity………..……….……….……...11
. 3.4 Control variables……..……….……….………12
4. Methodology……….……….……….14
. 4.1 Participants and design..………….……….……….……….14
. 4.2. Procedure………..14
. 4.3 Operationalization of variables……….………..……….……..16
4.3.1 Food abundance………16
4.3.2 Susceptibility (dieters vs. non-dieters)……….16
4.3.3 Problem solving capacity……….17
1. INTRODUCTION
An abundance of food: a particular first world commodity but perhaps also a first world obstacle. It brings problems like obesity, heart and vascular diseases and high amounts of health care spending for the ones that cannot deal with the temptation to eat too much. Moreover, the modern food production system has focused on meeting and exceeding the nutritional needs of consumers in developed countries while reducing real prices of food, which in turn fosters overeating (Fulponi, 2010).
Research of Vohs et al (2000) found that people give up earlier on an unsolvable task in case they are confronted with something they ‘cannot have’, due to the fact that their willingness and ability of mental processing decreases (Vohs, Baumeister, Twenge, Schmeichel, Tice & Crocker, 2000), which could argue for a negative influence of an abundance of food on dieters within our research. However, this research does not outline the particular difference between dieters and non-dieters, and the effect on solvable tasks, leaving a gap that could possibly be filled in with our research.
On the other hand, research shows that there are also benefits of abundance and indulgence, arguing for a bright side of food abundance on an occasional matter. Research of Coelho do Vale, Pieters and Zeelenberg (2015) shows the positive outcomes food abundance can have on the behavior and mental status of dieters. They argue that an occasional experience of an abundance of food can improve the long-term goal pursuit of dieters. This could mean that an abundance of food could positively influence dieters within our research.
Based on previous mentioned research, we believe that there is a difference in mental processing and behavior of dieters and non-dieters, which could be fueled by being exposed towards food, or by remembering an abundance of food. Since previous research leaves a gap by not considering less direct links, we will – as previously stated - examine the relationship with problem solving capacity.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
As previously described, lots of research has been executed on eating habits, differences in behavior and differences in mental processes between dieters and non-dieters. On the one hand, an abundance of food leads to obesity and major health problems for the ones that cannot control their temptations, on the other hand there is a bright side of indulgence whereas people are more successful in reaching their goals when they plan hedonic deviations (reward themselves once in while with food that does not fit their diet) (Coelho do Vale, Pieters, Zeelenberg, 2015).
However, most of the relationships investigated are logical and direct, easily to explain by subjective understandings. Only a few researchers went beyond the logical effects of an abundance of food and have tended to investigate the relationship with genes (Blundell et al, 2005), and for instance creativity (Colzato, de Haan, Hommel, 2015). Nevertheless, little is known about these indirect linkages and all papers left out the possible difference between dieters and non-dieters, leaving a gap for our research.
outcome of an abundance of food described by previous literature is about planned hedonic deviations from a diet, which could improve long-term goal pursuit (Coelho do Vale, Pieters, Zeelenberg, 2015). However, the main body of research shows that dieters are more susceptible when it comes to food cues, arguing for the distinction between dieters and non-dieters for our variable susceptibility. In turn, we expect non-dieters to be more negatively influenced by an abundance of food due to their higher susceptibility for and distraction by food.
Our last topic of interest, already introduced in previous sections, is peoples’ problem solving capacity, which can be defined as the ability to use cognitive and behavioral skills to solve unique challenges (Davidson & Sternberg, 2003). As mentioned before, dieters react differently toward food cues (White, 2009), are concerned with higher stress levels (O’Connor, 2004), are more susceptible towards and influenced by food cues (Hofmann, Koningsbruggen, Stroebe, Ramanathan, Aarts, 2010), and have different mental processes compared to non-dieters (Vohs, Baumeister, Twenge, Schmeichel, Tice & Crocker, 2000). Higher stress levels are known to have a negative influence on problem-solving capacity, whereas people tend to be distracted and unmotivated (Friend, 1982). Moreover, previous research already proved that there is a link between a confrontation with something you ‘cannot have’ and one’s decreased ability to hold on to an unsolvable task (Vohs, Baumeister, Twenge, Schmeichel, Tice & Crocker, 2000), which might indicate that dieters, confronted with an abundance of food, are less persistent in task-related jobs as well. Taken all these findings together, we argue for a negative effect of susceptibility on the relationship between food abundance and problem solving capacity.
whereas they are distracted or tempted (Geykens, Dewitte, Pandelare, Warlop, 2008). We believe that the gross of people is not aiming to gain weight, and the distraction, temptation or avoidance caused by an abundant amount of food will result in a decreased ability to solve problems.
3. CONCEPTUAL MODEL
Figure 1 describes our conceptual model, a visual representation of previous mentioned relationship between food abundance, susceptibility and problem-solving capacity. Below we will further explain our variables of interest and in turn provide hypotheses.
FIGURE 1 Conceptual model
3.1 Abundance of food – Within this research we are interested in the difference of influence between an abundance of food and no abundance of food, in relation to susceptibility and problem-solving capacity. Exposure to unhealthy or an abundant amount of food is known to have influence on people’s behavior in general, it distracts, it tempts, and people are less able to focus on other things (Geykens, Dewitte, Pandelaere, Warlop, 2008). Due to the fact that abundant amounts of food are increasingly associated with diseases and obesity, and there is an increasing pressure to be slim in current society, we believe that the relationship between food abundance and problem solving capacity is negative. Most people do not aim to be fat, and feel sorry after a moment they have been eating too much, which in turn might distract them from a problem-solving task as well.
will perform worse on the problem solving task compared to respondents that are assigned to the neutral prime condition’.
3.2 Susceptibility (dietary restraint)
Within this research, susceptibility for an abundance of food is measured through dieters and non-dieters. A dietary restraint can be defined as ‘the cognitively mediated effort individuals make to restrict their food intake in order to lose bodyweight’ (Haynes, Lee, Yeomans, 2003)) What we know is that dieters have stronger hedonic responses towards food than normal eaters have (Hofmann et al, 2010). This shows that they might be more vulnerable, more influenced or more distracted by food cues. Moreover, being confronted with an abundance of food can in turn activate the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) of dieters. It might feel as punishment since they are not ‘allowed’ to consume the food and unconsciously feel like they should activate their avoidance motivation in order to stick to their priorities. Activating this mechanism can take mental effort (Cools, Schotte, McNally, 1992), effort that cannot be used for a subsequent task. Moreover, due to higher levels of cortisol, dieters experience higher levels of stress (O’Connor & O’Connor, 2003). In turn, stress is known to decrease peoples’ problem solving capacity (Friend, 1982).
H2: ‘Compared to non-dieters, dieters will perform worse on the problem solving task’.
3.3 Problem solving capacity
These resources are finite, which means that they are depleted after usage (Trudal & Murray, 2011). Despite the fact that this research is not so much about resource depletion, it might provide us from some valuable insights. Since we relate problem solving capacity to dieters, primed with food abundance, it might be that they already depleted their inner resources by thinking about such an event, which in turn lowers their performance on problem solving tasks. On the other hand, we know that when people are confronted with something they ‘cannot have’, they are less willing to hold on to unsolvable tasks (Vohs & Faber, 2007), which could also indicate that they are less willing to put effort in solvable tasks. As mentioned before, stress levels are higher among dieters, and might increase in case they are confronted with an abundance of food. Stress in turn, has a negative relationship with problem-solving capacity, which could also indicate that problem solving capacity is lower among dieters that are confronted with an abundance of food. What we also know is that dieters might activate their BIS system, which in turn takes mental effort. Since problem solving capacity is defined as the process of working through details in order to reach a solution for a problem, whereas you can include mathematical or systematic operations that gauge critical thinking skills of an individual (businessdictionary.com), it requires this mental effort. In sum, we are interested in possible problem solving capacity variation, due to a dietary restraint after being primed with an abundance of food.
H3: ‘Dieters are more negatively impacted by the food abundance prime than non-dieters are, and in turn, will perform worse on the problem-solving task.
3.4 Control variables
Mood – Mood is known to have influence on behavior of dieters, whereas a neutral mood has no influence, but positive or negative arousal are considered to have substantial influence (Cools, Schotte, & McNally, 1992). In order to see whether dietary constraints are really moderating, we have to take into account participant’s mood in order to control for causal ambiguity.
Gender – Within this research men and women are allowed to participate. We do not expect notable differences between men and women. Previous research argues that women tend to be somewhat higher on their BIS (which might have its impact on the influence of food abundance among dieting women), however, within this research we expect this influence to be neglectable.
Age – Adult participants from every age class are allowed to participate. After conducting research and major differences are seen, it is possible to divide the age classes in order to make proper assumptions. However, we do not expect notable differences between age classes.
4. METHODOLOGY
Previous mentioned hypotheses will be investigated through the collection of a variety of primary sources, whereas constructs are based on secondary sources, as recommended by Yin (1994).
4.1. Participants and design
Considering our research design, we draw upon the knowledge that flexible or ‘fluid’ cognitive processes are regarded as fundamental to problem solving and performance, whereas a dietary restraint might hinder this process. We composed an experimental design that was first tested among a smaller set of participants. After small adjustments based on the initial test, we started collecting data. The experiment was computer-based, so we could more easily reach a greater amount of participants through announcements on social media and direct e-mails. 129 respondents from every age class (89 female, 40 male; Mage = 32.6, SD = 14.26), participated for free. The study used a 2 (abundance of food vs. no abundance of food) x 2 (dieters vs. non-dieters) between-subjects factorial design, whereas all dimensions were tested on the dependent variable problem-solving capacity (69 participants in the neutral condition, 60 participants assigned to the abundance condition). In the end, 65 of the respondents were assigned to the group non-dieters, and 64 were assigned to the group dieters. Conclusions were drawn upon these outcomes, combined with existing literature.
4.2. Procedure
4.3 Operationalization of variables
4.3.1. Food abundance – independent variable
For our independent variable food abundance, a prime based on remembering an event was used, as described and recommended by Schweizer (2002). Since we know that exposure to unhealthy or an abundant amount of food, compared to a neutral condition, is having its influence on peoples’ behavior in general, and earlier studies consistently found that these conditions produce reliable differences in response towards other stimuli (Geykens, Dewitte, Pandelaere, Warlop, 2009), we used two prime conditions (abundance of food = 1 vs. no abundance of food = 0; used as dummy variables). All participants received two questions. Control participants were asked to write about a normal day of the week, and subsequently how they feel during such days. Participants in the abundance prime condition were asked to describe an event where they had been eating too much, and subsequently how they felt afterwards (Appendix I, Exhibit 2). By remembering and describing such an event, we aimed to bring them back to that state of mind, in order to see whether it had its influence on subsequent problem-solving tasks.
4.3.2. Susceptibility (dieters vs. non-dieters) – moderator variable
with your weight?’ (the full questionnaire can be found in our Appendix I, Exhibit 4A). In order to test reliability and internal consistency of our data derived from these questions, we carried out a Cronbach’s alpha. Every question of the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire demonstrated adequate internal consistency, with an overall alpha of .87, which allowed us to calculate the median split of all eight items, which was needed for further analysis. After calculation, our median split turned out to be 3.6250. Participants beneath this value were rated as non-dieters (65 in total), whereas participants above this value were rated as dieters (64 in total), subsequently handled as dummy variables (dieters = 1, non-dieters = 0).
4.3.3. Problem solving capacity – dependent variable
minutes was based on the initial test we carried out among a smaller set of people, whereas we found out that participants could not solve all 30 anagrams in 10 minutes, and would not have to wait until the time was over. Besides, we wanted to balance between a too large timeframe with too many anagrams (increasing the chance of respondents’ withdrawal) and a too small timeframe with too few anagrams (increasing the chance of unreliable findings), whereas 10 minutes seemed to be reasonable. Examples of anagrams used are ‘plele’, correctly solved ‘lepel’ (Dutch word for spoon), and ‘tagiar’, correctly solved ‘gitaar’ (Dutch word for guitar). The full list of anagrams can be found in Appendix I, Exhibit 3. The amount of words correctly solved indicates one’s capacity to solve problems.
4.3.4. Control variables
Mood – Based on research of Cools, Schotte & McNally (1992) we know that mood has its influence on behavior of dieters, whereas a neutral mood has no influence, but positive and negative arousal were considered to have substantial influence. In order to see whether dietary constraints were really moderating, we had to take into account participants’ mood in order to control for causal ambiguity. Within this research we used a mood scale on a 7-point Likert scale, whereas participants were asked to rate ‘how they felt at the moment’ (1 = very positive, 7 = very negative) (Appendix 5A).
Gender – Men and women were allowed to participate within this research. After all other tests, they were asked to fill in their gender (male/female) (Appendix 5B).
Age – Adult participants from every age class were allowed to participate. Before the debriefing we asked them to fill in their age (0-100) (Appendix 5B).
5. RESULTS
Following previous sections, our first expectation was that the relationship between food abundance and problem solving capacity was negative, which means that respondents that are randomly assigned to the food abundance condition will perform worse on the problem solving task compared to the respondents that are assigned to the neutral prime condition (hypothesis 1). Our second expectation was that dieters would be more susceptible to food abundance and would, in turn, be worse on their problem solving capacity, due to higher stress levels (hypothesis 2). Susceptibility was measured through a scale of dietary restraint (Van Strien et al, 1986), whereas participants had to rate themselves on a 7-point Likert scale on eight questions related to their dietary habits. Our third and final expectation was that the relationship between food abundance and problem solving capacity was moderated by susceptibility (hypothesis 3). In order to test previous mentioned hypothesis we carried out an experiment among 129 respondents, within this section we will give an overview and interpretation of our data.
FIGURE 2
Plotted outcomes problem solving capacity
hypothesis 3 is rejected since there was no interaction effect measured, and susceptibility does not play a moderating role between an abundance of food and subsequent problem solving capacity.
As mentioned in previous sections, we were also interested in the possible influence on mood, whereas previous research argued for the differential influence of a positive or negative mood. Since we did not find any significant relationships between the variables of our first interest, we executed analysis based on mood. Again, our plots show a difference (figure 2), whereas participants seem to have a better mood in the neutral condition. However, results are not significant F(1.125) = (2.296, p > 0.05) = .132, which means that there is no significant difference in mood between the conditions. Moreover, there is no significant difference between dieters and non-dieters F(1.125) = 1.003, p > 0.05) = .319. In summary, results show that mood has no influence on the relationship at all.
FIGURE 3
6. DISCUSSION
influence on the relationship. Moreover, there was no significant difference between dieters and non-dieters and their problem-solving capacity. The difference between most previous research and our research is that we forced participants to remember a moment of food abundance, and other research mainly put them into a setting of food abundance, whereas they were really confronted with the food. Moreover, previous research not yet focused on the dependent variable of problem-solving capacity.
Despite the fact that our expectations based on previous research were different from our findings, we do not believe that previous research should be completely revised based on our results, since no earlier research focused particularly on problem solving capacity and mainly used different methods, research design and sample. However, some notes can be taken into account. Assuming that dieters are more tempted or influenced by food cues due to – for instance – higher stress levels and due to this, respond differently than normal eaters do, might be true to some extend. However, the way you prime the participant seems to have its influence on his or her response as well. Remembering might not work as effective as physical confrontation, whereas every participant has different ways of processing of and reflecting on memories. The link might be less strong than assumed, whereas just remembering an occasion and retrieve feelings from that occasion might not be enough to make a dieter less effective on a problem solving activity.
not experience the same level of stress dieters do, and are perhaps less influenced by the world around them. Since our plots show some differences between dieters and non-dieters, it could be that a part of the group that was assigned as dieters was truly dieting, and in turn more susceptible towards the condition abundance, but due to people that only rate themselves as dieters, the relationship was not significant. In sum, future research should take in account that there might be a difference in response between people who see themselves as dieters, and people who are really on a diet, and should control for this.
Following section describes limitations of our research, which in turn might have had its influence on our results.
7. LIMITATIONS
mentally processed every question from the prime condition and put effort in remembering an occasion of food abundance. Future research should overcome this pitfall by for instance interviewing participants and really let them tell a story instead of writing down a few words. A fourth and final limitation, already introduced in our discussion, could have been that participants were divided into dieters and non-dieters based on their own ratings. Future research should make a difference between participants that are really on a diet the moment they participate, and people that rate themselves as dieters, since there might be differences in stress levels, the hormone cortisol and responses to the outside world.
8. CONCLUSION
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APPENDIX 1:
Exhibit 1A: Introduction and debriefing used in the survey
Introduction:
Dit onderzoek maakt deel uit van een onderzoeksprogramma van verschillende onderzoekers aan de Faculteit van Economie en Bedrijfskunde aan de Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. Het onderzoek bestaat uit verschillende paragrafen, waarbij de focus ligt op voedselervaring.
Alle informatie verstrekt door de participant zal met discretie behandeld worden voor doeleinden van voorgenoemd onderzoek. Als vanzelfsprekend zullen gegevens niet verder verspreid worden. Het onderzoek zal ongeveer 15 minuten van uw tijd in beslagen nemen.
Om de kwaliteit en validiteit van het onderzoek te waarborgen is het van belang dat u vragen naar waarheid invult en u zelfstandig te werk gaat
_______________________________________________________________________ Debriefing:
Exhibit 2A: Neutral priming task (control-group)
Beschrijf hieronder in enkele zinnen een normale dag van de week.
Beschrijf hieronder hoe u zich voelt op een normale dag van de week.
Exihibit 2B: Priming with food abundance (trait-group)
Beschrijf hieronder in enkelele zinnen een moment waarop u uiteten ging en te veel gegeten hebt omdat het te veel en te lekker was.
Beschrijf hieronder hoe u zich daarbij voelde en wat er door u heen ging.
Exhibit 3: Anagrams
Hieronder vindt u 30 anagrammen, het is uw taak om er zo veel mogelijk correct in te vullen binnen een tijdsbestek van tien minuten. Het is hierbij niet van belang in welke volgorde u werkt, u mag er dus voor kiezen om een anagram over te slaan en door te gaan naar het volgende anagram. Indien u het gevoel heeft niet meer oplossingen te kunnen vinden mag u stoppen met dit onderzoek en u melden bij de onderzoeker.
Bedankt voor het invullen van deze anagrammen, u heeft het tweede onderdeel van de studie voltooid, u kunt dit onderdeel inleveren bij de proefleider en doorgaan met de volgende onderdelen.
computer, ring, theepot, muis, bed, vinger, plant, huis, fles, gitaar, muziek, cijfer, project, parfum, serieus, leraar, konijn, spelen, hond, paard, voer, drank, zand, bril, haar, bord, lepel, kaars, blouse, broek Not visible for participants
Exhibit 4A: Dietery constraint
Hieropvolgende vragen dient u the waarderen met een cijfer van 1 tot 7, (1 = Nee, helemaal niet, 7 = Ja, heel erg).
1. Als u bent toegenomen in gewicht, eet u dan minder dan u normaal zou doen?
2. Probeert u minder te consumeren op etenstijden dan u eigenlijk zou willen?
3. Weigert u vaak voedsel of drinken omdat u bezig met bent uw gewicht?
4. Kijkt u precies wat u eet?
5. Wanneer u teveel gegeten heeft, houdt u hier dan de volgende dag rekening mee?
6. Eet u bewust minder om niet zwaarder te worden?
7. Probeert u niet te eten tussen maaltijden door om niet aan te komen?
Exhibit 5A: Mood
Komende vraag mag u beantwoorden aan de hand van een schaal van 1 tot 7. 1= zeer positief, 7 = zeer negatief.
‘How voelt u zich op dit moment?’ _______
Exhibit 5B: Final Questionnaire
Geslacht: man/vrouw
Leeftijd: __________
Studierichting (WO/HBO/MBO)
