TRANSFER OF LEARNING: CONSTRAINTS AND CHALLENGES EXPERIENCED BY EMPLOYEES IN SELECTED DEPARTMENTS OF THE NORTH WEST PROVINCE.
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North-West UniversityMafikeng Campus Library
BY GAITSIWE SHERON SEPENG
MINI-DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTERS IN BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION IN THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF BUSINESS AND GOVERNMENT LEADERSHIP OF THE NORTH-WEST UNIVERSITY (MAFIKENG CAMPUS)
SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR C. MIRUKA MAY 2010 1 :1'0 F F!,i` A M 4/ 11S ft, .
205 -04- 01
sd,
.4cc. No.: v. rACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost I would like to extend my gratitude to my mentor and co-supervisor Professor D. Akinnusi who gave me the opportunity to complete the research report through candid advice and courage.
I would like to pass my sincere gratitude to my beloved family; the support, strength and courage they gave me to complete this project.
To all those special adorable people who contributed at various stages of this report, and are not mentioned in this acknowledgement, I appreciate your efforts and I thank you all.
DECLARATION
I declare that the mini-dissertation, which I submit for the degree Master of Business Administration (MBA) at the Mafikeng Campus of the North-West University, is my own work and has not previously been submitted by me for a degree at this or any other tertiary institution.
ABSTRACT
The purpose of the study was to explore and identify the constraints and challenges that prevents public service employees from transferring what they have learned during training intervention to the workplace. The aim was to further make recommendations to address the factors identified as constraints of transfer of learning into the workplace. To achieve the goal, the study focused on extensive literature and theoretical inquiry with the aim of understanding concepts of transfer of learning, and constraints to transfer of
learning, to determine the relationship between transfer of learning and employee/trainee performance, and to suggest a framework to manage or mitigate the constraints to transfer of learning.
The study used a qualitative and quantitative research methodology, with emphasis on quantitative research methodology to draw conclusions. A sample of 106 was drawn from the two departments, where a questionnaire was administered. The findings of the study revealed that the following factors as constraints to transfer of learning: lack of learner's readiness before training; lack of support and acknowledgement of new skills acquired by trainees from their line managers; even though training improves knowledge level and competency level, thereby increasing productivity, however lack of support constrain transfer; lack of appropriate or relevant tools for application of theory; and lack of cooperation and support from colleagues.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS DECLARATION
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENTS iv
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES vii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY 1
1.2 Background of the study
1.3 Statement of the problem 4
1.4. Objectives of the study 6
1.5. Significance of the study 6
1.6 Scope of the study 6
1.7 Definition of concepts 7
1.8 Plan of the study 7
1.9 Summary 8
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FOUNDATION 9
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 What is transfer of learning? 9
2.3 Key concepts in Transfer of learning 12
2.4 Measuring transfer of learning 14
2.5. Constraints to effective transfer of learning 17
2.6 The context of transfer of learning for the purpose of this study I 8
2.7 Effective education for transfer: some general principles I 8
2.8 Learning in the workplace: its strengths and limitations 23
THEORETICAL FOUNDATION 28
2.9 Sociological and socio-cultural approaches to transfer and work-based learning 28
2.10 A Transfer of Training Model 30
2.11 Theories on Motivation of Transfer 32
2.11.1 Expectancy Theory. 32
2.11.2 Equity Theory. 33
2.11.3 Goal-Setting Theory. 34
2.11.4 Impact of These Theories on Transfer Motivation 35
2.12 Theories for Training Transfer Design 36
2.12.1 Identical Elements Theory 37
2.12.2 Principles Theory 37
2.12.3 Near and Far Transfer 37
2.13 Theories Supporting Transfer Climate 39
2.13.1 Transfer Climate Framework 40
2.13.2 Organization Theory 41
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 44
3.1 Introduction 44
3.2 Research design 44
3.3 Population and Sampling 45
3.4 Data collection 46
3.5 Reliability, validity and trustworthiness 50
3.6 Data analysis 51
3.7 Ethical consideration 53
3.8 Summary 53
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DATA ANALYSIS 54
4.1 Introduction 54
SECTION ONE: CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RESPONDENTS 55
4.2.1 Gender of the respondents 55
4.2.2 Age of the respondents 55
4.2.3 Number of years in the service of the department 56
4.2.4 Level of education 56
4.2.5 Position in the department 57
4.2.6 Department currently working for 57
SECTION TWO: TRAINING PROGRAMMES WHICH THE RESPONDENTS
ATTENDED 58
4.2.7 Training programmes which the respondents attended 58
FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSFER OF LEARNING. 59
4.2.7 Leaner's readiness before training 59
4.2.8 Motivation to transfer 60
4.2.8 Positive personal outcomes 61
4.2.9 Personal Capacity for transfer 6 7
4.2.10 Peer support 62
4.2.11 Supervisory Support 63
SECTION 3: IMPACT OF TRANSFER OF LEARNING 64
4.2.12 Transfer effort performance expectations 64
4.3 Summary of constraints as identified by the findings of the study 65 4.4 Constraints to transfer of learning as identified by various authors 66
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION OF MAIN FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS 68
5.1 Introduction 68
5.2 Main findings 68
5.3 Discussion of the main findings 69
5.4 Recommendations 71
5.5 Limitations of the study 72
5.6 Suggestions for further studies 7'
5.7 Conclusion of the study 7'
LIST OF REFERENCES 73
Appendix A: Research Questionnaire 77
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Table 3.1 A comparism of five probability sampling designs 54
Table 3.2 Levels of measurement 6()
Table 4.1.1 Gender of the respondents 64
Table 4.1.2 Age of the respondents 64
Table 4.1.3 Years of experience 65
Table 4.1.4 Level of education 65
Table 4.1.5 Positions of respondents 66
Table 4.1.6 Departments where respondents work 66
Table 4.1.7 Training programmes attended 67
Table 4.1.8 Learner's readiness before training 68
Table 4.1.9 Motivation for participants to transfer 69
Table 4.1.10 Factors that encourage participants to transfer 70
Table 4.1.11 Personal capacity to transfer 71
Table 4.1.12 Peer support to transfer 71
Table 4.1.13 Supervisory support 72
Table 4.1.14 Transfer effort expectations 73
Table 5.1 Framework for managing transfer of learning 80
Figure 1 Holton's factors affecting transfer 40
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
1.1. Introduction of the study
The ultimate goal of training and development intervention is to improve the performance or productivity of employees within an organisation, thereby increasing service delivery. Over the fifteen years of the South African democratic dispensation, much attention has been given to increasing workplace productivity and national economic performance in an era of globalization and international competitiveness (Fuller, Munroe & Rainbird, 2004). Increased knowledge, highly skilled performance and problem solving are seen as central to enhancing workplace productivity. In achieving these goals the concept of transfer of learning is central. Transfer of learning involves the application of knowledge and skills gained in one setting to other settings that differ in terms of 'subjects, settings, people, behaviors and/or time' (Stokes & Baer, 1977:350). Transfer of learning is an essential element in problem solving (Haskell, 2001) while the current interest in generic skills revealed in vocational and school education amounts to a rediscovery of the importance of transfer of learning. However it is doubtful whether educators, policy makers and employers fully understand the complexity of the learning involved in either transfer of learning or generic skills (Cornford, 2005).
Transfer of learning involves very considerable complexity, and attaining positive transfer has long been recognized is one of the important and difficult problems in educational psychology (Cox; 1997; Haskell, 2001). It has been, and still is assumed incorrectly to be a passive, naturally occurring phenomenon (Stokes & Baer, 1977). In brief, transfer of learning is what all vocational educators either in the workplace or classrooms hopes to achieve, and the credibility of all real-world education for the workplace is dependent upon achieving it. Yet the estimates are that only about ten percent of training is effectively transferred to the workplace (Detterman, 1993). The worrying factor in this is that much training is carried out in the workplace or in simulated settings, with such settings seen as most likely to encourage transfer of learning (Billett, 1996; Eraut, 2004).
Many of the current policies and practice of workplace or work-based learning are based on the assumption that the critical factors reside in social and cultural contexts (e.g. Billett, 1996; Eraut, 2004; Fuller et al., 2004). Yet Detterman's (1993) and others' judgments (see Haskell, 2001) about transfer of learning indicate that there is a low rate of success of transfer despite in many cases similar social contexts in workplace and learning settings. Logically there appear to be significant other factors that are not being identified and captured in currently dominant socio-cultural paradigms and approaches to learning and transfer. There is also the problem that Fuller et al. (2004:1) have identified from the investment in human capital perspective, the increase in formal qualifications has not led to increased productivity. The conclusions that may be drawn from this in part are that formal qualifications are not including greater understanding of learning and adaptation processes, and specifically understanding of what transfer of learning is and how to achieve it.
1.2 Background of the study
The South African workforce is characterized by an array of diverse groups which needs to be leveraged for competitive advantage in the quest to combine the best management practices employed successfully elsewhere in the world with the strength which is unique in the people of South Africa, and that can be used as a success driving factor in the current education and training institutions (Thomas 2002:237)
In 1998, the South African government, in pursuit of addressing the imbalances of the past, promulgated the Skills Development Act no 97 of 1998, which was followed by the Skills Levies Act no 9 of 1999. Amongst others, the purpose of the Skills Development Act is to:
to develop the skills of the South African workforce
to improve the quality of life of workers, their prospects of work and labour mobility;
to improve productivity in the workplace and the competitiveness of employers;
to improve the delivery of social services; to encourage employers to;
to use the workplace as an active learning environment;
- to provide opportunities for new entrants to the labour market to gain work experience;
to encourage workers to participate in leamership and other training programmes; to improve the employment prospects of persons previously disadvantaged by unfair discrimination and to redress those disadvantages through training and education; to ensure the quality of education and training in and for the workplace;
In 2001 a National Skills Development Strategy was adopted as a driving force to give directions to the changes initiated by South African Qualification Authority (SAQA) in 1998. Amongst its objectives was to overcome the structural rigidities and inequalities inherited from the apartheid era and to transform the labour force from low skills base to one that is committed to high quality of lifelong learning (SAQA, 2001). The end result of this objective is for the labour force to acquire a high level skills base. To ascertain the achievement of the objectives, transfer of learning or skills should be visible. It is therefore vital to also make reflection to the role played by the National Qualification Framework (NQF) in transfer of learning in the workplace.
The NQF was introduced to establish a bridge between formal learning and informal learning with the following key objectives:
creating an integrated national framework for learning achievements
facilitating access, mobility and progression within education and training system accelerating the redress of the past unfair discrimination in education, training and employment opportunities, and
contributing to the full personal development of each learner and the social and economic development of the nation at large (SAQA 2000:3).
The NQF adopted applied competence to determine whether learning outcomes has been achieved. Applied competence suggests that foundational, practical and reflexive competence should be the core of determining the achievements of learning outcomes. According to SAQA (2000:5), the South African Education system should shift from education for employment to education for employability.
This implied developing the ability to adapt acquired skills to a new working environment. Adaptability is an essential element of transfer of learning to the workplace. The NQF introduced a radical shift from classroom based assessment to a combination of both
classroom and workplace assessment. Assessors are encouraged to use more than one assessment method which amongst others includes observation, interviews, portfolio of evidence, simulations and finished products. The use of assessment methods is an indication that assessors measure transfer of learning to the workplace. The study of transfer of learning constraints and challenges will complement the NQF because the framework concentrates on the assessment of transfer of learning while this research focuses on the constraints and challenges preventing transfer of learning.
As stated above, the study focuses on transfer of learning by public servants with specific reference to the North-West Provincial Youth Commission, and the Department of Public Works, Roads and Transport looking at how employees transfer or how they should transfer their learning to the workplace. The study concentrates on the challenges and constraints preventing trained employees to transfer learning and on what possible solutions can be used to address the problem.
1.3 Statement of the problem
As it is believed that the ultimate goal of any training intervention in the workplace is to improve the performance of productivity and service delivery standards. All training interventions in a workplace are costly as the cost is calculated against the time of participants, the time of the trainers, training aids such as handouts, trainers' notes, electricity and refreshments provided to employees. The idea is supported by Rowe (1996:17) as he points out that one can understand the concerns that top managers have on the evaluation of training and development. If one considers the millions of pounds companies put out- not just on courses, but on trainers, consultants, hotel bookings, training rooms, materials, meals, and etc, then managers are entitled to ask: why should this produce better employees, how will this be to the long-term financial benefit of the company?
Arising from the above citation, one could simple say that managers want to see value for money and demand justification of training costs. However, while such precise measurements may be viable in some areas, in most instances and certainly in areas such as management training, it might be possible. According to Maurice Taylor (1997:3) it is estimated that while North American industries spend over one hundred billion dollars on training and
development, not more than 10% of these expenditures actually result in transfer of knowledge to the job. If the participants do not apply what they have learned during training at the workplace, the investment on training is a total waste of time, resources and money. Caccioppe (1998:335) points out that little research has been done to establish how much learning from classroom training and development programmes, have been transferred back to the workplace. He further indicates that senior managers often ask what changes have been made after training and in too many cases there is nothing evident that can be labeled as the value of training.
The problem experienced is that organizations, particularly public sector usually send employees to attend training interventions hoping that when they come back they will apply what they have learned in the workplace and improve their performance and productivity. As indicated by various researchers, the situation does not improve, hence we witness a lot of service delivery protests both at local and provincial governance levels. The focus of the study is to explore that constraints and challenges that prevents public service employees who received training within a certain financial year to transfer what they have learned from learning intervention to the workplace.
1.3.1 Research Questions
The study attempts to answer the following primary and secondary research questions:
To what extent do trained employees in public sector transfer what they have learned from classroom training to the workplace?
For the purpose of the study, the following secondary questions arising from the problem statement will be investigated:
What constitutes transfer of learning to the workplace?
What constraints and challenges of transfer of learning to the workplace are experienced by trained public service employees?
What is the relationship between transfer of learning and service delivery or productivity?
1.4. Objectives of the study
The central objective of the study is to explore and identify the constraints and challenges that prevent public service employees from transferring what they have learned during training intervention to the workplace. More-specifically, the study aims to:
Define the concept of transfer of learning based on relevant theoretical foundation. Identify constraints preventing transfer of learning both from the existing literature and in the workplace context.
Determine the relationship between the trainees' performance and constraints of transfer of learning.
To suggest the framework that could be used to manage or mitigate the constraints on transfer of learning.
1.5. Significance of the study
The study will contribute towards the existing body of knowledge on transfer of learning and will assist in developing a strategy towards reducing barriers to effective application of knowledge, skills and attitude in the workplace situation, particularly in the public sector. The study will also assist training and development managers, and practitioners in designing learning interventions that considers ways of dealing with constraints and challenges on transfer of learning to the workplace. The study will play a significant role in ensuring that the main purpose of the National Qualification Framework, and moreover, the South African National Skills Development Strategy which is to contribute to the economic and social potential development of every South African citizen (SAQA, 1998) is realised because its main focus is recognition and implementation of learning.
1.6 Scope of the study
The focus on of the study is on constraints and challenges experienced by public service employees who received training within the Medium Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF) 2006-2009. The study targeted employees from the North-West Provincial Youth Commission and employees from the Department of Public Works, Roads and Transport.
1.7 Definition of concepts
1.7.1 Learning: The word" learning" widely varies by context. The dictionary definition
states that learning is "the acquiring of knowledge or skill". Thus learning encompasses two meanings- the acquisition of skill or know how, which implies the physical ability .to produce some action and the acquisition of know-why, which implies the ability to articulate conceptual understanding of an experience.
1.7.2 Transfer of learning: Transfer of learning refers to the degree to which employees use newly acquired knowledge and skills to perform their jobs effectively and enhance organisational effectiveness. It refers to what degree was learning from the programme applied in the work place (Nelson 2000:25).
1.7.3 Training: According to De Cenzo and Robbins (1994:255) training is a learning
experience in that it seeks a relatively permanent change in an individual that will improve his/her ability to perform on the job. Training can, therefore, be regarded a planned process to modify attitude, knowledge or skilled behaviour through learning experience so as to achieve effective performance in an activity or range of activities.
1.7.4 Education :The concept of education refers to activities directed at providing the
knowledge, skills, moral values and understanding required in the normal course of life. It focuses on a wide range of activities rather than on providing knowledge and skills for a limited field or activity. Education is, therefore, concerned with the development of sound reasoning processes to enhance one's ability to understand and interpret knowledge (PS Nel et al 2004:426)
1.8 Plan of the study
The study will consist of the following chapters. Chapter 1 will describe the background and problem of the study including the research questions, objectives, significance and scope of the study. Chapter 2 presents the theoretical foundation of the study and reviews various theories that have a link to the statement of the problem and the review of related literature. An exposition of the research design and analysis will be given in chapter 3. The research results and interpretation thereof follows in chapter 4. Chapter 5 focuses on the discussion of the outcomes of the study, draws conclusions and makes recommendations.
1.9 Summary
Transfer of learning to the workplace is essential for any organisational productivity and performance improvement. A study. exploring this phenomenon would benefit the existing body of knowledge and contribute to the effectiveness of training and development interventions. The point .of departure for this study is that not only the public sector or the two targeted departments are experiencing problems of transferring learning to the workplace, other government departments and organisation alike are experiencing the problem and therefore the study is significant and important.
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FOUNDATION LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Transfer of learning is a concept that dates back to the beginning of the twentieth century (Thorndike & Woodworth, 1901; Thorndike, 1903). However, there has been a recent resurgence in interest, especially in the area of training because there is a growing concern that though billions of dollars are spent on training annually, it is often not utilized on the job. Research suggests that there is a typical transfer skill dollar loss ranging from 28 to 90 cents on every training dollar spent (Curry, 1997; Rackham, 1979). In child welfare, this transfer problem probably translates into increased risk of harm to children. Therefore, strategies to improve transfer of learning are extremely important.
2.2 What is transfer of learning?
The goal of any learning intervention is to prepare an individual to acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes that enables him or her to better perform his/her task and to be able to handle all the challenges posed by the continuous changing world of work. A learning task has no use unless it is put in practice (Slabbert, 1997:23).
Caccioppe (1998: 195) points out that there are a limited number of definations of transfer of learning in the literature. He further stated that " little research has been done before to establish how much work is transferred back at the workplace". Peter Goodge (1998: 86) supports the idea by pinting out the senior managers often ask what changes were made after training and in too many cases there is nothing evident they can show as a result of training. These observation raise the question of what transfer of learning is.
Any learning has the potential of affecting the individuals future performance in some circumstances or the other and therefore all learning transfers. However in some practical circumstances the transfer of learning might not be observed. Maurice Taylor (1997: 1) defines the transfer of learning as the effective application by trainees to their jobs of the knowledge and skills gained as a result of attending an educational programme. According to Don Clark (2002: 2) transfer of learning is the influence of prior learning on performance in a new situation.
For the study of this study, transfer of learning is defined as putting into practice the skills, knowledge and attitudes that were gained through learning intervention on either the classroom or on job in a specific working environment.
Traditional transfer research and intervention has emphasized instructional strategies involving the use of ririnciples such as identical elements, general principles, stimulus variability, and response availability (Baldwin and Ford, 1988). However, recent approaches are more ecologically focused, recognizing the important role of the learner's work environment. These approaches also emphasize the importance of key persons before, during, and after the formal training session (Beaudin, 1987; Broad & Newstrom, 1992; Curry, 1997; Curry, 2001; Curry & Caplan, 1996; Curry, Caplan, & Knuppel, 1991; Curry, Caplan, & Knuppel, 1994). One approach, developed and utilized at the Northeast Ohio Regional Training Center, builds off of Lewin's force field theory and advocates for assessment and intervention within a worker's "transfer field." It is described as the transfer of training and adult learning approach.
Transfer of learning has fallen in and out of fashion in psychological research (Haskell, 2001), and thus it is not surprising that there is frequently lack of understanding even by educational psychologists of this often neglected phenomenon. There are a number of different types of transfer and understanding of this is important if real advances in workplace learning and training are to be made.
Earlier work identified a number of different types of transfer (Cornford, 2002; Haskell, 2001). These include positive transfer where previous learning assists with later learning, negative transfer where earlier learning adversely affects later learning and zero transfer where there is no facilitative or inhibitory effect for earlier learning because the later material is so different from earlier learning. There is also the practically important differentiation between near and far transfer. Near transfer is essentially transfer that differs not too much from the original learning and specifically has similar or identical cues to indicate that application of previously learned knowledge and skills. Far transfer is transfer that involves fairly radical modification of previous learning for the new situation or where the cues are considerably different from those involved in the original application and learning. This radical, highly creative type of transfer is of course much desired in workplace and business settings to solve problems that even high status, highly paid managers and CEOs cannot solve
(Cornford, 2002). There is also general transfer: this is essentially a notion that by leaning something like mathematics, aspects of learning are transferred to other subjects and areas. The notion of general transfer has been under sustained attack since Thorndike's work (Cox, 1997: Haskell, 2001). Research into the development of expertise indicates that expertise, and to a degree learning more generally, is specific to the area of greatest familiarity (Cornford,
1999; Haskell, 2001).
The above types of transfer are generally widely accepted by researchers. However Haskell (2001) has identified a wider range of types of transfer. The value of the wider classification has yet to be determined, but may have more value with language and liberal arts teaching since the above categorizations of long standing would appear to suffice for workplace learning. The important question is which types of transfer can be reasonably be expected to be achieved by training for workplaces to meet everyday expectations relating to problems for which already recognized solutions can be found.
Detterman (1993:21) has claimed that 'significant transfer', by which he means far transfer and also general transfer, are extremely rare yet Haskell (2001) has correctly argued that transfer is in fact very common depending on types and how you define it. However, Haskell agrees that highly creative and original solutions to major problems do not occur easily or very frequently. He also argues, like most researchers, that attaining transfer from training with any degree of confidence is difficult. Certainly it is unrealistic to believe that highly creative solutions to difficult problems can be readily attained by training. Yet, while even attaining near transfer remains a challenge with novice or inexperienced learners, there is certainly evidence that near transfer can be reliably attained if there is conscious awareness in learners and teachers and specific training for transfer is engaged in (Cornford, 2002; Haskell, 2001). Hence the position adopted here is that near transfer can reasonably be expected to occur if there is conscious, effective education and learning, and social conditions are receptive to applications of new learning. The following sections explore what can be considered effective education and training and what must be done to ensure receptivity of application of learning so that transfer can occur.
2.3 Key concepts in Transfer of learning
There are some key concepts that influence transfer of learning and they need to be clarified so that in-depth understanding of the. transfer of learning can be attained. Transfer of learning serves as the output or outcomes of either education or training and plays a crucial role in determining whether transfer of learning has taken place or not. The training and education concepts will now be defined to determine their link with transfer of learning.
2.3.1 Training
Training is defined as the use of specific means to inoculate specific learning through techniques and methods. It is therefore a deliberate effort to teach specific skills, knowledge and attitudes. According to Tight (2002: 39) the idea of training is usually associated with preparing someone to perform a task or roles it could be in a workplace or any other setting. He also adds that it involves instruction and practice aimed at reaching a particular level of competence or operative efficiency. Robbins and de Cenzo (1998: 246) define training as a learning experience that seeks to improve employee's job performance by changing their skills, knowledge, attitudes or behavior. They further elaborate that training must be evaluated according to performance-based , measures such as how well employees perform their jobs after training. This definition affirms that the end result of training is to transfer learning as confirmed by competency and operative efficiency or simply performing the task learned.
2.3.2 Education
Nel defines education as an activity aimed at developing knowledge, moral values and understanding with the purpose of developing the students intellectually (Gerber et al. 1987: 215). Tight (2002: 15) defines education as "organized and sustained instructions designed to communicate a combination of knowledge, skills and understanding valuable for all activities of life." Knowles (1998: 10) defines education as an activity undertaken or initiated by one or more agents that is designed to effect changes in the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of individual, groups or communities.
Tight (2002: 16) indicates that the common understanding of the words education, training and learning has linkage with specific settings. Commonly people associate learning wit school, training with work environment and learning is learning is associated with enjoyable
discovery.
For the purpose of this study, education relates to all organized efforts of the educator or practitioner as agents of education undertaken to develop or communicate knowledge, skills and attitude for the purpose of effecting changes in the life of another individual.
2.3.3 Adult education and training
Before one can define the concept of adult education it is proper to break down the concept. Tight (2002; 14) acknowledges that defining the word adult has been problematic for many authors as different countries have their own set of what constitutes an adult. Some look at the age, some look at mere status of an individual. He further aligns himself with the definition that considers adulthood as a state of being that accords rights to individuals, simultaneously conferring duties and responsibilities upon them.
Gert at al. (1987: 228) maintain that trainees in industries and organisations are mostly adult learners and they learn considerably different from children. The authors allege that adult learners evaluate and integrate what they learn in terms of their personal experiences. Adults are more interested in the usability of learning tasks in the future and the authors propose that the learning tasks should be broken down into smaller units. Adult learner prefers to plan their own learning and adopt self directed approach to it, like to set their own pace and whether they want guidance not grades. They judge learning achievement according to learning experience and material gain, not according to how well they scored.
Management trainees should therefore be treated as adults and implies that training and development practitioners should take into consideration that the training content is aligned to the management trainees work reality and that adult training principles and development practitioners should use real-life problems rather than predetermined theoretical and abstracts notions. Gerber et al. (1987: 233) propose that an in-depth training needs analysis be done on an individual, occupational and organisational level before any training intervention is undertaken. Performance analysis should be conducted to identify any personal or work related gap so that the learning intervention design can be done accordingly.
2.3.4 Human resource development (HRD)
HRD is the process of developing or unleashing expertise through organisational development and personnel training for the purpose of improving performance at organisational work process and individual level. HRD involves employee development and management development. This study focuses on determining whether management trainees are transferring the content learned during an accelerated management development programme. The focus is therefore on management development rather than employee development in their current positions.
2.3.5 Management development
Gerber et al. (1987: 253) agree that there are various connotations to the term management development and he proposes a definition, which includes both the process and the context. A management development process is primarily concerned with helping the individual manager to change his ways in such a manner that there is such a manner that there will immediately be discernible improvement in his management skills. Management development programmes are usually geared to historical or past career patterns.
2.4 Measuring transfer of learning
According to May (1997: 271) evaluates seek to determine whether the acquired leaning has led to any noteworthy improvements in performance or productivity. Rowe (1996; 24) favours the evaluations that allow for the measuring of the whole process of training and development (T&D) as well as the monitoring of particular programmes. He further point out that it should allow us to pose fundamental (perhaps controversial) questions about training and development, explore what T&D is trying to do and, equally important, whether there is different between the two. Rowe (1996: 22) maintains that course evaluations do not indicate whether there is transfer or learning or not by stating that: " given that most organisations laud the importance of T&D, it is extraordinary that so little time and effort is given to evaluating the suitability and success of programmes. Evaluation often receives little more than lip-service. Most organisations use "happiness sheets", for delegates to complete at the end of training programmes- and these have their place, but they say far more about the delegates than about the programme and do not tell you anything about how effectively
delegates have digested the material and apply it in the workplace. Happiness sheets provide useful feedback for presenter, and whether the returns are generally favourable, one has to question what is gained by issuing them for more than three months."
Thorpe et al. (1993:13) identified two approaches that could be followed to evaluate the impact of transfer of learning in the workplace. The first approach is to evaluate whether the concepts learned from training can survive over a period of time. The second approach is to assess the extent to which the skills learned during training are being implemented or there are plans to implement the skills in future. This study focuses on the latter approach because it relates directly to the following question: why do management trainees not transfer what they have prom classroom training to their workplace?
Bladwin and ford (in Axtell et al 1997:202) proposed a model containing three types of influence on the transfer of learning, namely aspects of the course, characteristics of the trainee and futures of work environment. The questionnaire tool was tailored along this line of thinking and included the particular details and readiness for the course, training intervention and organisational features.
Cheng and Ho (2001 :102) mentioned that most recent researchers refer to Donald Kirkpartrik' s four-level taxonomy to evaluate transfer of learning which are:
Reaction of participants Learning acquired Behavioural changes Organisational results
Kirkpatrile s four-level evaluation taxonomy is supported by wide community of researchers. Bramley (1999 :145) is of the opinion that developmental activities, which are interested to increase the effectiveness of managers, can be evaluated at a number of levels. In the most widely used frame work of evaluation, that was proposed by Kirkpatrik. Bramley and Kitson (194 :10) take a step further to quote Hamblin who added the fifth-level to Kirkpatrik's fourth level focuses on the on the impact of courses on the whole organisation, using productivity and labour turnover; the fifth level of assesses the effect of the learning on profitability and growth of the organisation as a whole. Jack Phillips (2003: 12) takes it further by introducing methods to convert data (benefits of courses i.e. productivity and labour turnover) to
monetary value. The ROI convertion method is different from many perceived process module or standards because it ensure consistent application of the process.,
Al-Athari and Zairi (2002: 243) conducted a study in Kuwait aimed at identifying the best practice of training and its impact on employees and organisations effectiveness and performance. Their finding was that the entire sample used Kirkpatrik model to evaluate training programmes, while only five percent of the sample added other modules to that of kirkpatrik. The authors maintain that the findings were consistent with a similar study conducted in the USA by ASTD which found that 67% of 300 sampled USA organisations use Kirkpatrik model to conduct training evaluations.
Fred Nickols (2003 :3) uses the Kirkpatrik model as a centrepiece of his article on evaluating training because it survived the turbulence and shouldered the challenges that were channelled through the wave of changes since it was the first researcher to develop a coherent evaluation strategy and stress that the model is well known to all those involved in the development and delivery of training and that it form the core of the systematic approach to education.
In line with Kirkpatrik four level evaluation taxonomy, Cheng and Ho (2002: 102) identified a narrower and more generic process that can specify the transfer of learning to workplace. The four stages are the following:
Pre-training Motivation Learning
Training performance Transfer outcome
For the purpose of this study, the Kirkpatrick model of training evaluations, including Cheng and Ho approach, was considered, mainly because of the study does not only aim to determine how effective the training was but to identify the constraints of transferring learning to workplace. The following data collection instruments were used:
A questionnaire specifically designed for this research A semi-structured interview
2.5. Constraints to effective transfer of learning
Meldrum and Atkinson (1998 :329) are of the idea that the problem do not necessarily lie with the learning intervention programmes but with organisational issues. The organisation usually gives broad expectations than specific changes required from learning. It is therefore difficult to measure the broad expectations. They maintain that the way in which training and development are managed, restricts its ability to demonstrate the value. The authors further elaborate that management development practitioners are seen as administrators without influence in the business operation. Most of them hardly know what it entails to be manager. The authors affirm that excellent development courses often fails to enable the individuals who attend to achieve significant organisational change due to hostility and mistrust between the practitioners and line managers leading to disappointment and frustration. Management development should not be treated as a shopping list of courses or as an item selected from a course catalogue.
Conant (1991: 188) suspects that the problem could arise from how we measure the outcomes of training and development. The central concepts of this study is transfer of learning and thorough review of literature focused on this concept. Tight (1996 : 22) maintains that learning is a continuous holistic process grounded in experience involving interactions between the learner and the world. Illeris (1996: 169) regards learning as all processes leading to permanent capacity change whether physical, cognitive, emotional or social in nature. It extends to factors such as personal development, socialisation, qualifications and competence development. Kolesnik (1976; 158) defines transfer as a carryover of application of knowledge, skills, attitudes, habits etc., from the situation in which they were acquired to the other.
In my experience mangers are usually sent on course in "ones and twos" and rarely with their boss. This is usually because large numbers cannot be spared out of a department at the same time but it means that delegates learn "in isolation" and return from programmes as "missionaries" carrying" the word" back but are unable to generate the necessary support to make real changes. Many people do their training with managers from other companies and other functions — courses at local colleges are good example which provides considerable gains in terms of broadening knowledge and experience, but creates problem for missionaries is that they invariably return to an environment hostile to the ideas they have learned and,
consequently, over time, the ideas evaporate through indifference or opposition (Rowe, 1996: 20) The paragraph above proves that there are constraints that prevent learning to transferred to the workplace and the paragraphs below explain the nature and extent of each constraint.
2.6 The context of transfer of learning for the purpose of this study
It is crucial to define the context in which the learners are expected to operate. According to Thomas (2002: 237), the South African workforce is characterised by adversarial relationships, lack of trust and communication between individuals and groups, poor team work, apparent absence of employees, commitment and motivation for organisational goals, high staff turnover especially amongst the designated groups, industrial conflict and low levels of profitability, quality and customer service.
According to Doyle (2002: 579) managers are being presented with a new agenda of demands, expectations and challenges which some are forecasting have complex implications for managerial roles and futures. He further states that growing number of managers are finding themselves having to cope with additional responsibilities and longer working hours.
The concept of transfer of learning is crucial to workplace learning, as it does not only contribute to increased production, but also helps to strengthen the production capability. It ensures that there is return on investment for the organisation and contributes to individual effectiveness. This study is based on workplace learning (classroom and on the job) with special emphasis on employees who received training within the public service.
2.7 Effective education for transfer: some general principles
A major revolution in education thinking is required to ensure that transfer is no longer seen as a passive, naturally occurring phenomenon (Stokes and Baer, 1977), but becomes a conscious part of education for life beyond the initial learning setting, and specifically the workplace. This includes whether the learning/teaching occurs specifically in the workplace or whether it is off-site. Detterman's (1993) analyses clearly imply that workplace training often fails when the task changes slightly from the original setting or where there are changes in technology or machinery. What seems central is meaningful education, as opposed to narrow training, and preparation of learners to anticipate problem solving and transfer. What is needed here are changes in the culture of teaching and training, and also employer
expectations, with the notion of educating more broadly often in conflict with the realities of narrow training for workplace purposes. .
Perkins and Salomon (1989) drew attention to the concept of high road transfer where openness to the need for adaptation and modified ways of thinking are central to achieving successful transfer. This aligns with Rumelhart and Norman's (1978) concept of tuning as part of schema/mental model construction in memory, and adaptation of initial structures through later applications to make the schemas more effective. In turn, tuning involves generalization which seems to be a key to effective transfer (Stokes & Baer, 1977) and central too to the concept of generic skills (Cornford, 2005). If skill development can be established in the minds of educators and learners as further tuning, that is creating more effective models to guide thinking and behaviour after the initial acquisition of information, then more effective learning will be encouraged over the lifespan. Further support regarding the importance of tuning of schema comes implicitly from Fitts' skill learning theory where the practice—fixation phase of skill learning, involving practice and feedback, leads to increasingly effective mental models guiding performance and also better actual performance in terms of speed and accuracy (Cornford, 1999).
Recognition of the need for problem solving perhaps needs to start early in educational processes but importantly there must be recognition of the limitations of the novice learner. If too much is demanded from those with a low knowledge base, or the initial learning too difficult, there will be 'turning off' and loss of motivation vital for other aspects involving maintenance of skills and application (Comford, 1996). There also needs to be recognition that the novice should not be pushed into transfer and problem solving before there is solid understanding. Too frequently transfer is expected without adequate understanding and learning having taken place (Comford, 2002; Haskell, 2001). The classic example is with mathematics, where learners are expected too often to apply new principles to different examples before having grasped the basics. Employment of worked examples in teaching is currently seen as one way of overcoming these problems.
What is also central to effective learning for near transfer is guidance by more knowledgeable teachers who understand real world applications and the variety of such applications (Comford, 2002; Haskell, 2001). It is necessary to reassign a substantial role for teaching,
and even training, rather than hold the currently fashionable view that learning is the only thing that matters. Effective teaching and learning go hand-in-hand and this reality has been recognized over many centuries (Bandura, 1997). We need to recognize this, even when confronted with the reality that the teacher cannot learn for the learner.
2.7.1 Initial learning
Cornford (2002) has advanced a model of sequential skill development, based on empirical evidence. This conceptualizes five steps in learning and schema development in the skill development process leading to effective transfer of learning. It also establishes a number of conceptually distinct assessment stages that provide feedback to both teacher and learner on progress in learning to successfully transfer initial learning. This model is developed for near transfer and conceives of a series of five steps in learning that moves from understanding and then consolidation of basic principles, to a stage of generalization from initial principles and then also consolidation of generalization, before moving still further to more generalization and transfer of learning to other settings. The model recommends that teaching and practice occur as much as possible in controlled situations where the buzzing complexity of the real workplace for does not distract and confuse the novice learner in early stages, and where understanding of the cues that signal the need to apply these particular skills can be learned in conjunction with the principles guiding the skills. Central to the skill development model also are the use of suitable performance models so that it is possible to see and learn from these how things need to be done. The skill model operates along the long recognized lines of modeling, practice, feedback and learning through application (Bandura,1997), and seeks to establish sound schemas with solid understanding and performance before transfer to the complex, natural setting is attempted.
There are some obvious limitations with this model. In some cases because of the setting and the types of training it will not be cost/time effective or feasible. However there is evidence that despite the introduction of training packages in Australia that approximately 70% of learning occurs in non-workplace settings. There are also limitations given the thoroughness of controlled practice involved and whether there is any clear path of generalization. Only skills of considerable importance would warrant being taught in this specific way, where there are discernible later applications involving generalizations, and transfer is intended (Cornford, 2002).
This model needs to be seen in combination with Yelon's (1992) M.A.S.S. model for achieving transfer that operates on a macro contextual level, since the model advanced by Comford operates at a micro level of teaching/training. Many of the elements in YeIon' s model were recognized as specific, important factors in Comford's original experimental work, but are not immediately spelled out in the micro-level sequential skill development model. In Yelon's M.A.S.S. model the M stands for Motivation, the A stands for Awareness, the first S stands for Skill and the second S stands for Support. The first three of these are relevant to initial skill acquisition so will be considered in this section; the last will be considered in the next section. However, it should be noted that in Yelon's model all these factors have implications for continued use and application of the skills in the workplace, that is to say he conceives of motivation operating before, during and after the initial training as does Bandura (1997).
Motivation is important for the individual desiring to acquire the skill in the first place rather than to ignore it or learn something else, to store information effectively in long term memory, to apply it at the right time and in the right context and to maintain standards that have been learned, or even try to improve those standards over the longer term (Comford, 1996). In short, motivation is the factor that drives a great number of internal cognitive and metacognitive (self-regulation) processes and without which it is unlikely that effective positive transfer will occur. Yelon (1992) considers motivation within the needs of the organization and also the pressures against application due to workplace culture. He insists that the organization needs to decide whether there really is a high priority need to use what is to be taught, and whether the trainees perceive this as one of their priorities as well. In a very practical way he indicates trainers and management need to ask whether the need exceeds the pressures to maintain the cultural status quo within the organization and whether the trainees will be able to counter present cultural norms and apply their knowledge. He also indicates the need to consider if the knowledge and skills will make a difference to the organization as well as the trainees, with there being a need, if these questions are answered in the affirmative, for the trainee to appear more effective as a result of using them. These are very practical issues that go to the heart of whether the organization and trainers are really serious about the transfer issues and see education/training as a means of maintain skill and knowledge currency, and creating a workplace culture receptive to these things.
In relation to awareness, Yelon asks a number of equally pointed questions. YeIon is acutely aware of the fact that trainees must be mindful of the use of the skill, not just in the general sense but 'they must know exactly how to use it' (Yelon, 1992:15). Hence he focuses upon making transparent to trainees why previous performance was unsuccessful and what is needed to change the performance. In addition to this he signifies that trainees need to know when, where and why the skills may be used, the cues that denote the appropriateness of usage, as well as being able to logically justify that usage. Here Yelon draws upon, and integrates, what have been seen as the two main approaches to effective transfer (Cox, 1997), understanding of principles and stimulus recognition (cues). With regard to actual acquisition of skill knowledge, Yelon focuses upon the need to use as many procedures that enhance acquisition and storage, that is cognitive and metacognitive strategies, to ensure that the trainee learning the initial knowledge and skill very thoroughly. He also includes elements of behavioral psychology that have a strong track record, such as distributed practice, extended practice and feedback to autonomasticity, along with application to gain feedback and self-awareness of understanding (Yelon, 1992:16). There is evidence that effective initial learning through multiple strategies, outlined briefly here, in combination can serve to strength the individual's learning to at least in part combat less than receptive or sympathetic workplace cultures (Cornford, 1991).
2.7.2 Beyond initial learning
The last of the elements in Yelon's model is support. Yelon recognizes only too well the pressures working against new trainees in an existing workplace culture. Relative novices or newcomers must compete for regard with longer serving, older employees who have absorbed the culture and hence act to preserve that with which they feel comfortable and part of. He sums up the issues by stating: 'All staff must learn not to discourage transfer' (Yelon,
1992:17). In this Yelon is very much in agreement with the analyses of Broad and Newstrom (1992). Their analyses parallel and are in agreement with Yelon's in terms of the forces operating in the workplace to discourage transfer and the change that it brings with it. The inside cover of their book contains a clear summary of the roles of the manager, trainer and trainee, all of whom have distinct roles to play in the process, with these following fairly closely what Yelon's more general and concise model indicates is necessary. Broad and Newstrom further spell out the need for managers, who act as leaders, power figures and exercise control in organizations, to signal approval of the new information, its value and its
importance in functioning of the organization. What they also do, which extends beyond Yelon's work, is to indicate how the value which are sought in the new, learning may be transferred and incorporated into management and human resources development procedures by simple mechanisms such as performance reviews where serious assessment of the new learning and transfer can serve as bases for recognition, reward and promotion. This is in accordance with now generally accepted best practice of performance reviews and career progression guidance in medium-larger organizations.
2.8 Learning in the workplace: its strengths and limitations
In this section salient findings from a series of studies into workplace learning (Billett,1995) are synthesised. These studies examine the consequences of participation in activities in the workplace as a means of securing knowledge and highlight some strengths and limitations associated with that participation. The key concerns are how these forms of knowledge referred to earlier can be constructed by engaging in problem-solving activities encountered as part of everyday workplace activities.
2.8.1 Strengths
In preview, authentic activities, expert others, other workers and engagement in tasks are seen as the basis for effective learning in workplaces (Billett, 1995). The construction of the knowledge required for expert performance is reported in the above mentioned studies as being realised through learning experiences that are authentic, thereby providing goal-directed activity (problem- solving) which has cognitive consequences of particular salience to workplace activities. Close or proximal guidance by other workers in securing workplace goals is valued by learners. It is held that, everyday participation in work tasks provides opportunities for learners to generate tentative solutions to vocational tasks and then attempt to secure those solutions. This results in knowledge being indexed and organised in ways that is purposeful in terms of the successful securing of workplace goals. Such a guided approach to learning provides the opportunity for learners to develop increasingly mature approximations of the procedures required to be successful in these tasks, through a process of testing and modifying their approximations.
As these procedures are tested and modified it is likely that concepts associated with goals and sub-goals will become deepened through rich associations, linkages and purposeful
organisation. Over time, it is proposed, this activity results in the development of a repertoire of goal-securing schemata which are richly associated with the circumstances of their acquisition through routine and non-routine problem-solving. Indexing to the social environment provides a form of mediation which draws upon the social and cultural contributions (clues and cues) of the particular setting (Brown, et al., 1989).
The interaction with expert others guides the learners' tentative solutions to tasks and the means of securing goals (Billett, 1994). Experts provide the means for achieving task goals, through proximal guidance and more distal contributions such as access to further practise and increasingly complex tasks. This proximal interaction is analogous to the modelling, coaching and scaffolding of the approach to learning referred to as cognitive apprenticeships (Collins, Brown & Newman, 1989) in what Vygotsky (1987) refers to as the Zone of Proximal Development. That is the array of the tasks that can be successfully accomplished with the assistance of an expert, which otherwise could not be accomplished, by learners on their own. Indirect or distal forms of guidance also provide sources of supplementary mediation for the construction of knowledge. For example, listening to and the observation of other workers in the workplace is reported to assist the learner with the conceptualisation and approximations of workplace tasks (Billett, 1994).
It is proposed that the active and constructive learner-focussed nature of engagement in workplace activities presses learners into goal-directed activity, is conducive to accessing higher orders of procedural knowledge and deeper conceptual knowledge, as well as the development of more specific forms of knowledge (Billett,1995). It is these forms of knowledge which are particularly useful for the transfer of knowledge to other circumstances. From a constructivist perspective, the active engagement in routine problem-solving activities affords another key quality -- reinforcement -- the satisfaction that individuals experience when they adapt new stimuli to their existing knowledge structure, or, put more simply, when they are 'making sense' of the stimuli (von Glasersfeld, 1987). This is an important distinction between views which are premised on the nature of learning as being externally directed (e.g. behaviouralists), where reinforcement is linked to external endorsements, and constructivist views where reinforcement is the internal gratification realised through making sense of a novel stimuli through a process of interpretative construction. From this view, as individuals acquire knowledge they experience reinforcement as procedures become more
effective, predictions are realised through monitoring, and task goals are achieved to a standard required by the culture of the particular workplace practice. In these ways, the above mentioned studies offer evidence of the potential that exists within workplaces for the development of purposeful vocational knowledge, a potential which can occur through everyday work practice.
2.8.2 Limitations
Although workplaces offer the potential for rich learning outcomes, through participation in everyday practice, there are also barriers to realising the full potential of these settings. What follows is a set of possible limitations to the effectiveness of workplace learning (Billett, 1995a). These limitations are: (i) the construction of inappropriate knowledge; (ii) access to authentic activities; (iii) reluctance of experts; (iv) access to expertise; (v) opaqueness of some knowledge and (vi) access to instructional media. Underpinning the limits to workplace learning is that workplaces, like any other settings, are inherently value-laden. Values associated with the goals of the organisation (e.g. productivity, service) and of those individuals working the setting (e.g. personal or sectional interests) cannot be denied as they influence the nature, type and access to the activities which influence cognitive development. Consequently, the array of activities and access to these activities are constrained by personal and organisational preferences and goals.
2.8.2.1 Inappropriate knowledge
Not all activities in workplaces may lead to the development of appropriate knowledge. The construction of inappropriate knowledge, including attitudes and values may result if these are present and rewarded in the community of practice. For example, dangerous work practice or exclusive views about gender and race might be pervasive. As most forms of situated learning occur where relationships between participants are unequal (Verodonik, et al, 1988), the nature and values embedded in workplaces are likely to play a role in determining the types of knowledge that are constructed. Therefore, despite individuals ultimately constructing their own version of knowledge, the press of the community or desire to conform may result in deleterious learning outcomes. So, for example, dangerous or shoddy work practice might be appropriated because such practice is a community norm.
2.8.2.2. Access to authentic activities
Limits to accessing either activities or guidance are likely to have consequences for learners. The potency of learning is determined by the quantity and quality of guided access to authentic activities which press learners into problem-solving. If learners are denied engagement in activities which are increasingly challenging, it is likely that the learning outcomes will be constrained. Access to work activities need to be sequenced to take the novice from engaging in peripheral activities through to increasingly complex tasks. Moreover, those activities which allow the learner to access both the process and the product of those activities need to be included.
2.8.2.3 Reluctance of experts
As stated above, workplace environments in which novices are furnished with models, coaching and insights are likely to provide rich learning outcomes. However, reluctance by experts to furnish these interactions may severely inhibit the outcomes of workplace learning. Expert workers may well be cautious about sharing their knowledge for fear of loss of status or even concerns about displacement, by those whom they have guided. In Japanese corporations, where workplace learning is used widely, supervisors, whose roles include training subordinates, are secure in the knowledge that their promotion is based on seniority (Dore & Sako 1989). These experts provide learning experiences for their subordinates without concerns about displacement by those they have trained. Experts who are not rewarded or fear displacement may be unwilling to provide the proximal guidance and access to increasingly complex tasks which is essential for learners. A particular issue in the Australian context is concern about industrial affiliation in which particular jobs are undertaken by particular groups of workers. So, for example, a tradesperson may be reluctant to show a non-tradesperson a particular task, if they believe it may jeopardise the tradesperson's interest.
2.8.2.4 Access to expertise
A lack of available expertise will be likely to have a negative impact upon workplace learning. Although expertise external to the community may be required to provide guidance, any external expertise has to account for the conditions under which work practice is conducted. For example, in one of the studies (Billett, 1993a), coal workers stated that the technical teachers at a nearby vocational college lacked an understanding of how work was
conducted in coal mines. However, in another study (Billett, 1994), novice staff worked alongside experts from overseas during the commissioning of a secondary ,processing plant. In doing so, these novices gained important understandings and insights which have allowed them to take responsibility for the plant's operation and to respond to problems that arise during production. Access to expertise is likely to be an important factor in workplace learning, therefore limit to access could have negative outcomes. However, as is reported consistently in the studies, the learner determines who is and is not an expert.
2.8.2.5 Accessing conceptual (propositional) knowledge
Concerns were reported in two studies (Billett, 1994) about the inability of workplace learning activities to secure the depth of understanding required for complex work activities. Prawat (1993) also suggests that situated learning may favour the development of procedures over propositions. Such concerns need to be acknowledged because, as Berryman (1993) reports, the increasing complexity of work is making many tasks more opaque, requiring a rich conceptual base to understand and be effective in these more complex forms of work. The studies indicate that, despite the concerns of Prawat (1993) and some participants, propositional knowledge is developed tluotigh guided everyday activities in the workplace. However, close guidance and even instructional intervention is likely to be required to develop understanding about knowledge that is opaque and hidden from the novices. For example, black box technology, computer-driven processes, complex forms of work organisation are making knowledge inaccessible. Yet the conceptual knowledge required for this understanding is often inaccessible to the novice without proximal guidance of an expert.
2.8.2.6 Instructional media
Currently, much of the effort to manage learning in workplaces is grounded in the use of various forms of text-based instructional materials. These media, such as computer-based and text-based learning systems, are often proposed as training solutions for workplaces. However, it is reported that such media offer access to forms of knowledge that are disembodied from the activities for which they claim to be developing knowledge (Billett,
1994). The knowledge, so constructed, has to be transferred from the context of acquisition to application in the workplace in order for knowledge to be deployed. This is because the type
of knowledge developed through interacting with these texts does not develop the types of knowledge required to secure goals in novel circumstances. In addition, these types of learning arrangements are most likely to be generative of certain types of knowledge, particularly very specific procedures and low-level propositional knowledge, which are not, of themselves, likely to assist with complex work performance.
THEORETICAL FOUNDATION
2.9 Sociological and socio-cultural approaches to transfer and work-based learning
Socio-cultural paradigms have been seen as critical in the issues of transfer and learning by many theorists (eg Billett, 1996; Eraut, 2004). However the importance of these elements has been overstated where learning is concerned and thus, at best, what they offer is a half-truth. It is argued very strongly here that it is cognitive-constructivist views that hold the key to learning issues in transfer. Cornford (1996:5) stated almost a decade ago, when the infatuation with situated learning and socio-cultural paradigms was developing: "...it is the self-regulatory and control factors within the individual that determine whether a skill is learned or not, or to what degree social influence is accepted and whether there will be internalization or rejection of standards. Acquisition and maintenance of skills are dependent upon cognitive factors largely controlled by the individual..'. It is not claimed that cognitive psychologists hold all the answers, and it is recognized that social factors are often important (see Cornford, 1996:5). For example certainly power relationships in workplaces and workplace cultures (eg Fuller et al., 2004) can be important influences on learning. What is argued here is that cognitive processes are central to understanding and attaining effective learning for workplaces but social factors will also influence acquisition and performance, hence there needs to be a distinct balance between the cognitive and social sides of the equation.
The main problem in essence is socio-cultural and sociological paradigms cannot explain learning processes, with the learning being taken for granted and the results of learning becoming the bases of these theories. What is more, when viewed objectively, sociology and derived disciplines have a poor track record over the past century in both predictive and explanatory value (Sherden, 1998). Sherden (1998,) has argued that this is because of the
