SOCIAL COHDITIQNS IS f f l S M I f TtASTMTTt -CC• - A - P 8.55. 1 1 5 0 )
b y
Sudarshan. Kumar
T h e s is s u b m it t e d f o r th e D e g re e o f D o c -to r o f P h ilo s o p h y
t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f L o n d o n 1 9 6 9
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ABSTRACT
T h is t h e s i s a im s a t a s s e s s in g t h e s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s i n a n c i e n t K a s h m ir (G . A .D . 8 5 5 - 1 1 5 ) ) . I n t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r , we g i v e t h e im p o r t a n c e o f t h i s p e r io d i n th e h i s t o r y o f K a s h m ir , p r e v i o u s w o rk don e o i t h e s u b j e c t , t h e s o u r c e
m a t e r i a l we u s e , a n d a b r i e f a c c o u n t o f t h e p h y s i c a l g e o g r a p h y a n d p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y .
I n t h e s e c o n d c h a p t e r we d is c u s s t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t c a s t e s a id c la s s e s .
T he t h i r d c h a p t e r d e a ls w i t h v a r i o u s a s p e c ts o f t h e l i f e o f a K a s h m i r i . H e re we d is c u s s t h e l i f e o f t h e k i n g , t h e id e a s o f k i n g s h i p , t h e s u c c e s s io n , c i t y a n d v i l l a g e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , t h e p o s i t i o n o f women, e d u c a t i o n , t h e m e r c h a n t - b a n k e r s a n d t h e m eans o f c o n v e y a n c e .
The f o u r t h c h a p t e r c o n c e r n s f o o d a n d d r i n k .
The f i f t h c h a p t e r d e a ls w i t h p r i c e s , c o in a g e , a n d w e ig h t s a nd m e a s u r e s .
I n t h e s i x t h c h a p t e r we d is c u s s d r e s s a n d o r n a m e n ts .
Games a n d a m usem ents o f t h e K a s h m ir ia n s a r e d e a l t w i t h i n t h e s e v e n th c h a p t e r .
T he e i g h t h c h a p t e r d e p i c t s p o p u la r b e l i e f s a n d s u p e r s t i t i o n We a d d a f e w w o rd s o n fJ a k ta b e l i e f s an d t a n t r i c g u r u s .
The n i n t h c h a p t e r g i v e s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e f e s t i v a l r i t e s o f t h e K a s h m ir ia n s .
I n t h e t e n t h c h a p t e r we d is c u s s t h e im p o r t a n c e o f
t i r t h a y a t r a . I n f u r n i s h i n g a b r i e f h i s t o r y o f th e s a n c t i t y o f t h e p i l g r i m a g e p l a c e s , we h a v e r e s t r i c t e d o u r s e l v e s t o th e i m p a r t a n t o n e s . T h is i s f o l l o w e d b y a b r i e f a c c o u n t o f
v a r i o u s r e li g io u s f o u n d a t i o n s .
These chapters are followed by a conclusion in which
the main results of this thesis are summarised.
A0KN0WLBDGMBNT3
L i k e a l l p u p i l s who a r e f i r s t u s h e r e d i n t o t h e w o r l d o f s c h o l a r s h ip h y t h e i r l e a r n e d t e a c h e r s , I f e e l g o o d i n r e c o r d in g my i n c a l c u l a b l e d e b t o f g r a t i t u d e t o my r e v e r e d t e a c h e r , D r . J .G .D e C a s p a r is , R e a d e r i n t h e D e p a r tm e n t o f H i s t o r y . I t h a s b e e n a p l e a s a n t t a s k to
r e s e a r c h on t h e p l e a s a n t l a n d o f K a s h m ir u n d e r h i s p l e a s a n t , c l a s s i c a l a n d e r u d i t e s u p e r v i s i o n . I t was a d e l i g h t t o w a tc h h i s f a s c i n a t i o n f o r my s u b j e c t a n d t o r e c e iv e h i s u n g r u d g in g h e lp a n d c r i t i c i s m . I t I s v e r y k i n d o f h im to f o r g i v e a lw a y s my S in s o f e m is s io n a n d t o g i v e h i s i n j e c t i o n s o f p o l i t e n e s s , l o v i n g e n c o u ra g e m e n t a n d s y m p a t h e t ic a t t i t u d e . I n v e r y t r u t h h e w as t h e b e a c o n - l i g h t a n d p e r e n n i a l s o u r c e o f g u id a n c e a n d i n s p i r a t i o n a n d t h i s w o rk c a r r i e s w i t h i t h i s m a s t e r l y
s u p e r v i s i o n . I s h a l l r e m a in in d e b t e d f o r a l l h i s k in d n e s s . I
am
m uch o b l i g e d -to my o l d t e a c h e r s i n t h e D e p a r tm e n t o f A n c i e n t H i s t o r y a n d C u l t u r e a n d A r c h a e o lo g y , P a n ja b U n i v e r s i t y , C h a n d ig a r h , P r o f e s s o r B u d d h a P r a k a s h ( a t p r e s e n t P r o f e s s o r a n d H e a d o f d ie D e p a r tm e n t o f H i s t o r y a n d A n c ie n t H i s t o r y a n d C u lt u r e a n d A r c h a e o lo g y , IC u r u k g e tr a U n i v e r s i t y ) , P r o f e s s o r J a g a n H a th A g g a rw a l a n d t o M r . S .H .C h o p r a , f o r t h e i r e n c o u ra g e m e n t an d v a l u a b l e s u g g e s t io n s .I am t h a n k f u l t o t h e l i b r a r y s t a f f o f t h e S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l a n d A f r i c a n S t u d i e s , I n d i a O f f i c e a id t h e B r i t i s h Museum f o r t h e i r k i n d
h e l p , a s a l s o t o M r s . L . P u l l e r f o r t y p i n g t h i s t h e s i s .
S u d a rs h a n K u m a r.
CONTENTS
A b s t r a c t . . . i
A c k n o w le d g e m e n ts ...
±±±
C o n te n ts , , . ...
±v
A b b r e v i a t i o n s ... v i C h a p t e r I I n t r o d u c t i o n ... 1 C h a p te r I X S o c i a l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n . . . . 47 C h a p t e r I I I L i f e i n th e V a l l e y .... 11 9
C h a p te r I V P o o d and D r i n k . . . . . . . . 209 C h a p te r V C o in s a n d W e ig h ts a n d M e a s u r e s . . 237 C h a p te r V I D r e s s a n d O rn a m e n ts . . , , . . 260 C h a p te r V I I Games and A m u s e m e n ts .. 293
C h a p t e r V I I I P o p u la r B e l i e f s a n d S u p e r s t i t i o n s 319
C h a p te r I X F e s t i v a l s . . 368
C h a p t e r X . T i r t h a s a n d R e l i g i o u s F o u n d a t io n s 409 C h a p t e r X I C o n c lu s io n ... 4 3 5
B i b l i o g r a p h y ... 49 3
G e n e a lo g ic a l T a b le s ; ^ 1 3
1 ) U t p a l a D y n a s ty ( F i f t h T a r a h g a )
2 ) D y n a s ty o f Y a s a s k a r a ( S i x t h T a r a h g a ) 3 ) F i r s t a n d s e c o n d L o h a r a
D y n a s t ie s ( S e v e n th a n d E i g h t h T a r a n g a s ) ...
P l a t e s :
Map
1 )
)
2 )
) ; T i l e s f r o m H a rw a n 3 ;
) 4 )
C o in s o f o u r p e r i o d 5
6 )
A n c ie n t S r in a g a r
ABBREVIATIONS
A n n - R e p ., A . S . I .
A . S . S . A .V . B . I .
B p h a s p a ti B . S . O . A . S .
C a t . C a t a lo g . C .B .C .
C .V .
D a n a k a # £ a G .O .S . E . I . E s s a y
F o u r t h C h r o n ic l e
A n n u a l R e p o r t o f th e A r c h a e o lo g ic a l S u r v e y o f I n d i a .
A n a n d a s ra m a S a n s k r i t S e r i e s . A r t h a r v a v e d a .
B i b l i o t h e c a I n d i c a . B ^ h a s p a t is m j’t i .
B u l l e t i n o f t h e S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l a n d A f r i c a n S t u d i e s .
A u f r e c h t , C a ta lo g u s C a ta lo g o r u m .
L e C anon B o u d d h iq u e e n C h in e , 2 v o l s . , b y P . C . B a g c h i, P a r i s and C a l c u t t a , 1 9 2 7 a n d 1 9 2 8 .
C u la v a m s a .
DanakapjJLa s e c t io n o f K - p t y a k a lp a t a r u . Q a e k w a rd O r i e n t a l S e r i e s .
E p ig r a p h ia I n d i c a .
H . H . W ils o n , " A n E s s a y cn t h e H in d u H i s t o r y o f C a s h m iry T r a n s a c t io n s o f th e A s i a t i c
S o c i e t y , A s i a t i c R e s e a r c h e s , v o l . X V , C a lc u t ta ? A 8 2 5 . R a j a v a l i p a t a k a o f P r a jy a b h a £ £ a a n d d u k a .
F . T . T . C .
G a utam a Gy li a s t h ale a p H a n d b o o k
H .D .S . Hob
I . H . Q . I * A • J . A . S . B . J . B . B . R . A . S .
J o n a r a j a
J o n a r a ja
(B om bay E d i t i o n )
F o - t s u - t * u n g - c h i (A G e n e r a l R e c o rd on B u d d h a a n d P a t r i a r c h s ) b y Monk C h ih - p ?an ( t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y A . D . ) , T a is h o e d i t i o n , n o . 2 0 3 5 .
G a u ta m a s m y ti.
G y h a s th a k a p $ .a o f K y t y a k a l p a t a i u
R . C . I t a k , H a n d b o o k o f t h e A r c h o l o g i c a l a n d N u m is m a tic S e c t io n s o f S r i P r a t a p S in g h M useum , S r i n a g a r .
H i s t o r y o f D harm a s as t r a s .
H o b o g i r i n , F a s c i c u l e A n n e x e , T a b le s
du T a is h o I s s a i k y o . E d . b y M a is o n F r a n c o - ja p o n a is e ( C h i e f E d i t o r - P a u l D e m i e v i l l e ) , T o k y o , 1 9 3 1 .
I n d i a n H i s t o r i c a l Q u a r t e r l y . I n d i a n A n t i q u a r y .
J o u r n a l o f th e A s i a t i c S o c i e t y o f B e n g a l.
J o u r n a l o f t h e Bom bay B r a n c h o f t h e R o y a l A s i a t i c S o c ie t y .
J o n a r a j a , D v i t i y a - R a j a t a r a n g i p l ( C a l c u t t a E d i t i o n ) .
J o n a r a j a , D v i t i y a - R a j a t a r a n g i n i (E d . P e t e r s o n , B o m b a y ).
Kara an d a k a K .M .
K a ty a y a n a Manu
M bh.
M i l i n d a N a ra d a N . S .P .
H i y a t a k a l a k ap £a On Manu
On Y a jn a v a lk y a
P .W .M .B . R . A . S . B . R e p o r t
R .T . R .V * S . B . E . S r i v a r a
Kamandakanitisara.
K a v y a m a la S e r i e s . K a ty a y a n a s m y t i . M a n u s m y ti.
M a h a b h a r a ta . M i l i n dap a h h o .
Naradamsyti.
N i m a y a S a g a r P r e s s .
N i y a t a k a l aka#fiLa o f K y t y a k a l p a t a r u . C o m m e n ta ry o f M e d h a t i t h i , a n d K u l l u k a on t h e M a n u s m y ti.
C o m m e n ta rie s o f V i s v a r u p t a , V ijn a n e ^ s r a r a a and A p a r a r k a on t h e Y a jn a v a lk y a s m y t i.
P r in c e o f W a le s Museum B u l l e t i n . R o y a l A s i a t i c S o c i e t y o f B e n g a l.
B u h l e r 1 s R e p o r t o f a t o u r i n s e a r c h o f S a n s k r i t M a n u s c r ip t s made i n K a s h m ir , R a jp u t a n a a n d C e n t r a l I n d i a , J . B . B . R . A . S .
( E x t r a N o . ) , 1 8 7 7 .
K a lh a p a ' s R a j a t a r a n g i p l , g g v e d a .
S a c r e d B o o ks o f th e E a s t .
S r l v a r a , R a j a t a r a h g i p i ( C a l c u t t a E d i t i o n ) .
Vippu
Yaj Slav alky a
Vippusmyti.
Yajftavalkyasmy ti.
C h a p t e r I INTRODUCTION
I n t h e w i n t e r o f 1 9 6 4 > i t was d u r in g a b r i e f h a l t a t S r in a g a r , in t e n d e d t o r e c e iv e a p a s s p o r t is s u e d t o v i s i t L a d a k h w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n o f s e a r c h in g o u t m a t e r i a l on th e
s o c i a l l i f e o f t h e L a d a k h is , when 1 was g r e a t l y a t t r a c t e d b y t h e b e a u t y o f t h e K a s h m ir V a l l e y a n d t h e s o jo u r n t u r n e d i n t o a s t a y o f f o u r m o n th s . The c h a r m in g b e a u ty o f t h e *H a p p y V a l l e y ' , c o u p le d ,* w i t h d i f f e r e n t K a s h m ir ia n s o c i a l w a y s i n c e r t a i n r e -
m a
s p e c t s I n o t i c e d w h i l e 1 s t a y e d w i t h a K a s h m ir i B ra h m a p a f a m i l y w e re s o l e l y r e s p o n s ib l e i n b r i n g i n g a b o u t a t u r n i n t h e t i d e w h ic h f o r c e d me t o s w i t c h my a t t e n t i o n fr o m t h e L a d a k h is t o th e K a s h m ir ia n s . T h o s e f o u r m o n th s w e re u t i l i s e d i n t h e s t u d y o f IC a lh a n a 1 s R a j a t a r a n g le d , v i s i t i n g a n c i e n t s i t e s o f h i s t o r i c a lin i * i p i ■ i M m w
im p o r t a n c e , o b s e r v in g s o c i a l c u s to m s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d m a k in g g e n e r a l, e n q u i r i e s : a b o u t t h e d a t a X g le a n e d f r o m th e C h r o n i c l e . X c h o s e t o r e c o n s t r u c t th e s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s i n
a n c i e n t K a s h m ir f r o m t h e t im e o f U t p a l a d y n a s t y , f o u n d e d i n A . D . 8 5 5 j t o t h e t im e s o f K a lh a p a and t h e p r e s e n t w o rk i s an
a t t e m p t i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n .
I t was due to t h e p r o t e c t i o n a n d i s o l a t i o n a f f o r d e d b y th e m o u n ta in - r a m p a r t s t o t h e c o u n t r y o f K a s h m ir t h d i t r e m a in e d
a s a n c tu m o f H in d u c u l t u r e as l a t e as t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e f o u r t e e n t h
c e n t u r y . I n t h e e a r l y d e c a d e s o f t h e e le v e n t h c e n t u r y th e g r e a t w ave o f in v a s i o n u n d e r Mahmud o f G h a z n i, w h ic h s w e p t a c r o s s t h e I n d u s V a l l e y a n d a lo n g t h e P a n j a b p l a i n s n e v e r e n d a n g e re d t h e in d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e K a s h m ir ia n s . In d e e d w i t h t h e e x c e p t io n s o f an e x p e d i t i o n 1 d e s p a tc h e d u n d e r T un g a ,
t h e p r im e m i n i s t e r o f k i n g S a m g ra m a ra ja ( A . D . 1 0 0 3 - 1 0 2 8 ) , t o t h e a s s is t a n c e o f $ a h i T r i l o c a n a p a l a a g a in s t M a h m u d 's
i n v a s i o n , a nd a s e r io u s a t t e m p t o f Mahmud, a im e d a t t h e c o n q u e s t 2
o f t h e V a l l e y fr o m t h e s o u t h when h i s p r o g r e s s w as c h e c k e d b y t h e f o r t o f L o h - k o t , w h ic h 'w a s r e m a r k a b le on a c c o u n t o f i t s h e i g h t a n d s t r e n g t h ’ , we do n o t r e a d o f a n y o t h e r f o r e i g n i n v a s io n o f t h e V a l l e y . I n m o re th a n one m y , t h e p e r i o d u n d e r
r e v ie w p r o v e d a la n d - m a r k i n t h e h i s t o r y o f K a s h m ir . K a s h m ir p r o d u c e d s u c h g r e a t men o f l e t t e r s as A b h in a v a g u p ta , S om adeva, K g e m e n d ra , B i lh a p a , M a n kh a an d K a lh a p a , who b y t h e i r c o m p o s it io n s added l u s t r e t o S a n s k r i t l i t e r a t u r e . T h e re o c c u r r e d a g r e a t de
v e lo p m e n t c f A d v a it a fS a iv is m i n K a s h m ir . B u t V a ig p a v is m and B u d d h is m c o n t in u e d t o e x i s t w i t h c o m p le te t o l e r a t i o n . I n h i s
B a s a v a t h r a c a r i t a , K g e m e n d ra d e s c r ib e s B u d d h a as one o f t h e te n i n c a r n a t i o n s o f V i ^ p u . 'T h e I n t e g r a t i o n o f K a s h m ir l i f e was so. c o m p le te t h a t one o f t h e m o s t r e m a r k a b le b o o k s t h a t IC gem endra,
who was h i m s e l f a d a i v i t e , p r o d u c e d was 011 t h e A v a d a n a s o f t h e B u d d h a , a c l a s s i c i n l a t e r B u d d h is t l i t e r a t u r e . ' The p e r i o d
w it n e s s e d a g r e a t c o n s t r u c t i o n w o rk i n t h e f o r m o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t e m p le s and t h e Y lh a r a s th o u g h t h e l a t t e r w e re fe w e r i n
n u m b e r. K a s h m ir c o n t in u e d t o b e a g r e a t s e a t o f l e a r n i n g a t t r a c t i n g f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s . M a th a s w h ic h w e re e r e c t e d i n g r e a t n u m b e r d u r in g t h i s p e r i o d , a n d t h e Y j h a r a s w e re c e n t r e s o f H in d u an d B u d d h is t l e a r n i n g . Women c o n t in u e d t o h o l d a g o o d p o s i t i o n
i n th e s o c i e t j ^ . I n s t i t u t i o n s s u c h as s a t i a n d d e v a d a s i r e c e iv e d momentum a n d became r e g u l a r f e a t u r e s o f h ie K a s h m ir ia n l i f e .
D u r in g th e r e ig n o f k i n g A v a n tiv a r m a n ( A . D . 8 5 5 / 5 6 - 8 8 3 ) , f a r - r e a c h i n g r e f o r m s w e re c a r r i e d o u t w h ic h g a v e tre m e n d o u s b o o s t t o a g r i c u l t u r e . K in g s l i k e H a r g a ( A . D . 1 0 8 9 ~ l l 0 l ) in t r o d u c e d i n K a s h m ir n e w f a s h i o n s i n d r e s s a n d o rn a m e n ts o f s o u t h e r n I n d i a . The p e r i o d i s v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t so f a r as t h e e m e rg e n c e o f t h e P a m a ra s as an i n f l u e n t i a l a n d p o w e r f u l la n d o w n in g c la s s i s c o n c e rn e d . B u t we s h o u ld n o t f o r g e t t h a t f o r m o s t o f t h e p e r i o d t h e la n d o f K a s h m ir was i n t h e g r i p o f c i v i l w a r as a
r e s u l t o f t h e s t r u g g le b e tw e e n h ie r u l i n g a u t h o r i t y a n d t h e p o w e r f u l l a n d h o ld e r s (p a m a ra s ) who h a d g a in e d g r e a t p o w e r b y
t h i s t im e . D u r in g s u c h p e r io d s o f c o n f u s io n a n d d i s o r d e r , t h e g e n e r a l c o n d i t i o n o f t h e p e o p le t u r n e d s a d as th e a c c o u n t o f K a lh a p a r e v e a l s .
The h i s t o r y o f K a s h m ir h a s h e e n a s u b j e c t o f s t u d y f o r m any s c h o l a r s who u s e f u l l y c o n t r i b u t e d on one a s p e c t o r t h e
o t h e r . B e fo r e M . A . S t e i n p u b l i s h e d i n 1 8 9 2 h i s c r i t i c a l , t e x t o f t h e R a j a t a r a h g i n i a n d e i g h t y e a r s l a t e r an E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n o f ih e t e x t t o g e t h e r w i t h n o t e s , i n t r o d u c t i o n , a m e m o ir on th e a n c i e n t g e o g r a p h y a n d a p p e n d ic e s , s c h o l a r s s u c h a s H .H . W ils o n , T r o y e r , C u n n in g h a m , L a s s e n a n d Y o g e s h C h u n d u r D u t t h a d la b o u r e d h a r d t o a c q u a in t u s w i t h t h e h i s t o r y o f K a s h m ir b u t b e c a u s e o f t h e in c o m p le t e a nd d e f e c t i v e m a n u s c r ip t s w h ic h t h e y c o u ld l a y t h e i r h a n d s o n , f u l l j u s t i c e c o u ld n o t be g iv e n w i t h :n o - f a u l t o f t h e i r ow n.
H . H . W ils o n i s c r e d i t e d w i t h h a v in g f i r s t in t r o d u c e d u s
t o t h e g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r o f K a lh a p a * s w o rk a n d t h e c r i t i c a l a b s t r a c o f t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e f i r s t s i x ta r a n g a s o f t h e Ra.j a t a r a n g i n i . To T r o y e r b e lo n g s t h e m e r i t o f t r a n s l a t i n g i n t o F r e n c h , i n 1 8 5 2 , t h e f i r s t s i x t a r a n g a s o f t h e R a j a t a r a n g i p i » a c c o m p a n ie d b y h i s t o r i c a l a n d g e o g r a p h ic a l a c c o u n ts . A . C u n n in g h a m r e c e iv e d c r e d i t f o r h i s l a b o u r s and h i s p a t i e n t r e s e a r c h e s on t h e t o p o g r a p h y * C h r o n o lo g ic a l s y s te m o f t h e R a j a t a r a n g i p i , a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d t h e m o n e t a iy s y s te m o f K a s h m ir a r e v e r y u s e f u l .
We m e n t io n G, B u h le r a s t h e n e x t p i o n e e r i n th e f i e l d a n d
h i s R e p o r t i n s e a r c h o f S a n s k r i t m a n u s c r ip t s i s v e r y I n s t r u c t i v e m id g a v e M . A * S t e in an im p e tu s t o c a r r y f u r t h e r t h e ia s k o f
t r a n s l a t i n g t h e R a , ja t a r a h g lp T > Y o g e s h C h u n d u r B u t t ' s t r a n s l a t i o n w h ic h a p p e a re d a t C a l c u t t a , 1 8 7 9 -8 7 ? was u s e f u l when i t was com pose d. M . A . S t e i n r e c e iv e s t h e g r e a t e s t s h a r e o f m e r i t f o r h i s m o n u m e n ta l r e s e a r c h e s . T he g r e a t im p o r t a n c e o f h i s w o rk a s a v a l u a b l e g u id e f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h e s can h a r d l y be o v e r - e s t i m a t e d . The w o rk s o f H . H . C o le , W .G .C o w ie , a n d -B .R . S a h n i g i v e u s a g o o d id e a o f t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e o f a n c i e n t
K a s h m ir . I n h i s A n c i e n t M o n u m e n ts o f K a s h m ir R .G .K & k f u r n i s h e s a g o o d a c c o u n t o f t h e a r t h i s t o r y o f K a s h m ir a n d t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l f i n d i n g s f r o m v a r i o u s s i t e s . I I . C . R a y 's D y n a s t i c H i s t o r y o f N o r t h e r n I n d i a i n c l u d e s a g o o d a c c o u n t cn t h e P o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y o f K a s h m ir o f o u r p e r i o d . I n h i s b o o k S t a t e i n A n c ie n t I n d i a , B e n i P r a s a d d is c u s s e s b r i e f l y t h e p o l i t y o f a n c i e n t K a s h m ir . U .R .G r h o s h a l's a n a l y s i s on K a lh a p a as a h i s t o r i a n c o n t a i n s l i t t l e m o re th a n S t e i n ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . J . C . C h a t t e r j i * s K a s m ir S a iv is m i s a u s e f u l w o r k .
B r . S u f i ' s K a s h i r i n tw o v o lu m e s i s a u s e f u l r e s e a r c h b u t h e d i l a t e s u p o n t h e M u s lim p e r i o d , g i v i n g t h e h i s t o r y o f H in d u p e r i o d i n a s i n g l e c h a p t e r . E a r l y Hi s t o r y a n d C u l t u r e o f
K a s h m ir b y S .Q .R a y i s a u s e f u l p ie c e o f w o rk b u t th e
a u t h o r c o n c e n t r a t e s m o re o n t h e a n c i e n t t o p o g r a p h y , p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y , a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d a r t h i s t o r y . H i s a c c o u n t on a fe w a s p e c ts o f s o c i a l h i s t o r y i s s k e t c h y a n d n e e d s f u r t h e r im p r o v e m e n t. F . K . K . B a m z a i1s H i s t o r y o f K a s h m ir t r a c e s t h e h i s t o r y
o f K a s h m ir fr o m th e e a r l i e s t t im e s t o th e m o d e rn t im e s a n d th e p a g e s on t h e H ^ndu p e r i o d do n o t s a y m uch w h ic h i s n e w e r th a n w h a t h a s a p p e a r e d b e f o r e .
T h e re h a s b e e n no s e r io u s a t te m p t t o p o r t r a y t h e K a s h m i r i a n s o c i e t y jn a n c i e n t K a s h m ir , Some s o c i a l a s p e c t s t h a t
come u n d e r t h e c a r e o f e x i s t i n g w o rk s a r e n o t a d e q u a t e ly d e a l t w i t h . I n t h i s t h e s i s we h a v e e n d e a v o u re d t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s i n a i c i e n t K a s h m ir ( 0 . A . D . 8 5 5 - 1 1 5 0 ) .
The i m p o r t a n t p a r t w h ic h th e g e n e r a l p h y s i c a l f e a t u r e s o f t h e c o u n t r y o f K a s h m ir have p la y e d i n i t s s o c i a l , e c o n o m ic a n d p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y c a n h a r d l y be o v e r e s t im a t e d . A n c i e n t K a s h m ir was c o n f in e d t o t h e V a l l e y d r a in e d b y t h e h e a d w a te r s o f th e r i v e r V i t a s t a a n d t o t h e i n n e r s lo p e s o f t h e m o u n ta in s t h a t s u r r o u n d
* , * * * *Sl* '
i t . The a c c o u n t o f K a lh a p a , J o n a r a ja , a n d S r i v a r a a m p ly show t h a t o r d i n a r i l y K a s h m ir o f K a s h m ir ia n t r a d i t i o n n e v e r e x te n d e d m a t e r i a l l y b e y o n d t h e s u m m it - r id g e s o f th o s e g r e a t r a n g e s t h a t e n c i r c l e a n d p r o t e c t t h e V a l l e y / X The e x t e n t o f t h e n a t u r a l
1B u t a t t im e s t h e i n f l u e n c e o f K a s h m ir ia n p o w e r was f e l t b e y o n d t h i s b o u n d a r y . A t t h e tim e o f H iu e n T s e n g 's v i s i t m uch o f t h e
limits of the country of Kashmir were appreciated by the foreign
w r i t e r s l i k e H iu e n I 1 s a n g , O u -K 'o n g * a n d A l b e r u n i .
The g r e a t m o u n t a i n - b a r r i e r s t h a t s u r r o u n d t h e s m a ll c o u n t r y o f K a s h m ir h a d a d i r e c t a n d d i s t i n c t b e a r in g on i t s h i s t o r y
an d c u l t u r e . The i m p r e g n a b i l i t y o f t h e m o u n ta in s e n a b le d K a s h m ir to p r e s e r v e a n d c o n s o li d a t e i t s p e c u l i a r s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s . T h e i r im p o r t a n c e as a g r e a t p r o t e c t i n g w a i l h a s a lw a y s b e e n a p p r e c ia t e d a n d r e c o g n is e d . S in c e a n c i e n t t im e s , t h e K a s h m ir ia n s h a v e b e e n p r o u d o f t h e i r c o u n t r y ' s s a f e t y fro m f o r e i g n i n v a s i o n , a f f o r d e d b y m o u n ta in d e fe n c e s . T h e c o u n t r y o f K a s h m ir 'm a y be c o n q u e r e d b y
t h e f o r c e o f s p i r i t u a l m e r i t s , b u t n o t b y f o r c e s o f s o l d i e r s . H ence i t s i n h a b i t a n t s a r e a f r a i d o n l y o f t h e w o r ld b e y o n d ', 1 t h u s
a d ja c e n t t e r r i t o r i e s o n t h e s o u t h a n d w e s t w e re u n d e r t h e
s u z e r a i n t y o f K a s h m ir . The p la c e s m e n tio n e d b y h im ( S i - y u - k i , v o l . I , j r p . 1 3 6 , 1 4 3 , 1 4 7 , 1 6 3 ) a r e T a k s a s ila to t h e e a s t o f t h e I n d u s , U r a s a o r H a z a ra , S im h a p u ra o r t h e S a l t R a n g e , R a j a p u r i and
P a r r o t s a y o r P u n c h . K in g L a l i t a d i t y a i s r e c o r d e d t o h a v e c o n q u e re d t e r r i t o r i e s as f a r as IC a n a u j a n d h is g r a n d s o n J a y ap'd cl a t e s t e d l i i s arm s w i t h t h e k i n g s o f - . a n a u j, Gau^ta a n d N e p a l.
S a m k a ra v a rm a n ( A . D . 8 8 3 - 9 0 2 ) c o n q u e r e d D a r v a b h is a r a an d some
t r a c t s o f n o r t h e r n P a n ja b * K a la s a ( A . D . 1 0 6 3 - 1 0 8 9 ) r e - e s t a b l i s h e d t h e K a s h m ir ia n a u t h o r i t y o v e r R a j a p u r i an d among th e n e i g h b o u r in g s t a t e s
w h ic h a c c e p te d t h e m e t t l e o f K a s h m ir , m e n t io n m ay b e made o f Camp a , V a l l a p u r a , U r a s a a n d IC a g $ h a va $ a .
1E . T . , I , 3 9 .
p r o u d l y w r i t e s K a lh a p a . The g r e a t im p o r t a n c e o f m o u n t a in s s e r v in g as n a t u r a l d e fe n c e s was d u l y r e c o g n is e d b y f o r e i g n
1 , «.
w r i t e r s . ' " ’ The k in .g 6.0in o f K a s m ir , ’ w r i t e s H iu e n T s a n g , ’ i s en
c lo s e d b y m o u n t a in s . T h e s e m o u n ta in s a r e v e r y h i g h . A lt h o u g h t h e m o u n ta in s have p a s s e s t h r o u g h th e m , th e s e - a r e n a r r o w and c o n t r a c t e d . T he n e ig h b o u r in g s t a t e s t h a t h a v e a t t a c k e d i t h a v e n e v e r s u cce e d e d , i n s u b d u in g i t . ’ 2 A l b e r u n i w r i t e s ;
’ T h e y a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y a n x io u s a b o u t th e n a t u r a l, s t r e n g t h o f t h e i r c o u n t r y , a n d t h e r e f o r e t a k e a lw a y s m uch c a r e t o k e e p a s t r o n g h o ld u p o n th e e n t r a n c e s a n d r o a d s l e a d i n g i n t o i t . I n c o n s e q u e n c e i t i s i e r y d i f f i c u l t t o h a v e a n y com m erce w i t h t h e m , ’ ^ T he s m a ll f o r t s w h ic h g u a rd e d th e s e p a s s e s le a d in g i n t o t h e V a l l e y a re r e f e r r e d to i n th e Ratj a t a r a n g i & i a n d l a t e r a c c o u n ts b y t h e word, d v a r a ? ’ g a t e ’ o r b y t h e m o re s p e c i f i c te rm s d r a n g a , o r d b a k k a . C e r t a in p a s s a g e s o f t h e Ra.j a t a r a n g i & i
show t h a t th e s e d .v a ra s s e r v e d a ls o th e p u r p o s e s o f c u s to m s
and p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T h e se f o r t s w e re g a r r i s o n e d b y t r o o p u n d e r com m a nders k n o w n as d r a h g e s a o r d r a h g a d h ip a . T he o f f i c e r
i n c h a r g e o f a l l th e f r o n t s . e r s t a t i o n s was d e s ig n a t e d as ’ l o r d
S i - y u - k i j v o l . I , p . 1 4 8 . L ’ I t i n e r a i r e d ’ Ou-IC * o n g , p . 3 5 6 . A l - M a s u d i, M eadows o f O o ld ( t r . S p r i n g e r ) , v o l . I , p . 3 8 2 .
Ta r i k h - i - E a s h i d i , p . 4 3 2 ,
^ S i - y u - k l t v o l . I , p . 1 4 8 . S a c h a u , v o l . I , p . 2 0 6 .
/ ■W M l Mty m v
o f t h e g a t e ’ ( d v a r a d h i k a r i n , d v a r a d h is v a r a ) - t h e v e r y p o s tW *f-ijn:itr..LiT(iiniinm I t ' *ii n^rti <i J rtarin'i 11*l-i iiir---T*"t-‘~'* --------------* ***
K a lh a n a 's f a t h e r O ap p a ka h e l d u n d e r k i n g H a rg a ( A . D . 1 0 8 9 - H O l ) . A n c ie n t K a s h m ir h a s b e e n lilc e n e d t o an i r r e g u l a r o v a l V a l l e y a b o u t e i g h t y - f o u r m i l e s i n l e n g t h , f r o m s o u t h - e a s t t o n o r t h - w e s t a n d i t s w i d t h v a r i e s fro m tw e n ty t o t w e n t y - f i v e m i l e s . I t s h e i g h t a b o ve th e sea i s e v e r y w h e r e 5 ,0 0 0 f e e t
an d t h e m o u n t a in - r a n g e s t h a t e n c lo s e i t v a r y a t d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s fr o m 1 0 ,0 0 0 t o 1 8 ,0 0 0 f e e t i t r h e i g h t . T h e s lo p e s o f
th e s e m o u n ta in s a r e d r a in e d b y r i v e r s a id s tre a m s w h ic h j o i n t h e r i v e r V i t a s t a w i t h i n t h e K a s h m ir p l a i n . T he s i d e - v a l l e y s o f t h e s e t r i b u t a r i e s p r o v i d e m uch c u l t i v a t e d g r o u n d a n d e v e n t h e h i g h e r z o n e s o f t h e m o u n ta in s lo p e s a re c l o t h e d w i t h a b e l t o f m a g n i f i c e n t f o r e s t s w h ic h add t o t h e e co n o m y o f
K a s h m ir . T he K a s h m ir ia n s h eve a lw a y s a p p r e c ia t e d t h e m o d e r a te t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e i r summer e n s u r e d b y th e e l e v a t i o n c f t h e V a l l e y . K a lh a p a w r i t e s w i t h p a t r i o t i c p r i d e * 'O u t o f r e s p e c t ,
as i t w e re , t h e s u n d o e s n o t b u m f i e r c e l y , d u r i n g summer e v e n , i n t h a t c o u n t r y w h ic h h a s b e e n c r e a t e d b y M s f a t h e r K a s y a p a , as h e k n o w s t h a t i t o u g h t n o t t o b e t o r m e n t e d . ' 1 E ls e w h e r e ,
he d w e lls on t h e c h a rm s o f t h e 'm o s t d e l i g h t f u l K a s m ir summer w h ic h i s n o t t o b e fo u n d e ls e w h e r e in t h e w h o le w o r l d . 1 2 A t th e
same t im e XCalha&a d o e s n o t f o r g e t t o r e f e r to t h e r i g o u r s o f K a s h m ir w i n t e r w h ic h a t t h e t im e o f h e a v y s n o w f a l l i s s o m e tim e s s e v e r e l y f e l t . 1 'T h e c o m p a r a t iv e im m u n it y fr o m
f e a r o f f o r e i g n d o m in a t io n , due t o t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e c o u n t r y 's n a t u r a l d e fe n c e s a n d t o t h e p r a c t i c a l i m p r e g n a b i l i t y o f th e
r o u t e s l e a d i n g t o i t , t h e a b u n d a n c e a n d v a r i e t y o f w h o le s o m e and n u t r i t i o u s f o o d , t h e m i l d a id s a l u b r i o u s c l i m a t e , t h e n a r r o w n e s s o f t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l h o r iz o n - t h e K a s h m ir i c o u ld s e e h i s w h o le w o r ld fr o m t h e r o o f o f h i s h o u se - a r e l a r g e l y r e s p o n s ib l e f o r m o u ld in g t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e H a p p y V a l l e y , a c h a r a c t e r w h ic h h a s r e m a in e d u n a l t e r e d f o r m any c e n t u r i e s . '2
I n A . D . 8 5 b 5 w i t h t h e a c c e s s io n o f A v a n tiv a r m a n , th e g r a n d s o n o f U t p a l a , s t a r t s o v e r K a s h m ir th e r u l e o f t h e new d y n a s t y , k n o w n a s t h e U t p a l a . A v a n tiv a r m a n d e s c e n d e d fr o m a f a m i l y o f m i n i s t e r s who h a d r a i s e d th e m s e lv e s f r o m a lo w o r i g i n t o t h e p o s i t i o n o f k in g - m a k e r s . A v a r t iv a r m a n i s d e s c r ib e d a s a l o v a b l e p e r s o n a id h i s r e ig n o f l i t t l e l e s s t h a n t h i r t y y e a r s i s s a i d t o have b r o u g h t c o n s o l i d a t i o n t o t h e c o u n t r y w h ic h , due
to i n t e r n a l t r o u b le s c a u s e d b y t h e fe u d s o f p o w e r f u l b a r o n s a n d t h e o p p r e s s iv e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e k a y a s t h a s , h a d s u f f e r e d p o l i t i c a l l y as w e l l a s e c o n o m ic a lly d u r in g t h e l a s t h a l f c e n t u r y .
1E.T.. VII, 592; VIIX, 411, 137S sqq., 1434 sqq., 2710 sq.<l.
2R .G .K a k , A n c ie n t M o n u m e n ts o f K a s h m ir , p p . 4 - 5 -
He d i r e c t e d h i s a t t e n t i o n s o l e l y t o th e i n t e r n a l r e c o v e r y o f t h e c o u n t r y . The g r e a t c h a n g e i n t h e m a t e r i a l c o n d i t i o n
o f t h e c o u n t r y , b r o u g h t a b o u t b y t h e i r r i g a t i o n r e f o r m s c a r r i e d o u t b y h i s a b le e n g in e e r m i n i s t e r S u y y a , i s e v id e n c e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p r i c e o f a K h a r i o f r i c e , t h e s t a p l e f o o d o f t h e K a s h m ir ia n s , f e l l f r o m 200 D in n a r a s t o 36 D in n a r a s o n l y . A l a r g e n u m b e r o f t e m p le s w e re fo u n d e d , d u r in g h i s t im e . He was a l i b e r a l p a t r o n o f l e a r n i n g a n d h i g h l y h o n o u r e d s c h o la r s an d p o e t s o f h i s d a y .
A v a n tiv a r m a n was s u c c e e d e d b y h i s s o n 3 amk a r a v arm an w h o , u n l i k e h i s f a t h e r , was c r u e l a n d a v a r i c i o u s a n d a v e r s e t o le a r n i n g . H a v in g s e c u r e d h i s p o s i t i o n b y d e f e a t i n g a l l c o n t e n d e r s t o t h e t h r o n e , $ a m k a ra v a rm a n ( A . D . 8 8 3 - 9 0 2 ) s e t a b o u t a r o u n d o f f o r e i g n e x p e d itio n s w h ic h K a lh a p a w i t h p o e t i c m a g n ilo q u e n c e d e s c r ib e s
as ' r e v i v i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n o f "the c o n q u e s t o f t h e w o r l d ' . The f i r s t t e r r i t o r y he t u r n e d t o w a r d s was D a r v a b h is a r a , t h e h i l l -
t r a d w h ic h s t r e t c h e s f r o m t h e ^ i r P a n t s a l r a n g e to w a rd s th e p l a i n s o f t h e P a n ja b . P y t h i v r c a n d r a , t h e r n l e r o f T r i g a r t a
( K a n g r a ) , i s r e c o r d e d t o h a v e a p p ro a c h e d >3am karavarm an, t o p a y h i s hom ag e, b u t s u b s e q u e n t ly f l e d i n t e r r o r . K a lh a p a 's a c c o u n t d o e s n o t t e l l p l a i n l y a b o u t t h e a c t u a l c o n q u e s t o f t h e t e r r i t o r y .
$ a m k a ra v a m ia n ' s n e x t t a r g e t was A la k h a n a , t h e r u l e r o f G u r j a r a t e r r i t o r y w h ic h c o m p r is e d ' t h e u p p e r p o r t i o n c f th e f l a t Doab
between the Jehlam and Cinab rivers south of Darvabhisara,
a n d p r o b a b ly a ls o a p a r t o f t h e p a n ja b p l a i n f u r t h e r e a s t * .1
A la k h a n a c e d e d t o amk a r a va rm an t h e T a k k a - la n d , ' b y w h ic h d e s i g n a t i o n a t r a c t a d j o i n i n g t h e lo w e r h i l l s e a s t o f th e G in a b i s p r o b a b ly m e a n t’ . 2 H is n e x t e x p e d i t i o n was a g a in s t
t h e ' i l l u s t r i o u s L a l l i y a S a h i ’ o f U d b h a p £ a i n whom we m u s t r e c o g n iz e t h e f o u n d e r o f t h e 'H in d u S h a h iy a ' d y n a s t y , p r o b a b ly K a l l a r o f A l b e r u n i . 3 B u t h e d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o
h a v e a c h ie v e d a n y m a t e r i a l s u c c e s s in t h i s d i r e c t i o n . T h e s e w a rs s a p p e d t h e t r e a s u r y an d demanded o f k i n g
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amk a r a va rm ant h a t he r e s o r t t o e x c e s s iv e f i s c a l e x a c t io n s w h ic h r e s u l t e d i n
i n o p p r e s s io n . K i n g $ amk a r a va rm an g o e s do t o / t h e h i s t o r y o f K a s h m ir , as a c r u e l and o p p r e s s iv e r u l e r .
The p e r i o d o f t h i r t y - s e v e n y e a r s f o l l o w i n g th e d e a th o f ^ a m k a ra v a rm a n in A . D . 9 0 2 was m a rk e d b y g r o s s m i s r u l e d u r in g
w h ic h as m any a s t e n r u l e r s o c c u p ie d t h e t h r o n e , v i z . , G o p a la v a rm a n ( A . D * 9 0 2 - 9 0 4 ) , S u gand bS ( A . D . 9 0 4 - 9 0 6 ) , P a r t h a ( A . D . 9 0 6 - 9 2 1 ) ,
H i r j i t a v a i m a n ( A . D . 9 2 1 -9 2 3 ) , C a k ra v a rm a n ( A .D . 9 2 3 - 9 3 3 ) , ^ u r a v a r m a n I
^ A u r e l S t e i n , R . T . ( E n g . T r . ) , V , 1 4 3 -1 4 4 n o t e .
^ A u r e l S t e i n , R . T . (E n g . T r . ) , V , 150 n o t e . 3A u r e l S t e i n , R .T . (E n g . T r . ) , V , 1 5 2 -1 5 5 n o t e .
S a c h a u , v o l . I I , p . 1 3 .
- l
4 is
( . A . D . 9 3 3 -9 3 4 ) ? £5am bhuvardhana ( A . D . 9 3 5 - 9 3 6 ) , C a k ra v a rm a n
r e s t o r e d ( A .D . 9 3 6 - 9 3 7 ) , U n m a t t a v a n t i ( A . D . 9 3 7 - 9 3 9 ) , S u ra v a rm a n IX ( A . D , 9 3 9 ) . D u r in g t h i s p e r io d t h e p o w e r was i n t h e h a n d s o f t h e T a n t r i n s a n d t h e E k a n g a s f w h ic h r i v a l and a n t a g o n i s t i c m i l i t a r y o r g a n i s a t i o n s , who a c t e d as t r u e k in g - m a k e r s . K in g s a n d m i n i s t e r s w e re a t t h e i r m e r c y . T h e t h r o n e m s b o u g h t b y p a y in g them
b r i b e s i n a c o m p e t i t i v e s p i r i t . T h e re was n o l o v e l o s t b e tw e e n t h e k i n g a n d h i s so n a n d t h e m i n i s t e r s f o l l o w i n g a d u b io u s p o l i c y s id e d w i t h t h a t p a r t y t h a t p r o m is e d th e m m o r e g p ln s . I n A . D . 9 3 6 , t h e d e p o s e d C a k ra v a rm a n , w i t h t h e h e lp o f t h e P a m a ra s , c r u s h e d t h e p o w e r o f t h e T a n t r i n s a n d now o n w a rd s we f i n d t h e P a m a ra s g a i n i n g m o re a n d m ore i n f l u e n c e a n d p o w e r . I n A .D . 9 3 9 , t h e B r a h -
* 1 ** •»
ina^ira S a s a s k a r g , >0, thfe- ^ s h h - o jf o G o p a l a va rm an * s t r e a s u r e r P r a b h a k a r a d e v a was c h o s e n b y t h e B ra b m a p a a s s e m b ly , as th e k i n g o f K a s h m ir .
H is r u l e o f n in e y e a r s i s d e s c r ib e d as w is e d u r in g w h ic h t im e t h e c o u n t r y r e c e iv e d t h e m uch n e e d e d r e s p i t e f r o m t h e c h a o s a n d d i s o r d e r t h a t p r e v a i l e d i n K a s h m ir d u r in g t h e p r e c e d in g f o u r d e c a d e s . H e i s d e s c r ib e d as a j u s t a n d g o o d a d m i n i s t r a t o r . 2
Among v a r i o u s f o u n d a t i o n s t h a t go t o h i s c r e d i t , s p e c i a l m e n t io n 3
m ay be made o f a M a fh a f o r t h e f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s . B u t h i s r e ig n was n o t w i t h o u t b le m is h a n d t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f h is r e ig n , he i s
% . T . , V , 4 6 1 s q q . R .T . , V I , 1 4 - 6 7 .
r e c o r d e d t o h a v e e a r n e d a h a d name f o r h i m s e l f b y f i s c a l e x a c t io n s T a s a s k a r a was s u c c e e d e d b y h i s m in o r s o n S a m gram ade va
who r u l e d f o r a fe w m o n th s o n l y . The t r e a c h e r o u s m i n i s t e r P a r v a g u p t a , who lia s b e e n on th e l o o k o u t f o r an o p p o r t u n i t y
f o r t h e p a s t c o u p le o f y e a r s t o s e is e p o w e r , r o s e t o t h e o c c a s io n a n d , a f t e r k i l l i n g t h e c h i l d k i n g , assum ed r o y a l p o w e r . B u t h e was n o t d e s t in e d t o e n jo y t h e r e a lm lo n g a n d a f t e r o p p r e s s in g t h e p e o p le f o r a b o u t a y e a r a id a h a l f d ie d o f l e p r o s y . 2 P a r -
v a g u p t a , who t r a c e d h i s d e s c e n t b a c k t o a f a m i l y o f c l e r k s ( d i v i r a ) was s u c c e e d e d b y h i s son ICgsemagupta ( A . D . 9 5 0 - 9 5 8 ) , a s e n s u a l y o u t h who w a s k e p t e n g r o s s e d i n d i c e , w in e an d women b y h i s e v i l - c o n due te d . p a r a s i t e s , who l a t e r a ls o e n c o u ra g e d h im t o com
m i t e x c e s s e s . ^ The f o u n d a t i o n o f th e IC g e m a g a u re s v a ra te m p le
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Zj.a t S r in a g a r was t h e o n l y n o t a b l e a c t o f h i s x e ig n . I-Iis m a r r ia g e
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w i t h D id d a , t h e d a u g h t e r o f S im h a r a ja , c h i e f o f L o h a r a arid t h e d a u g h t e r ’ s d a u g h t e r o f d a h i B h im a p a la , i s s i g n i f i c a n t in so f a r as i t b r o u g h t K a s h m ir u n d e r t h e r u l e o f th e L o h a r a f a m i l y . Q ueen D id d a p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t p a r t in h ie h i s t o r y o f K a s h m ir . C o in in g fr o m th e n o b le S a h i f a m i l y , she p o s s e s s e d a p o l i t i c a l m in d w h ic h
k e p t h e r on t h e s c e n e f o r c lo s e o n h a l f a c e n t u r y . H e r i n f lu e n c e o v e r K § e m a g u p ta was so o v e r w h e lm in g t h a t t h e l a t t e r
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came t o he kn o w n b y t h e n ic k n a m e h id d a k s e n a .
IC sem agu pta d i e d i n A .D - 953 an d was s u c c e e d e d b y h i s s o n A b h im a n y u I I . A s h e w a s a m in o r t h e r e a l p o w e r f e l l i n
ark
t o t h e h a n d s o f D id d a who a c te d a s a r e y e n t-m o t h e r , C o u r t
f a c t i o n s c h a r a c t e r i s e d t h i s p e r io d an d D id d a bad t o f i g h t v e r y h a r d f o r h e r e x is t e n c e . A b h im a n y u d ie d y o u n g a n d w as s u c c e e d e d i n A . I ) . 9 7 2 b y h i s y o u n g s o n N a n d ig u p t a . B u t o n l y a f t e r a y e a r , t h e a m b it io u s a n d l u s t f u l D id d a d e s t r o y e d h a n d ig u p t a b y w i t c h
c r a f t . T r ib h u v a n a g u p t a ( A . D . 9 7 3 - 9 7 5
),
a n o t h e r g r a n d s o n who- ** 2 n
s u c c e e d e d h a n d ig u p t a , was s i m i l a r l y re m o v e d b y D id d a . Then
ts& >
t h e t h r o n e w e n t t o t h e o n l y r e m a in in g g r a n d s o n B h im a g u p ta ( A .D . 9 7 5 - 9 8 0 / 1 ) , T he h e a r t l e s s a n d c r u e l que en h a d B h im a g u p ta a ls o p u t t o d e a th b y t o i * t u r e i n A .D . 9 8 0 / l , and h e r s e l f a s c e n d e d t h e t h r o n e . v D u r in g t h e f o l l o w i n g t w e n t y - t h r e e y e a r s , T o n g a , a IChasa. ■ f r o m P a r n o ts a . , who h a d made h i s w a y i n t o K a s h m ir
as a l e t t e r - c a r r i e r a n d h a d becom e q u e e n 1s f a v o u r i t e a n d p a ra m o u m a in t a in e d an u n d is p u t e d p re d o m in a n c e as t h e p r im e m i n i s t e r . V a r io u s sb te m p ts made b y t h e d i s c o n t e n t e d f a c t i o n s t o o u s t T u n g a
1H . T . , V I , 1 7 7 . 2R . T . , V I , 311 s q q . 3R . T . , V I , 330 s q q .
w e re f o i l e d b y D id d a 1 s c u n n in g d ip lo m a c y a n d b r i b e s a n d T u n g a ’ s p e r s o n a l c o u r a g e a n d p r o w e s s .^ D u r in g h e r r e i g n ,
T u n g a i s s a i d t o have la u n c h e d a s u c c e s s f u l e x p e d i t i o n a g a h is t
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R a j a p u r i a n d c o n s e q u e n t ly e a r n e d a t r i b u t e f r c m P p t h i v i p a l a ,
2 **'
t h e r u l e r o f t h i s h i l l y s t a t e . B e f o r e d y in g i n A . D . 1 0 0 3 , D id d a
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c o n f e r r e d T u v r a j a s h ip on h e r y o u n g ne p h e w S a m g ra m a ra ja , son o f h e r b r o t h e r U d a y an a j a, t h e r u l e r o f I P h a r a , 3 A t h e r d e a th
i n A .D . 1 0 0 3 , t h e x u le o v e r K a s h m ir p a s s e d p e a c e f u l l y t o t h e h o u s e o f L o h a r a .
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S a m g ra m a ra ja i s d e s c r ib e d as a p r u d e n t b u t w e ak r u l e r . T he d i s s a t i s f i e d m i n i s t e r s , i n v o k i n g t h e h e lp o f t h e B rahm ap as
and t e m p le p u r o h i t a s , s t i r r e d u p an u p r i s i n g 4 t o o u s t T u n g a ,
b u t i n v a i n . S a m g ra m a ra ja d i d n o t c h e c k e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g p re d o m in a n c e o f.k fth h g a a n d t h e i r c a r e le s s n e s s l e d t o m a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n r e s u l t i n g i n f i s c a l e x a c t i o n s . E ls e w h e r e , we h a v e r e f e r r e d t o a f o i c e
o f K a s h m ir ia n s s e n t u n d e r T u n g a t o h e lp bTahi T r i l o c a n a p a l a when t h e l a t t e r w a s a t t a c k e d b y Mahmud o f G h a z n i a s a ls o t h e u n s u c c e s s f u l a t t e m p t made b y Mahmud t o c o n q u e r t h e V a l l e y fro m
S a m g ra m a ra ja was s u c c e e d e d b y h i s s o n H a r i r a j a , b u t t h e l a t t e r d ie d a f t e r o n l y t w e n t y - t w o d a y s . I S r i l e l c h a , t h e m o th e r o f H a r i r a j a v a i n l y e n d e a v o u re d t o s e c u r e h ie th r o n e f o r h e r s e l f a n d A n a n ta , t h e son o f H a r i r a j a was r a i s e d t o t h e t h r o n e . V i g r a h a r a j a , a b r o t h e r o f S a m g ra m a ra ja a n d r u l e r o f L o h a r a , a t te m p t e d t o o u s t A n a n ta b u t was d e f e a t e d an d
k i l l e d . D u r in g t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f A n a n t a 's r e i g n ( A . D . 1 0 2 8 - I O 6 3 ) , t h e *3ah i p r i n c e s s u c h a s R u d ra p a la a n d D id d a p a la who e a r n e d g r e a t s u b s i d i e s e x e r c is e d g r e a t i n f l u e n c e a n d p o w e r . A n a n ta d i s p la y e d g r e a t p ro w e s s i n s u c c e s s f u l l y d e f e a t i n g t h e r e b e l c o m m a n d e r - in - c h ie f T r ib h u v a n a , who w i t h t h e h e lp o f
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che p a m a ra s r o s e a g a in s t t h e k i n g . He a ls o e m e rg e d t r iu m p h a n t a g a in s t t h e D a r d r u l e r A c a la m a h g a la when t h e . l a t t e r in v a d e d K a s h m ir .
K a lh a p a r e f e r s t o ' q u e e n S u r y a m a t i's p r e d o m in a n c e o v e r
k i n g A n a n ta a n d h e r a s s u m p tio n o f f u l l c h a r g e o f t h e r o y a l a f f a i r s . T h is b r o u g h t p e a ce a n d s t a b i l i t y t o t h e la n d . A n a n ta won a v i c t o r y
R.T.. VII, 131 sqq.
, VII,139 sqq.
^ R . T . , V I I , 1 4 4 s q q . h . T . . VII, 154 sqq.
R.I.. VII, 167 sqcj.. , Vilcramankadevaoarita, X V M I , 34.
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o v e r k i n g S a la o f Camp a , b u t M s e x p e d i t i o n a g a in s t t h e h i l l s t a t e s o f U r a s a an d V a l l a p u r a e n d e d i n f i a s c o . ^
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I n A . I ) . 1 0 6 5 , q u e e n S u r y a m a t i p e r s u a d e d M a n t a t o
a b d ic a t e i n f a v o u r o f h i s so n K a la s a , H ie o o u p le so o n r e a l i s e d t h e i r m is t a k e a n d c o n s e q u e n t ly M a n t a re su m e d c h a r g e o f t h e r o y a l f u n c t i o n s w h i l e K a la s a 1 s t i t l e o f k i n g was p u r e l y n o m in a l.
T h is a r r a n g e m e n t w e n t cn f o r some t im e w i t h o u t a n y t r o u b l e b u t K a la s a , d u r in g t h i s p e r i o d , i s s a i d t o have g ro w n v e r y l i c e n t i o u s
as K a lh a p a p a i n t s h i s m is d o in g s . I n 'A . D . 1 0 7 6 t h e r e o c c u r r e d a r u p t u r e b e tw e e n A n a n ta a n d K a la s a an d t h e f o m e r , a c t in g an th e a d v ic e o f t h e q u e e n , r e t i r e d t o th e to w n o f V I j a y e s v a r a , ^ t a k i n g w i t h h im t h e r o y a l t r e a s u r e and m o s t o f t h e -tro o p s . A f t e r some
t im e K a la s a becam e h o s t i l e a n d s e t f i r e t o V i ja y © si v a r a , w h ic h d i d g r e a t damage t o t h e t r e a s u r e s an d s t o r e s . 5 N o t lo n g a f t e r ,
a f t e r an a l t e r e a t in n w i t h h i s q u e e n S u r y a m a t i, A n a n ta c o m m itte d
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s u i c i d e .
|r. T . , V I I , 2 1 8 ; V ik r a m a n k a d e v a c a r it a » X V I I I , 3 8 .
^R .T . , V I I I , 219 s q q . I f we b e l i e v e B i lh a p a ( V i k r amank a d e v ac a r i t a , X V I I I , 3 5 - 3 8 ) , A n a n ta h e l d U s s u p re m a c y o v e r D a r v a b h is a r a , T r h g i r t a
a n d B h a r t u l a .
3R . T . , V I I , 273 s q q .
^S.T.. VII, 354 sqq..
^ R . T . . V I I , 4 0 8 s q q . SR.T.. VII, 445 sqq.
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The a c q u i s i t i o n o f f u l l p o w e r w o rk e d w o n d e rs and m s i n s t r u m e n t a l i n b r i n g i n g a b o u t a c h a n g e f o r t h e t e t t e r i n h i s
c o n d u c t a s K a la s a a p p e a rs t o t a l l y a d i f f e r e n t m a n , l o o k i n g a lw a y s w o r r i e d f o r th e w e l f a r e o f h i s s u b j e c t s . He g a v e g o o d
administration to the oountry and thus relieved his financial
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s t r a i t s . A f t e r s e c u r in g M s p o s i t i o n a t hom e, K a la s a s e t a b o u t • a s s e r t i n g h i s a u t h o r i t y o v e r t h e n e ig h b o u r in g s t a t e s . S u p p o r t in g
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a p u r i ,a g a in s t h i s u n c l e M a d a n p a la , h e r e e s t a b l i s h e d t h e K a s h m ir s u z e r - a i n t y o v e r t h a t s t a t e . 2 He m ade h i s i n f l u e n c e f e l t ano ng t h e
s u r r o u n d in g h i l l - s t a t e s a n d i t i s s a i d t h a t i n th e w i n t e r o f t h e y e a r A .D . 1 0 8 7 - 1 0 8 8 , th e c h i e f s o f e i g h t h i l 1- s t a t e s a r o u n d K a s h m ir a s s e m b le d a t t h e K a s h m ir c a p i t a l .3
K a la s a d ie d in A .D . 1 0 8 9 an d was s u c c e e d e d b y U t k a r g a ,
t h e y o u n g e r s o n o f K a la s a . F o l l o w i n g th e p o l i c y o f K a la s a , he k e p t H a rg a im p r is o n e d . ^ ’ B u t U t k a r g a so o n l o s t t h e c o n f id e n c e o f t h e c o u r t a n d th e p e o p le a n d t a k in g a d v a n ta g e o f th e s i t u a t i o n Hargsa f o u n d an a l l y i n h i s y o u n g e r h a l f - b r o t h e r V i j a y a m a l l a a n d e n c o u ra g e d
R.T., VII, 506 sqq.
, V I I , 5 3 3 .
% . T . . V I I , 587 sqq.
h im t o r a i s e a r e b e l l i o n * V i j a y a m a l l a a t t a c k e d U t k a r g a ^ a n d t h e l a t t e r i n h i s s t r a i t s t r i e d to h a v e H a rg a k i l l e d i n t h e p r i s o n h u t t h e m u rd e ro u s p l o t f a i l e d a n d h ie g u a r d s who h a d b e e n won o v e r b y H a r g a s e t t h e p r i n c e f r e e . A f t e r h a v in g s e c u r e d
a c o m p ro m is e w i t h V i j a y a m a l l a , H a rg a made U t k a r g a c a p t i v e i n t h e p a l a c e . U n a b le to s to m a c h t h i s i n s u l t a n d d i s g r a c e ,
U t k a r g a c o m m itte d s u i c i d e b y c u t t i n g h i s a r t e r i e s . He was o n l y t w e n t y - f o u r . 2
H a rg a i s t h e m o s t s t r d i c in g f i g u r e among t h e r u l e r s o f
o u r p e r i o d . K a lh a $ a f u r n i s h e s an e l a b o r a t e d e s c r i p t i o n o f H a rg a * s c h a r a c t e r . He i s d e s c r ib e d 1 as a y o u t h o f p o w e r f u l f r a m e and
g r e a t p e r s o n a l b e a u ty , c o u ra g e o u s and f o n d o f d i s p l a y , w e l l v e r s e d i n v a r i o u s s c ie n c e s a n d a l o v e r o f m u s ic a n d a r t s .
O m e l t y a n d k in d h e a r t e d n e s s , l i b e r a l i t y an d g r e e d , v i o l e n t s e l f - w i l l e d n e s s and. r e c k l e s s s u p in e n e s s , c u n n in g a n d w a n t o f t h o u g h t - th e s e and o t h e r a p p a r e n t ly i r r e c o n c i l a b l e f e a t u r e s i n t u r n d i s p l a y th e m s e lv e s i n H a rg a * s c h e q u e r e d l i f e , ’ U s in g t h i s s h re w d n e s s an d w is e f o r b e a r a n c e , he r e t a i n e d m a n y o f I n s f a t h e r ' s o f f i c i a l s , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e i r p r e v i o u s t r e a t m e n t to w a r d s h i m s e l f . We
h a v e d is c u s s e d a t p r o p e r p la c e s h i s f i n e t a s t e s a n d i n t r o d u c t i o n o f v a r i o u s f a s h io n s a n d m a n n e rs .
S a m g ra m a ra ja , t h e c h i e f o f R a ja p u r i, n o w a p p e a r s t o h a v e t u r n e d h o s t i l e . K a n d a r p a , t h e * l o r d o f t h e G a te 1 , l e d an e x p e d i t i o n a g a i n s t S a m g ra m a ra ja a n d a f t e r i n f l i c t i n g d e f e a t o n th e l a t t e r , f o r c e d h im t o p a y t r i b u t e . C o u r t i n t r i g u e s a n d h o s t i l i t i e s f r o m n e a r r e l a t i v e s c h a r a c t e r i s e d o u r p e r io d . He c r u s h e d p l o t s h a t c h e d a t d i f f e r e n t t i n e s b y V i j a y a m a l l a , J a y a r a j a a n o t h e r h a l f - h r o t h e r fro m a c o n c u b in e and Dham m ata,
a r e l a t i v e fr o m a n o t h e r b r a n c h o f t h e L o h a r a f a m i l y . 2
E ls e w h e r e , we h a ve g iv e n d e t a i l e d r e f e r e n c e s t o h i s e x t r a v a g a n t e x p e n d it u r e on t h e t r o o p s and in d u lg e n c e i n c o s t l y
p le a s u r e s w h ic h l e d h im to e m b a rk o n a s y s t e m a t i c te m p le s p o l i a t i o n an d im p o s e new and o p p r e s s iv e im p o s t s w h ic h r e d u c e d t h e c o u n t r y t o c h a o s a n d c o n f u s i o n . A t t h i s t im e H a r g a f o o l i s h l y u n d e r t o o k some e n t e r p r i s e s . H is exp e d i t i n n a g a i n s t R & ja p u ri and
t h e D a rd s e n d e d i n c o m p le te h u m i l i a t i o n a n d d i s a s t e r , T h is was f o l l o w e d b y a fa m in e c a u se d b y a s e r io u s f l o o d . A p la g u e t h a t e n s u e d w o rs e n e d t h e s i t u a t i o n an d t o o k a g r e a t t o l l o f t h e IC ash-
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m i r i a n p o p u l a t i o n . The P a m a ra s t o o k a d v a n ta g e o f t h i s a n a r c h i c a l
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9s t a t e a n d r e s o r t e d t o 'p lu n d e r a n d c o n f i s c a t i o n , t h i s was u n b e a r a b le f o r H a rg a who p r o c e e d e d t o r e l e n t l e s s p e r s e c u t i o n o f t h e p a m a ra s , w h ic h K a lh a p a d e s c r ib e s i n g r e a t d e t a i l . A n o t h e r b l u n d e r w h ic h H a rs a c o m m itte d a t t h i s t im e was t o l o o k w i t h s u s p i c io u s e y e s a t U c c a la and S u s s a la , t h e s o n s o f M a l l a, an d d e s c e n d e d fro m a s id e b r a n c h cf t h e L o h a r a d y n a s t y ,
as p o s s i b l e c la im a n t s o f t h e c ro w n . K n o w in g t h a t H a rg a h a s p la n n e d t h e i r m u r d e r t h e y f l e d a t n i g h t fro m S r i n a g a r . U c c a la
f o u n d a r e f u g e w i t h S a m g ra m a p a la i n i f a j a p u r i a n d S u s s a la
w i t h K a lh a , t h e c h i e f o f I C a l i n j a r a . K a lh a p a r e c o r d s i n d e t a i l th e h o s t i l i t y t h a t e n s u e d . The b r o t h e r s s e c u r e d t h e h e lp o f
p a m a ra s a nd a t t a c k e d H a rg a w i t h a p o w e r f u l a rm y . H a r g a was b e t r a y e d b y h i s f o l l o w e r s an d th e v i c t o r i o u s U c c a la e n t e r e d S r in a g a r a n d s e t f i r e t o th e r o y a l p a la c e . K a lh a p a d e s c r ib e s
t o u c h i n g l y H a r g a ’ s f l i g h t f r o m t h e c i t y . He t o o k s h e l t e r i n a b e g g a r 's h u t w h e re h e was n u r d e r e d b y t h e f o l l o w e r s o f U c c a la . U c c a la who w ie ld e d p o w e r i n A .D . 1 10 1 h a d a b a d t im e t o s t a r t w i t h . He h a d t o c o n te n d w i t h h i s b r o t h e r S u s s a la w h o was r e a d y t o r i s e a g a in s t h im , a n d th e le a d e r s o f t h e p a m a ra s who a f t e r h e l p i n g U c c a la i n h i s s u c c e s s f u l b i d f o r t h e -th ro n e h a d s t a r t e d b e h a v in g as th e t r u e r u l e r s . He v e r y w i s e l y c e d e d t o
1K . T . , V I I , 1 7 1 7 s q q .
c m
fh i s y o u n g e r b r o t h e r , S ix s s a la , an in d e p e n d e n t c h i e f s h ip o f L o h a r a . He g a v e a p r o o f o f h i s shx-ew dness when he s e c u r e d h i s p o s i t i o n
a g a in s t t h e P a m a ra s b y c r e a t i n g m u tu a l j e a l o u s y a n d s u s p i c io n a m o n g s t th e m w h ic h r e s u l t e d i n m u r d e r an d e x i l e o f m o s t ox t h e i r i n f l u e n t i a l l e a d e r s , ’ w i t h o u t h h n s s l f i n c u r r i n g t h e o d iu m '.
lb
How t h e i r o n w a s h o t a n d he h i t o t h e r P a m a ra s a n d f o r c e d them i n t o d is a rm a m e n t a n d s u b m is s io n . 1 U e x t came t h e t u r n cf t h e
o f f i c i a l s ( k a y a s t h a s ) . K a lh a ^ a d e s c r ib e s U c c a la as an e n e r g e t i c , c a p a b le a n d j u s t r u l e r a n d commends h is l i b e r a l i t y an d c o n s id e r a t e r e g a r d f o r h i s s u b j e c t s . 2 He le c o r d s w i t h h u m o u r and r e l i s h
t h e p e r s e c u t i o n o f t h e k a y a s t h a s w h ic h U c c a la c a r r i e d o u t r a t h e r s y s t e m a t i c a l l y . 3 J e a lo u s y o f p e r s o n a l m e r i t s a n d h a r s h n e s s o f
te m p e r an d s p e e c h w e re t h e m a in d e f e c t s i n h i s c h a r a c t e r . ^ '
B u t h e m s n o t d e s t i n e d t o r e s t l o n g . H is a n b i t i o u s b r o t h e r S u s s a la a t t a c k e d h im b u t was d r iv e n t o ta k e a s y lu m i n P a rd t e r r i t o r y fro m w h e re he made f r e s h e f f o r t s t o r e g a in h is o l d s e a t . The b i r t h
1R . T .. V I I I , 39 s q q . h . I . , V I I I , 4 6 s q q . JR . I . . V I I I , 8 5 s q q . 4R . T . . V H I , 1 6 2 s q q . 5R . T . , V I I I , 1 9 1 - 2 0 8 .
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d l-io f J a y a s im h a , t h e s o n o f S u s s a la , b r o u g h t a b o u t a r e c o n e i l l a t in n b e tw e e n t h e tw o b r o t h e r s . B u t t h e p e a c e t h u s s e c u r e d c o u ld n o t f l o w e r a n d U c c a la becam e a v i c t i m c f a c o n s p ir a c y h a t c h e d b y t h e c i t y p r e f e c t OhugL^a a n d h i s b r o t h e r Ra£.jLa who c la im e d
d e s c e n t f r o m Y a s a s k a r a . T h e i r c a u s e was b a c k e d b y t h e d i s g r u n t l e d o f f i c i a l s whom U c c a la h a d d is m is s e d . A f t e r m u r d e r in g U c c a la i n th e p a l a c e , 1 Ra^sLa a s c e n d e d t h e b l o o d - s t a i n e d t h r o n e t h e same n i g h t b u t e n jo y e d i t o n ly t i l l t h e f o lo w in g m o r n in g , 2 A
l e a d i n g B a m a ra ,G -a rg a c a n d ra , who had a c h ie v e d g r e a t p o w e r and fa m e a s a r e s u l t o f s p e c i a l f a v o u r b e s to w e d on h im b y U c c a la ,
a v e n g e d h i s m a s t e r 1 s d e a th b y p u t t i n g to d e a th Ra$.jLa a n d h i s p a r t i s a n s . 3
U n a b le to f i n d som eone s u i t a b l e t o a c t a s r e g e n t f o r U c c a l a ' s i n f a n t s o n , G a r g a c a n d ia c ro w n e d S a lh a p a , a h a l f -
b r o t h e r o f U c c a la . ^ R e c e iv i n g t h e new s o f h i s b r o t h e r ' s m u r d e r , S u s s a la s t a r t e d f o r K a s h m ir t o a s s e r t h i s c la im b u t h i s s m a ll f o r c e c o u l d n o t m a tc h t h e m e t t l e o f G a rg a c a n d ra , a n d he f l e d b a c k t o h i s k in g d o m . 5 S a l hag. a p r o v e d i n d o l e n t a n d w o r t h l e s s .
h . T . . V I I I , 303 s i q .
^ R . T . . V I I I , 3 4 2 , 3 5 6 . , V I I I , 3 + 6 - 3
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4a . I . . V I I I , 371 s q q . 5R . T . . V I I I , 3 7 9 -4 1 1 .
ns
Soon a f t e r , G a rg a c a n d ra l o s t h i s g r ip a n d he o p e n e d n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h S u s s a la f o r M s r e t u r n . S u s s a la a c c e p te d two d a u g h t e r s o f G a rg a c a n d ra a s b r i d e s : f o r h i m s e l f and h i s so n J a y a s im h a . He p u s h e d o n t o t h e c a p i t a l , o c c u p ie d i t an d b e s ie g e d S a lh a p a i n
t h e p a la c e a n d s u c c e e d e d i n m a k in g h im a p r i s o n e r . 1
S u s s a la 1 s r u l e i s m a rk e d b y a s e r i e s o f i n t e r n a l t r o u b l e s s t i r r e d up b y P a m a ra s whom k i n g S u s s a la v a i n l y t r i e d t o s u p p r e s s . H o t m uch t im e p a s s e d b e f o r e he had t o fa c e a r e b e l l i o n o f G a rg a
c a n d r a and h i s own r e l a t i v e s . He had t o s e iz e G a rg a c a n d ra * s f o r t i f i e d s e a t s r e g u l a r l y b e f o r e he c o u ld f o r c e t h e l a t t e r i n t o
s u b m is s io n . 2 He p r o c e e d e d t o L o h a r a a n d im p r is o n e d S a lh a p a and
L o t help a . B u t t h e man who r e a l l y p r o v e d a p a i n i n h i s n e c k w as B h ik g a c a r a , H a r s a ’ s g r a n d s o n , w hose e s c a p e and g r o w t h a b r o a d
K a lh a p a r e l a t e s b y a s t o r y . ^ B h ik g a c a r a m e t a t K u r u k g e t r a a g r o u p o f h i l l - c h i e f s f r o m Campa, Y a l l a p u r a a n d o t h e r n e i g h b o u r in g s t a t e s , who h a d g on e t o t h e h o l y s i t e on a p i l g r i m a g e . T h e y s u p p o r te d t h e c a u s e o f B h ik g a c a r a b u t th e in v a s io n m e t w i t h f a i l u r e due t o
i n t e r n a l f e u d s . ^ Some tim e a b o u t A .D .1 1 1 7 S u s s a la made o p e r a t i o n s
1R . T . . V I I I , 4 5 0 -4 -8 0 . . V I I I , 5 0 2 s q q . h . T . . V I I I , 255 s q q .
