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Palaeogeographic analysis of the Dutch part of the Roman limes and its hinterland
Groenhuijzen, M.R.
2018
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Groenhuijzen, M. R. (2018). Palaeogeographic analysis of the Dutch part of the Roman limes and its hinterland:
Computational approaches to transport and settlement in the Lower Rhine limes zone in the Netherlands.
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I
Table of contents
Table of contents ... I Acknowledgements ... VII 1 Introduction ... 1 1.1 Project description ... 11.2 Aims of this study ... 3
1.3 Spatial and chronological framework ... 4
1.4 Theoretical framework ... 6
1.4.1 The concept of palaeogeography ... 6
1.4.2 Physical palaeogeography ... 8
1.4.3 Landscape archaeology ... 12
1.4.4 Sites and settlements ... 14
1.4.5 Transport ... 16
1.4.6 Computational archaeology ... 20
1.4.6.1 Geographic Information Systems ... 20
1.4.6.2 Least-cost path analysis ... 21
1.4.6.3 Establishing the costs of movement for least-cost path analysis ... 21
1.4.6.4 Implementation of least-cost path analysis in GIS software ... 23
1.4.6.5 Networks ... 24
1.4.6.6 Network analysis ... 25
1.4.6.7 Agent-based modelling ... 29
1.5 Outline of thesis structure ... 30
2 Natural palaeogeography ... 31
2.1 Background ... 31
2.2 Aims of this study ... 33
2.3 Methodology ... 34
2.3.1 GIS and palaeogeographic reconstruction ... 35
2.3.2 Sources ... 37
2.3.2.1 Soil maps ... 37
2.3.2.2 Geomorphological maps ... 37
2.3.2.3 LIDAR elevation data ... 37
2.3.2.4 Channel belt palaeogeography ... 38
2.3.2.5 Local data ... 38
2.3.3 Mapping the western and central river areas ... 39
2.3.4 Mapping the eastern river area ... 39
2.3.4.1 Mapping across the border: the northern district of Kleve ... 40
2.4 The palaeogeographic map ... 40
II
2.4.1.1 Natural levees ... 41
2.4.1.2 Floodplains... 44
2.4.1.3 Peatlands... 45
2.4.1.4 Dunes and beach ridges ... 46
2.4.1.5 Tidal flats ... 46
2.4.1.6 Coversands ... 47
2.4.1.7 River dunes ... 47
2.4.1.8 High Pleistocene sands ... 48
2.4.1.9 Fluvial terraces ... 48
2.4.1.10 Rivers and streams... 49
2.4.2 Western river area ... 49
2.4.2.1 Old Rhine (Fig. 2.9) ... 50
2.4.2.2 Meuse estuary (Fig. 2.10) ... 50
2.4.2.3 Western Meuse (Fig. 2.11) ... 51
2.4.2.4 Hollandse IJssel (Fig. 2.12)... 51
2.4.2.5 Western Lek (Fig. 2.13) ... 54
2.4.2.6 Southwestern peatlands (Fig. 2.15) ... 54
2.4.3 Central river area... 54
2.4.3.1 Utrechtse Heuvelrug (Fig. 2.16) ... 54
2.4.3.2 Kromme Rijn and Lek (Fig. 2.17) ... 57
2.4.3.3 Linge (Fig. 2.19) ... 57
2.4.3.4 Western Meuse and Waal (Fig. 2.20) ... 59
2.4.3.5 Eastern Meuse and Waal (Fig. 2.21) ... 59
2.4.3.6 Southern sands and peatlands (Fig. 2.22) ... 59
2.4.4 Eastern river area ... 59
2.4.4.1 Veluwe (Fig. 2.23) ... 59
2.4.4.2 Eastern Rhine (Fig. 2.24) ... 62
2.4.4.3 Eastern Meuse (Fig. 2.25) ... 62
2.4.4.4 Nijmegen-Kleve ridge (Fig. 2.26) ... 62
2.4.4.5 Southeastern sands (Fig. 2.27) ... 62
2.5 Uncertainty in palaeogeographic mapping ... 65
2.5.1 Sources of uncertainty ... 66
2.6 Discussion ... 72
3 The archaeological site dataset... 74
3.1 Introduction ... 74
3.2 Methodology ... 74
3.2.1 The site ... 74
3.2.2 Rules for building a site dataset ... 75
3.2.3 Site interpretation ... 76
III
3.2.3.2 Non-military settlements ... 78
3.3 The site dataset ... 78
3.3.1 General ... 78
3.3.2 Non-military settlements ... 79
3.3.3 Castra and castella ... 80
3.3.3.1 Along the Rhine ... 82
3.3.3.2 Along the Rhine in Germany ... 85
3.3.3.3 In the hinterland ... 86
3.3.3.4 Sites rejected as possible castella ... 87
3.4 Chronology ... 88
3.4.1 Introduction ... 88
3.4.2 Reinterpreting the chronological information ... 89
3.5 Conclusion ... 93
4 Characterising transport systems in the Dutch part of the Roman limes... 94
4.1 Introduction ... 94
4.2 Transport characterisation ... 95
4.2.1 Scales of transport and transport agents ... 95
4.2.2 Purpose of transport ... 97
4.2.3 Frequency and timing of transport ... 100
4.3 Transport modes ... 101 4.3.1 Foot travel ... 101 4.3.2 Animal-based transport ... 104 4.3.2.1 Horses ... 107 4.3.2.2 Mules... 108 4.3.2.3 Oxen ... 110 4.3.3 Water-based transport... 111
4.3.3.1 Prams, punters and galleys ... 112
4.3.3.2 Dugouts ... 115
4.3.4 General conclusions on transport modes ... 118
4.4 Conclusion ... 119
5 Modelling transport connections ...121
5.1 Introduction ... 121
5.2 Methodology for modelling transport routes ... 121
5.2.1 Calculating the costs of walking ... 121
5.2.2 Incorporating the natural environment into walking costs ... 123
5.2.3 Calculating the costs of mule- and ox-cart transport ... 125
5.2.4 Water-based transport as part of multimodal transportation ... 129
5.2.5 Iterative modelling of least-cost paths ... 131
5.3 Results: a case study of the Kromme Rijn region ... 132
IV
5.3.2 Modelling multimodal transport connections ... 141
5.3.3 Uncertainty in modelling transport through least-cost paths ... 143
5.4 Conclusion ... 145
6 Transport networks in the Dutch part of the Roman limes ...147
6.1 Introduction ... 147
6.1.1 Network reconstruction in Roman archaeology ... 147
6.1.2 Questions of transport in the Dutch limes area ... 148
6.1.3 Outline of this chapter ... 148
6.2 Comparing network construction techniques ... 149
6.2.1 Introduction ... 149
6.2.2 Data ... 150
6.2.3 Network construction techniques... 151
6.2.3.1 Maximum distance networks ... 151
6.2.3.2 Proximal point networks ... 152
6.2.3.3 Delaunay triangulation ... 153
6.2.3.4 Gabriel graph... 153
6.2.3.5 Delaunay triangulation and Gabriel graph in non-Euclidian space ... 154
6.2.3.6 Efficiency networks ... 156
6.2.4 Comparative methodology ... 157
6.2.5 Results ... 158
6.2.6 Discussion ... 165
6.2.6.1 General evaluation: least-cost path modelling ... 165
6.2.6.2 General evaluation: generality of the results ... 166
6.2.6.3 General evaluation: temporal distances versus geodesic distances... 167
6.2.6.4 General evaluation: combining network principles ... 168
6.2.6.5 General evaluation: APL dependency on number of links ... 168
6.2.6.6 Maximum distance networks ... 170
6.2.6.7 Proximal point networks ... 171
6.2.6.8 Delaunay triangulation ... 171
6.2.6.9 Gabriel graph... 172
6.2.6.10 Efficiency networks ... 172
6.2.6.11 Final comparison ... 172
6.2.7 Conclusion ... 173
6.3 Uncertainty and robustness analysis ... 173
V
6.4 Applications of network analysis on transport within the limes zone ... 184
6.4.1 Introduction and early research ... 184
6.4.2 Data ... 186
6.4.3 The flow of goods from the rural to the military population ... 187
6.4.3.1 Methodology... 187
6.4.3.2 Results ... 190
6.4.3.3 Discussion: the flow of goods from the rural to the military population ... 196
6.4.3.4 Discussion: the applied methodology ... 198
6.4.3.5 Conclusion ... 200
6.4.4 The position of stone-built rural settlements ... 201
6.4.4.1 Methodology... 201
6.4.4.2 Results ... 202
6.4.4.3 Discussion ... 206
6.4.4.4 Conclusion ... 207
6.5 Continuity and change in transport networks ... 208
6.5.1 Introduction ... 208
6.5.2 Data ... 208
6.5.3 Methodology ... 209
6.5.4 Results ... 212
6.5.4.1 Evaluation of the chronological reinterpretation ... 212
6.5.4.2 Continuity on the basis of proximity to succeeding network ... 213
6.5.5 Discussion ... 215
6.5.6 Conclusion ... 216
6.6 Conclusion ... 216
7 Site location analysis...218
7.1 Introduction ... 218 7.2 Data... 218 7.2.1 Natural palaeogeography... 218 7.2.2 Site dataset ... 219 7.2.3 Transport networks ... 222 7.3 Methodology ... 223
7.3.1 Individual variable analysis ... 223
7.3.1.1 Natural palaeogeography ... 223
7.3.1.2 Rivers and streams ... 224
7.3.1.3 Forts ... 224
7.3.1.4 Transport networks ... 225
7.3.1.5 Intermediary sites in transport networks ... 225
7.3.1.6 Historical landscape ... 225
7.3.2 Multivariate analysis ... 226
VI
7.4.1 Individual variable analysis ... 229
7.4.1.1 Natural palaeogeography ... 230
7.4.1.2 Rivers and streams ... 233
7.4.1.3 Forts ... 235
7.4.1.4 Transport networks ... 236
7.4.1.5 Intermediary sites in transport networks ... 238
7.4.1.6 Historical landscape ... 239 7.4.2 Multivariate analysis ... 241 7.5 Discussion ... 245 7.6 Conclusion ... 248 8 Synthesis ...249 8.1 Introduction ... 249 8.1.1 General introduction ... 249
8.1.2 Palaeogeographic analysis of the Dutch limes area ... 249
8.2 Natural palaeogeography ... 250 8.3 Transport networks ... 252 8.3.1 Introduction ... 252 8.3.2 Modelling transport ... 253 8.3.3 Constructing networks ... 254 8.3.4 Applications ... 257
8.4 Settlement location analysis ... 259
8.4.1 Introduction ... 259 8.4.2 Methodology ... 260 8.4.3 Results ... 260 8.5 Conclusion ... 261 9 Conclusion ...263 10 References ...267 10.1 Classical sources ... 288 Summary in English ...289
Samenvatting in het Nederlands ...297
