Gender, marriage and migration : contemporary marriages between mainland China and Taiwan

Gender, marriage and migration : contemporary marriages between mainland China and Taiwan

Lu, M.C.W.

Citation

Lu, M. C. W. (2008, May 15). Gender, marriage and migration : contemporary marriages

Version: Not Applicable (or Unknown)

License: Licence agreement concerning inclusion of doctoral thesis in the Institutional Repository of the University of Leiden

Downloaded from: https://hdl.handle.net/1887/13001

Note: To cite this publication please use the final published version (if applicable).

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements

List of tables, diagram, maps and charts

Pictures

Introduction 1

Objective of the research and research questions 4

Contribution and limit of the research 10

Brief description of three fieldwork sites 13

Research methodology 20

Chapter 1 Changing of marriage regimes and gender relations in Chinese society 25

1.1. Conceptualising Chinese kinship 26

1.1.1 Family and kinship (jia) 26

1.1.2 Fang and fenjia 28

1.1.3 Power and pollution of women in Chinese kinship 30 1.1.4 Sketches of traditional ideals and practices or Chinese marriage 33

1.2. Marriage regimes and gender relations in contemporary China 36 1.2.1 Radical redefinition of the marriage regime in Maoist era 36 1.2.2 Marriage regimes in the era of reform 40

1.2.3 Demographic features and gender roles in economic reform era 43

1.2.4 Perceptions towards international marriages 46

1.3 Marriage regimes and gender relations in Taiwan 48

1.3.1 Traditional ideals and Japanese period: similarity and difference among ethnic groups 48

1.3.2 Post WWII development 52

1.3.3 Demographic change and gender roles 54

1.4. Matchmaking and mate choice in contemporary China and Taiwan 57

1.4.1 Criteria of mate choice 57

1.4.2 Matchmaking principles and matchmaker 61

1.4.3 Marriage transaction 63

1.4.4 Marital decision: fate and/or agency? 65

1.5 New framework of Chinese relatedness 67

Chapter 2 Migration in contemporary China 71 2.1 Literature review of marriage migration 71 2.1.1 Working definition and clarification of terminology 72 2.1.2 Situating marriage migration theory in the development of migration theories 74 2.2 Internal and international marriage migration in China 79 2.2.1 Development of the policy controlling population movement: Hukou system 79 2.2.2 Trends of women’s internal migration 82 2.2.3 Rural young girls in the city and their life choices 84 2.3 Demographic features of cross-border and cross-straits marriages in Taiwan 86 2.3.1 Some note on statistical data and methodology 86 2.3.2 Numbers and sex ratio of cross-border marriages – an historical overview 88 2.3.3 Age and age gap 92 2.3.4 Socio-economic status: education and occupation 93 2.3.5 Previous marital experience and co-habiting kin 95 2.3.6 Means of introduction 97 2.3.7 Ethnic composition and place of origin 97 2.3.8 Discussion: the links and differences between domestic labour, sex work

and women’s marriage migration 99 2.4. Motivation of cross-border marriage 101 2.4.1 Why marriage and/or remarriage? 101 2.4.2 Why leaving home? Dissatisfaction and constraints experienced at home 104 2.4.3 Why going to Taiwan? Aspirations towards migratory destination 106 2.5 Concluding remark: why cross-border marriages? Significance of

meso-factors 107

Chapter 3 Popular discourse and politics of cross-strait marriages

in Taiwan 111

3.1. Introduction 111

3.1.1 Working definitions of key concepts: nationalism, citizenship

and social exclusion 113 3.1.2 Chinese nationalism and ethnic relations in Taiwan 117 3.1.3 Taiwanese nationalism 121 3.2. Pre-1992 period: forbidden contact, illegal contacts and legalization 125 3.2.1 Political context: standoff – relaxation 125 3.2.2 Media representation on cross-strait people’s movement 1987-1991 128 3.3. 1992-1996: from resistance to acceptance. Main concern: population quality 131

3.3.1 Cross-strait interaction: Political divergence and economic integration 131

3.3.2 Domestic politics of the making of the Act Governing Relations between Peoples of the Taiwan area and the Mainland Area (AGRPTM) 135 3.3.3 The AGRPTM’s discourse on issues related to cross-strait marriages 140

3.3.3.1 Category of Mainland Chinese’s residential status 140

3.3.3.2 Criteria of mainland spouses’ residential status – bogus marriages 141 3.3.3.3 Inheritance of pensions and welfare entitlements of veterans 144

3.3.4 Discussion: citizenship as membership of kinship and nation 148

3.4 1996-2000: from acceptance to assimilation 150

3.4.1 Policy discourse 150

3.4.1.1 Quota system and pressure from the grassroots 151

3.4.1.2 Framing the issues: rights to work and health care 155

3.4.1.3 Recruitment of mainland guest workers 158

3.4.2. Opinions of other social actors 159

3.4.3 Media representation 161

3.4.4 Discussion: differentiated citizenship: gendered social rights 163 3.5 2000-2004: a new form of exclusion under growing Taiwanese nationalism 166 3.5.1 Domestic politics and cross-strait interaction 166

3.5.2 Media representation: from mainland brides to Chinese whore 168

3.5.3 Policy discourse: resurgence of fear over bogus marriage 171

3.5.3.1 Double track system 171

3.5.3.4 Screening mechanism 175

3.5.4 Discussion: social exclusion and nationalism 178

3.6 Concluding remark 179

Chapter 4 Matchmaking practices and mate choice in cross-border marriages 181 4.1. Existing concepts coined with commercially arranged marriages 182

4.1.1

4.1.2 Mail Order Brides (MOB) and commodified marriage 183 4.1.3 Trade marriages 184

4.2. Earlier matchmaking practices 186

4.3 Institutionalisation of the brokering industry of cross-border marriages 191 4.3.1 Typology of organisations in the marriage brokering industry 191 4.4 Growth and decline of different types of brokerage and its changing operations 195

4.4.1 Standardised operation 195

4.4.2 Recent variations 201

4.4.3 Exceptions: consistent pattern in the veteran’s settlement 205

4.5. Roles of matchmakers 208

4.5.1 Actors, services and money flows in matchmaking practices 208 4.5.2 Matchmakers’ role in deciding ethnicity and origins of brides 209 4.5.3 Tasks of matchmakers after marriages 211 4.6 Meanings of economic transactions before and during the wedding 212 4.7 Actors’ perspectives on trade marriage 213 4.8 Concluding remark: making sense of commercially arranged marriages 215

Chapter 5 Negotiation of gender and kinship relations in everyday life 217 5.1. Perception and expectation of the husband’s family and communities

prior to marriage 218

5.2. Marginal status, controlling and shaming mechanisms 226 5.3. Gaining recognition and acceptance in different stages 231

5.3.1. Initial stage 231

5.3.2 Living across straits 236 5.3.3 Pregnancy and child birth 243 5.3.4 Household economy and sexual division of labour 247 5.3.5 Remarried older brides 251 5.3.6 Discussion: gendered power relations in life cycle 255 5.4. Work and autonomy 257 5.4.1 Availability of jobs: gendered and ethnic labour market 257 5.4.2 The usage of income 264 5.4.3 Negotiation between economic independence and familial obligation 266 5.4.4 Consciousness of autonomy and self-fulfilment 267 5.4.5 Discussion: gendered power relation and economy 269 5.5. Consolidating social network 271 5.5.1 Manoeuvring strategies among different kinship members 271 5.5.2 Social network among fellow brides 274 5.5.3 Covering and strengthening “national” and political identity 276 5.5.4 Discussion: gendered power relations of the weak 277 5.6 Concluding remark: Gender, yang and care: reconceptualise

kinship in Chinese society 278

Conclusion: Studying gender in the web of relations:

gender, family, market and the state 281

Why cross-border marriages? 281

Mechanism of social exclusion and otherness 286

Negotiation of gender and inter-generational relations 293 Inter-generational and gendered care 295 Cultural notions, social relations and the state’s policy: towards

a new framework of studying gender and migration 297

References 299

List of offical documents and laws consulted 315

Glossary of Chinese terms 317

Summary (English) 323

Samenvatting (Dutch summary) 327

Curriculum Vitae 331

List of tables, diagram, maps and charts

Tables

Table 1 Unmarried population and sex-ratio in Taiwan, 2000: according to age 55 Table 2 Unmarried population and sex-ratio in Taiwan, 2000: according to

education background and sex 56 Table 3 Estimated number of cross-border marriages with Southeast Asian and

PRC nationals in Taiwan: according to nationality 89 Table 4 Number of foreign spouses acquiring long-term residentship:

by gender and nationality, 2005 91 Table 5 Social category of Taiwanese spouses 94 Table 6 Employment of Taiwanese spouses 95 Table 7 Marital experiences/status of mainland and foreign spouses in percentage 96 Table 8 Number of foreign spouses and foreign migrant workers by sex

and nationality 100

Table 9 Summary of orientations of policies governing cross-strait marriages 112 Table 10 Change of national identity, preference of independence or

unification. Comparison of elites and the general public 124 Table 11 Taiwan’s trade dependency on the Mainland, 1986-2004 134 Table 12 Number of Taiwanese people visiting the PRC, with two statistics

compiled by ROC and PRC authorities 135 Table 13 The positions of party factions on Mainland policies, 1990-1996 139 Table 14 Numbers of cross-strait marriages and the quota system of

resident permits 152 Table 15 Categories of residential status in the double track system 173 Table 16 Typology of marriage brokers/matchmakers 210 Diagram

Diagram 1: Actors, services and money flows in matchmaking practice 208 Maps

Map 1 Taiwan, the ROC and Fujian province, the PRC, indicating three

fieldwork sites: Baihe, Hukou and Fuqing 12 Map 2 Fieldwork sites in Taiwan, Hukou township, Hsinchu county and

Baihe township, Tainan county 14 Map 3 Fieldwork site 3: Humei Village, Fuqing city, Fujian Province 19

Charts 108-110 Chart 1 Number of Cross-border Marriages with Southeast Asian and

PRC nationals in Taiwan: according to nationality

Chart 2 Age distribution of foreign and mainland Chinese female spouses Chart 3 Age distribution of Taiwanese men in cross-border marriages Chart 4 Education level of foreign and mainland Chinese spouses Chart 5 Education level of Taiwanese spouses